Pastoralism of the high puna of Bolivia: local perceptions of climate change and the challenges of maintaining tradition [Rosa Isela Meneses]

Pastoralism of the high puna of Bolivia: local perceptions of climate

change and the challenges of maintaining tradition

Meneses, R. I., Yager, K., Canqui, F. & Beck S.

Instituto de

Ecología UMSA

• In Andean culture, nature is considered to be an organism, in which all its components are inter-connected (Grillo, 1990; Valladolid, 1990)

• It is a continual transformation—the domestication of landscape that benefits, in a reciprocal manner, society and nature.

• In Andean communities there exists a great interest to know about the occurence and probability of rains, frosts, hail, and other climatic and weather events. They refer to their ancestral cultural knowledge, which consists of the observations of different phenological processes of natural plants, behaivor of insects and animals, and astrological phenomena.

In the Andes, pastoralism (of llamas and alpacas) is a strategy (of cultural development) that is vital to Andean civilization (and communities/ayllus). Pastoralism is characterized by:

• A livelihood strategy in arid environments • Limited means for agricultural production in “extreme”

environments (freezing temperatures, steep slopes, high altitude)

• Domestication of animals that are well adapted to mountain environments, and fulfill multiple economic and social needs

• Characterized by exchanges with other communities in order to obtain necessary agricultural products to ensure well being

• The camelid (llama and alpaca) has been a part of Andean cosmology since antiquity, its image is reflected in the stars and milky way, that announces years of drought and intense rains, and in many cases in an object of veneration, as evinced in many worked stones and other cultural objects.

• In prehispanic times (and into the present), camelids served many functions including economic savings or banks during drought years or other calamities. Also of course, they are valued for their use for transportation, wool for textiles, and food production (charki).

• In Andean cultre, many sacred sites, which are natural landscape features (such as mountains or outcrops) often reflect some kind of sacred animal and are considered guardians ans spirits that protect the herds.

El Qoto (Constellation of Pleides) Representation of Karwa nayra (Alfa and Beta Centauro) Mother Llama and the Southern Cross

Apolobamba and Sajama

The region of Apolobamba and Sajama have deep historic cultural roots, and the communities have a rich knowledge passed on through oral tradition.

Along with conducting research on climate change in these regions, we felt it important to work closely with the communities in order to share knowledge on the theme of “climate”.

Puyo Puyo C`añuhuma

Apolobamba

Workshops on climate change

Participatory mapping

Puyo Puyo C`añuhuma

Local perspectives of climate

C’añuhuma

• Rainy or wet season

Dec – Apr

• Dry season

May-Oct

• Snow

Any month of the year

• Hail

Inter-annual variability

• Winds

Aug- Sep

Puyo Puyo • Rainy or wet season

Oct- Mar (hasta 5 hrs lluvia)

• Dry season

Apr- Sep

• Snow

Sep-Oct

• Hail

Aug-Dec (May fall any day)

• Winds Aug - Oct

Identification of indicators of climate change

Plants

Cylindropuntia floccosa (Cact)

Month

Observation Community

Aug If it flowers only in the upper part of

the plant, it will be a good year for

dry pastures.

C’añuhuma (Municipio

de Curva)

If it flowers only in the middle part,

it will be an average year, there may

not be much dry pasture.

If it flowers only in the lower part, it

will be a below average year for

pastures and animals.

Nov If it flowers during this month, it will

be a great year for pastures.

Ayllu de Puyo Puyo

(Municipio de

Pelechuco)

Dec If there are no flowers by this time,

there will be a bad year

• However, traditional knowledge of climate is not as useful as it once was.

• Traditional herding rotations (including divisions in labor and pasture rotation) are being challenged

• Water levels are diminishing (including streams)

• Temperatures are more extremes (hot and cold)

• New illnesses exist for people and animals

• Climate events causing greater stress on production than before

Testimonies from local community members

“When our grandparents and elders were alive there were more jalsus (natural springs) coming from the slopes, water was constant all year-round, and there were green pastures. Now, all this has disappeared from many places”. -Sra. Luisa Barrera de 66 years of age.

“Forty years ago, Moraroni and other mountains were covered in glaciers, till the foot of the mountains. During trueque travels to the valleys, our fathers had to cross these glaciers with their llamas. Many times they said that they would slip on the ice, heading to the community of Curva and to other valley areas; And now we see that the ice has disappeared from Moraroni and other mountains” - Mallku de Puyo Puyo).

Additional reflections

• Elders consider that climate change is related to the abadonment of traditional practices.

• They consider that if people practice traditions and rituals, all may return to normal.

• Mother earth is ill and needs to be cured • Current generations are uninterested in learning

traditional knowledge • Current religious practices (evangelism) prohibit

traditional practices in many cases • The young believe that those who contaminate, must

pay their environmental debt (reflection of current political frameworks)

Climate Change: Local Perceptions and Adaptation in Sajama National Park

• Identify and discuss the

local perspectives of climate change experienced by local community members.

• Present to the communities in PNS current scientific and climate change related research, including local and regional studies

• Identify possible strategies of adaptation to climate change and to other social and environmental changes

• Raise youth awareness on subject of environmental change

Participants (Total of 75) Age Place of Residence

20 to 30

31 to 4041 to 50

51 to 60

61 to 75

No answer

Sajama

Caripe

Lagunas

Papelpampa

La Paz

Oruro

Other

No answer

39.1%

35.4% 26.2%

11.9%

7.1%

16.7% 26.2%

11.9%

56% of the participants live in Sajama National Park

Gender 53% M and 47% F

Workshop activities

1) Focus Groups

2) Presentations

3) Timeline

4) Maps and Models

5) Field Activity

6) School Activity

7) Discussion Groups on Adaptation

1) Focus groups

• Rain

• Pastures (i.e. bofedales)

• Sun

• Snow and Glacier

• Wind

• Plants

• Animals

• Seasons

Focus Group Discussion • Climate- Since the 1950’s the climate has changed: more wind, more freezes, heat

has increased. The temperatures and seasons are more intense and less predictable • Sun- It is warmer than before, the sun has dried the waters and the pastures. The sun

causes more skin burns and hurts the eyes. • Wind-The wind patterns have changed. The dominant current from west to east is

now more often north to south. There are more dustwhirls than before, even inside the homes. These are features that we have never seen before.

• Seasons- Before the seasons changed every 2-3 months, now all the seasons can occur in one day and the changes are abrupt. The freezes are more frequent and stronger. The grazing animals are gravely affected by the cold.

• Rain and Drought- It rains less than before, especially within the last five years. Before, the rain came according to its season (nov. through march), now there are prolonged periods of drought.

• Pastures (Bofedales)- Before there was plenty of pastures and kora because it rained during its time. Now the bofedales are not growing and some sectors are seasonally drying. There is not enough pasture for the animals. There are more collpares than before.

• Snow-In the last five years, the peaks have lost much of their snow. There are less snow storms and this year there was no snow.

• Plants-There are less pasture plants in the summer (rainy season), less seasonal plants such as kora or llapa, they do not grow in abundance as before, there are less tholas. Some plants have changed such as the paja and kachu.

• Animals-The intense snows of 1993 and 1994 caused death of many animals including the extinction of the canejo, death of vicuñas and herding animals, a bird (tiki tiki) and lizards and frogs. The population of puma, fox, suri, condor and Andean cat have all decreased. The herd animals are thinner and more susceptible to illness.

3) Timeline Activity: Social Memory of Climate Events

•1953- Blizzard

•1955- Blizzard

•1975- Blizzard

•1981- Drought

•1983- Drought

•1993- Blizzard

•1994- Blizzard

•1999- Drought

•2000-2001- Flooding

• 2002- Blizzard

•2005- Warmest year ever

•2007- Drought- Coldest year ever

-Recollection of:

1) Year

2) Intensity and estimates

3) Duration

-Event Associations:

1) Flora and Fauna changes

2) Spatial distribution

3) Impacts on production

4) Maps and Models

• Past, present and future changes

Comparative Changes over time • 1960’s- Glacier descended to base camp nearer to the upper of limit of the polylepis forest.

The bofedales were greener.

• 1970’s- Tatay Sajama was whiter. Today, near Comisario and el Mirador (on the southwest face) the glacier has retreated substantially (especially seasonally). Near Huincurata it is drier and there is less water. No longer grows the paco (Distichia muscoides) nor pork’e (Deyuexia curvula) and is now only pajonal. The collpares (salt flats) have expanded.

• 1980’s- Glacier descended to base camp seasonally. The rivers were “thicker”. The map shows that some pastures have been maintained, while others have dried.

• 1990’s- Glacier descended to high camp. There are more Polylepis as a positive result of conservation efforts. The map shows collpares that have formed from lack of water. It also identifies three rivers that are not used for irrigation but could be used to optimize bofedales

• 2002- (5 years ago)- In 2002 there was a storm and the snow reached base camp again. But it did not maintain and it melted from the intense heat. Many bofedales on the map are shown as “in danger” because rivers and springs are drying.

• 2012- (in 5+ years)- Sajama will be with little snow. The strong heat will diminish the thickness of it’s head, only ice pinnacles will remain but will not be thick, the snows will no longer come; there will be avalanches and the mountain will be deformed.

• All of these changes will impact the plants and animals so that in a few years when the grazing population increases there will be less pastures.

• The tholares will turn to pajonales, and the pajonales to arenales. The bofedales to collpares.

• Within thirty years, Sajama will be a mountain without snow, the springs and rivers will be dry.

Youth and School

Activity

Evaluation of workshop and future steps in PNS

• Survey

• Booklet

• Reflections

• Future steps

Institutional participants and support

Conservation International, Bolivia

SERNAP (National Park Service of Bolivia) Sajama National Park

National Herbarium of Bolivia

Institute of Ecology, UMSA (University Mayor San Andres)

PNCC (National Program on Climate Change) (Ministry for Development Planning)

Ministry of Rural Development, Agriculture and Environment, (Viceministry of Biodiversity, Forestry and Environment) Ministry of Rural

Development (Viceministry of Territorial and Resource Planning)

• “It is in our hands, the well-being of our family and our community; the teachings of our elders permit us to be aware of climate conditions and to forsee severe events. Motherearth advises us constantly, the animals communicate with us, telling us of what is to come. We only need to listen to what they tell us, to know to pay attention in order to not be subject to adverse conditions” (Policarpio Flores Apaza (Amauta de Tiawanacu in 1999))