O’Leary and Creswell Chapter Two

O’Leary Chapter TwoO’Leary Chapter TwoCreswell Chapter SixCreswell Chapter Six

Research QuestionsResearch Questions

O’Leary Chapter TwoO’Leary Chapter Two

Problems=opportunities, potentialities Problems=opportunities, potentialities rather than simply obstacles, impediments, rather than simply obstacles, impediments, dilemmas.dilemmas.

Definition of Problem: A situation where Definition of Problem: A situation where there is a gap between what is real and there is a gap between what is real and what is ideal or desired.what is ideal or desired.

Problems suitable for research are Problems suitable for research are problems where you can make a problems where you can make a difference.difference.


Steps in researching problemsSteps in researching problemsDraw on own knowledge and experienceDraw on own knowledge and experienceReadReadStakeholder analysis and needs identificationStakeholder analysis and needs identification

Identify the scope/extent/# of people/organizations Identify the scope/extent/# of people/organizations likely to belikely to be

1 adversely affected1 adversely affected 2 causal to a problem situation2 causal to a problem situation 3 involved in potential problem alleviation3 involved in potential problem alleviation


Stakeholder analysis continuedStakeholder analysis continuedFind out whether, how, why problem at hand Find out whether, how, why problem at hand

is seen as an issue or priority issue by various is seen as an issue or priority issue by various stakeholder groupsstakeholder groups

Recognize that even within various Recognize that even within various stakeholder groups there can be a diversity of stakeholder groups there can be a diversity of attitudes and opintionsattitudes and opintions


Unpack problems: Before any problem is Unpack problems: Before any problem is approached through research it is approached through research it is essential for researchers to critically essential for researchers to critically explore the assumptions that underpin the explore the assumptions that underpin the natuer of the problem at hand. They also natuer of the problem at hand. They also need to understand how they, as need to understand how they, as researchers, have come to understand a researchers, have come to understand a particular problem situationparticular problem situation

O’Leary Chapter twoO’Leary Chapter two

Explore the dominant world viewExplore the dominant world viewExplore your own perspectivesExplore your own perspectivesExplore range of perspectives held by Explore range of perspectives held by

various stakeholders.various stakeholders.Box 2.2 example p. 31Box 2.2 example p. 31


From Problems to Research QuestionsFrom Problems to Research QuestionsA well developed research question is an A well developed research question is an

essential starting point for the research essential starting point for the research journeyjourney

Without clear articulation of your research Without clear articulation of your research question, you are traveling blind.question, you are traveling blind.


Research Questions:Research Questions:Define an investigationDefine an investigationSet boundariesSet boundariesProvide directionProvide directionAct as a frame of reference for assessing your Act as a frame of reference for assessing your

work.work.


Developing the QuestionDeveloping the QuestionBriefly respond to the following questionsBriefly respond to the following questions

What is your topic?What is your topic?What is the context for your research?What is the context for your research?What do you want to achieve?What do you want to achieve?What is the nature of your question?What is the nature of your question?Are there any potential relationships you want to Are there any potential relationships you want to

explore?explore?


Developing the Question continued:Developing the Question continued:Using who, what, where, when, why, how and Using who, what, where, when, why, how and

the answers from step one, piece together a the answers from step one, piece together a questionquestion

If you have developed more than one If you have developed more than one question, decide whether you need to select question, decide whether you need to select one or more questions and make that one or more questions and make that selectionselection


Developing the Question continuedDeveloping the Question continuedNarrow and clarify until your question is as Narrow and clarify until your question is as

concise and well articulated as possible. concise and well articulated as possible. Assess the question(s) in relation to the Assess the question(s) in relation to the

question checklistquestion checklist


Question checklistQuestion checklist Is the question right for you?Is the question right for you?Does the question have significance for an Does the question have significance for an

organization, institution, group, field, organization, institution, group, field, community,etc.community,etc.

Can it lead to tangible situation improvement?Can it lead to tangible situation improvement? Is the question well articulated?Is the question well articulated? Is the question researchable?Is the question researchable?Does the question have a level of political Does the question have a level of political

support?support?


Hypotheses: The role of a hypothesis is to take Hypotheses: The role of a hypothesis is to take your research question a step further by offering your research question a step further by offering a clear and concise statement of what you think a clear and concise statement of what you think you will find in relation to your variables, and you will find in relation to your variables, and what you are going to test. It is a tentative what you are going to test. It is a tentative proposition that is subject to verification through proposition that is subject to verification through subsequent investigationsubsequent investigation

A hypothesis is designed to express A hypothesis is designed to express relationships between variables so not all relationships between variables so not all research questions will have hypotheses.research questions will have hypotheses.


Do not develop hypotheses if:Do not develop hypotheses if:You do not have a hunch or educated guess You do not have a hunch or educated guess

about a particular situationabout a particular situationYou do not have a set of defined variablesYou do not have a set of defined variablesYour question aims to explore the experience Your question aims to explore the experience

of some phenomenaof some phenomenaYour question centers on developing rich Your question centers on developing rich

understandings of a groupunderstandings of a groupYour aim is to engage in, and research the Your aim is to engage in, and research the

process of collaborative change.process of collaborative change.

Creswell Chapter SixCreswell Chapter Six

Qualitative Research QuestionsQualitative Research QuestionsGenerally more broad than quantitative Generally more broad than quantitative

questionsquestionsUtilize a central broad question and more Utilize a central broad question and more

specific subquestions.specific subquestions.Ask one or two central question with five to Ask one or two central question with five to

seven subquestions (no more than a dozen)seven subquestions (no more than a dozen)Relate the central question to the specific Relate the central question to the specific

qualitative strategy of inquiry.qualitative strategy of inquiry.

Creswell: Chapter SixCreswell: Chapter Six

Qualitative Questions continuedQualitative Questions continued Begin research questions with “what” or “how” to Begin research questions with “what” or “how” to

convey and open and emerging designconvey and open and emerging design Focus on a single phenomenon or conceptFocus on a single phenomenon or concept Use exploratory verbs: discover, seek, describe, Use exploratory verbs: discover, seek, describe,

explore…explore… Use nondirectional language i.e., avoid terms such as Use nondirectional language i.e., avoid terms such as

“affect,” “influence,” “cause,”“affect,” “influence,” “cause,” Questions will evolve throughout studyQuestions will evolve throughout study Use open-ended questions with theory/literatureUse open-ended questions with theory/literature Specify participants and research site if necessarySpecify participants and research site if necessary


Quantitative QuestionsQuantitative Questions Includes both questions and hypotheses Includes both questions and hypotheses

designed to shape and specifically focus the designed to shape and specifically focus the purpose of the study. Interrogative purpose of the study. Interrogative statements and questions that the investigator statements and questions that the investigator seeks to answer.seeks to answer.

Hypotheses are predictions the researcher Hypotheses are predictions the researcher holds about the relationship among variables.holds about the relationship among variables.


The use of variables in research questions The use of variables in research questions or hypotheses is typically limited to three or hypotheses is typically limited to three basic approachesbasic approachesCompare groups on an independent variable Compare groups on an independent variable

to see its impact on a dependent variableto see its impact on a dependent variableRelate one or more independent variables to Relate one or more independent variables to

a dependent variablea dependent variableDescribe responses to the independent, Describe responses to the independent,

mediating, or dependent variables.mediating, or dependent variables.


Quantitative Research Questions Quantitative Research Questions Continued…Continued…To add rigor, test a theory and specify To add rigor, test a theory and specify

research questions and hypotheses that are research questions and hypotheses that are included in the theoryincluded in the theory

Independent and dependent variables must Independent and dependent variables must be measured separatelybe measured separately

To eliminate redundancy, write only research To eliminate redundancy, write only research questions or hypotheses, not both, unless the questions or hypotheses, not both, unless the hypotheses build on the research questionshypotheses build on the research questions


Quantitative Research QuestionsQuantitative Research Questions If hypotheses are used: there are two formsIf hypotheses are used: there are two forms

Null hypothesis: represents the traditional Null hypothesis: represents the traditional approach to writing hypotheses. It makes a approach to writing hypotheses. It makes a prediction that in the general population, no prediction that in the general population, no relationship or difference exists between groups on relationship or difference exists between groups on a variable.a variable.

The wording is: “There is no difference (or The wording is: “There is no difference (or relationship…)between the groups…relationship…)between the groups…


Quantitative Research Questions continued…Quantitative Research Questions continued… Hypotheses continued…Hypotheses continued…

Alternative hypothesis: The investigator makes a prediction Alternative hypothesis: The investigator makes a prediction about the expected outcome for the population of a studyabout the expected outcome for the population of a study

Directional hypothesis: “Scores will be higher for Group A than Directional hypothesis: “Scores will be higher for Group A than for Group B” on the dependent variable or “Group A will change for Group B” on the dependent variable or “Group A will change more than Group B” on the outcome. In these examples, an more than Group B” on the outcome. In these examples, an expected prediction is madeexpected prediction is made

Nondirectional hypotheses: a prediction is made, but the exact Nondirectional hypotheses: a prediction is made, but the exact form of differences is not specified because the researcher form of differences is not specified because the researcher does not know what can be predicted from past literature. i.e., does not know what can be predicted from past literature. i.e., “there is a difference” between the two groups…“there is a difference” between the two groups…


Quantitative Research Questions Quantitative Research Questions continued…continued…

Use nondemographic variables Use nondemographic variables (measuring attitudes and behaviors) as (measuring attitudes and behaviors) as independent variables unless the study independent variables unless the study intentionally employs demographic intentionally employs demographic variables as predictors…variables as predictors…

Use the same word patternUse the same word pattern


Descriptive Questions and inferential Descriptive Questions and inferential questionsquestionsWrite descriptive questions followed by Write descriptive questions followed by

inferential questions…inferential questions…What are the differences? See page 113What are the differences? See page 113


Mixed MethodsMixed MethodsNeed to include both quantitative and Need to include both quantitative and

qualitative questionsqualitative questionsNeed to incorporate elements of good Need to incorporate elements of good

questions and hypotheses already addressedquestions and hypotheses already addressedSome attention should be given to whether Some attention should be given to whether

project is one-phase or multi-phase and then project is one-phase or multi-phase and then to the order of the questionsto the order of the questions

O’Leary and Creswell Chapter Two

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