Ohapter-II - INFLIBNETshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/14373/6/06_chapter 2.pdf · written by eminent authors of either sex, schal.ors but not rocioloGists. The second type

Ohapter-II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The S'tudieo done in India and a broad that directly

or indirectly denl with woman in poli tioo, couJ.d be

rouejlly divided into two typess (e) studies about women

end (b) studios on wocen in partioular. 1

The fir!lt type o:f otudy io conocrne<l with so oinl

problome, i.e. social evils, injustice and ner,licanoe in

l"elation to wot=~en in pol.itioe. lloet of these have been

written by eminent authors of either sex, schal.ors but

not rocioloGists. The second type is oonoemed with the

role, status and pert1c1Pat1on of women ~ politics,

with a perspective of historical. aocial.oe_y. This is the

most cot=~ron perspective with the otudies on wol!len.

T>ifferentiating between oocia1 end eooial.oGf,cal

problem, Jesse~ has viewed that a sooia1 problem

receives nttention ~en a number o£ usuGlly e1fln1~1oant

people w1 thin a partiaul.ar social system becomes

o onaoioue of 1 t as a problem that affronts thet=~ morally

and dena!Xle urgent solutian. Defined w1 thin the

perepeoti ve of science, sooiolog1cal problem is n a probl.G11,

1Prom1lla KaPur, "~tudies of the Urban .-·omen in India" , in G1r1 Raj Gl\Pta ( ed),

m~~~ I~ p~= Fqp~l.v S X 9de, Val.. II, as, Ne~ De , 1 •

2c11nton J. Jesser, " ... omen in Society: ~omc 1\cademic Perapeotivee and the Isoues Therein', ~t~~ J~el of ~"'ogiologv = , 2r·emeater, 1 ~2, pp. 0-59.

worthy of investieation with a purpose of classifying,

refuting, o~ n~enting a bc~ of lmovdedr;e in 1 to

theoretical. organization which he].ps in predicting and

axpl.ninine regu.l.ari ties of bEhav1 our."., And beoouse of

this diff'erenoe, the studies of social scientists on

women's participation in poll tioe are different frol!l 'tho

stud! eo about women by tho e ooia1 reformers. . .. hiJ.e the

latter is action.. oriented, fue former seeks to "ask

questions, the a.nswers to which will fructify lmo\'lledge

thot is soudlt pr.l.marily for prediction and expl.nnations. n 4

But in practice, theoo distinctions between the

sociol. and sooiolocj.cal perspectives are not po m1ble.

Indeed, they are 1nteiTel.ated and they internet wi 1h eaah

other. The studies of social problf:1Jla and of social

svils maae by social. reformers (not neoesear.Uy

nooioloeists), eminent literary men and women, historians

ond pol.itioiam - provide useful. sign1.f1oezrt basGJ.inee.

These certainlY enabl.e the soo 1al.og1st gain some

ocient1f1c knowledge.

But the avail.able l.iterature seem eroesl-v

inadequate and it is not an exaegeratian to view that

3 Ibid., p. 246.

4 Ibid., p.247.

29

the po1itioal behaviour and preoco~ation a£ over half

the population has been inadequatelY documented.

However, the avnil.able llteratur<"' which deale

direct~ ar indirectly on the issue of wooen' e statue in

poJ.itlca in the international, national rnd 1ooa1 levels

oon bo broaclly divided into three categor.i.es:

1. Ll terature that dea1s w1 th the womm• a status

enl rol. e in ceneral end poll tic e in parti oul.ar

in different oountr1ea, sometimes including a

brood hi.st orical. enaJ.y ai s.

2. Literauxre thP.t directlY or indirectlY refers

to poll tion1 women ell tGsa rcprassl'Itativcc in

the L'nr.liament, ~tate Lccis1eturce and other

p~ fUnctionaries.

'3. Literature oomerned with the enalysie af

eooial-eoonoml.c and political background

whiab 1n:nuencee wanan and shaPes their

perception am attitude to poll t1os.

';tudies on r·anen' a Statue BJJd Bole in Polltlca

The averwhe1ml.JlB evidence so :far goes to eatabl.iah

thnt no ooo1e-cy in the wor1d provj.dee women equal. aliatua

with men. Al.thaush en:thropol.octets and eooi.ol.o(;i.ete

have found that women are given aonaidemble oooial.

30

reo~ ti on anl power in some oooietiee, there exists no

eooie~ in whiah their publicly recognised power exceeds

men' o. EJ.ise Boulding5 and Jean Betke Elshtain8 affirm

this ld.nd of situation in their books. Beverly Lindzey

~ her edited work7 says that not only the woman af the

third wor1d but the wauen wor:Ld over are o ani"ronted wi"tll

n similar ei tuation.' Dlt me ooee of the third wor~u

countries is distincHve beonuoe they havo been subjected

to oolonial exploitation. ColoniolJ.sm llaa also hi.ndered

their pro~ees. She exaal.nas various eynamo variab:les,

e.g. economic, so~i~po1itioo1 and educational, thot have

oppressed the third wor1d women. The challter on Indian

women, entitled nrJp from the Herem?g ~ho cff'ecto of alnss

and sex in poll tical l.i:fe in ~rorthern India" by Toniak

Devon is an im,portEm.t contribution to "tho volume. 'i.ccarding

to 'the e.uthar, women's poor partic:ipotian 1n Politics io

UBinly due to the attitude aD1 norms af the famt]y and

sooia'W. The l.aok of odu.cation and lim:t tad exPosare amo~

woman, figure next in order o£ priority r...a reasons for

ouch a :Lon :;,:art!oipatian.

5 ··uae Boul.di.nc, lJle~grs1~ ot H1oto:J3', "estview I"'ress, CQl o, 1 El.

6 Joen Detke El.shtai.n, .fubJJ,o I4Dn• l(rJ.yate ·:·omen, Clxf'o:rd: I.'Inrtin nobcrtaan, 1!)01.

'31

r tucU,ee on .. omen ng I'olitice1 Eli tee

On the studies of \"lOCen as political eli teo

nva11able Uterature ie meagre. r·e osn classifY them

as: (a) the o atecolY ~ wcmcn el'!t c~in.3 i:"lto p oJ.i t1 C(j,

t!:cir role and attitude to woman' a r:anerr~ probl.olJ.'J9 nnd

(b) difierencae made tw the prooonoo o"f ~ot:"u:m hold inc

poll tioa1 POVIer. J .J .KirkpetrtotP has made r study of

women who had the forti tude to c cma out of ~ho cTiP of

opr)rees1on and tradi tional.ism snd Pln:.i P. role in tho power

game. Her wotit entl'tled t;olltioal .. qm__m (\,naJ.ysos t.~e

baakerotmd am oa:rcer of ~ aeznp:le o:f wocan locislatore (4'3)

in the u.s. !\. Ki!'kpatrJ.ok m1nta1ne tmt like their cale

ootmterparte, women poll t1o1ans va'r3 gree~. ~he

develops f011r-fold typolos.v consisting of 'leaders',

'moralizm-e', 'perecmal.S.mere' aDd 'problcam-eolvere'. _IIJ.1

the four types hnve their own perscmal pred1apos1 ti ons

which can be detected 1n their s14,vle, mle and sel£-esteem.

The author observes tmt evm those who asE'Wlle the leader' o

role and have a passion for poli t1os reveal. a oul tural:cy­

inilu.oed orientation.

JU though Kirkpatrick' o 1eg1al.etors ol.aim no

inoomvatibil.ity botwocn thE> rol.es o:f' family aD1 oitizenshii.J,

9Jean J. Kirkpatri.ok, :Po11,tiop1 . orzum, New Yo~: T'·nsio Dooks Inc., 1~75.

32

moat o£ 1hGm i'oll.owed tho troJi ticn'lll.l career pattern af

wai·tine until. their ahiJ.dran v1ere grovm. Ul1, before they

eOU{;ht for public office. :'Wo..th1rde of them had no

mOi,o tb.1n two ch.ilc1:~en.. ~hio io in oantrnat to

Y-.irkl)ntrick' o aamvle af onle lcciel.tltore, ("lQ poTCmt o£

whOl!l !lt1Vc l.arr;er fnmiliec and rnn for tho office before

they were forty. In th~ otudy, the women as eumed the

caj or responsibility for hou.aekoepine nnd ohildon:re mel

r!X~oted little help f:=ooiJ tbe1r huebando. ':i'hese ooalal

oanatraints limited their participation 1n politics.

Irene T)ie.mond' e atuey9 dee.le VJi th r.ollen lo~o1otore in four New l~Slld ~tatee 1n the TJ.~. •. In thiD otudy 9

she i'oau.aaea on etnte loeislators t".S tho crouP of wooen

who ''me achieved the highest propart1c:m af elective

o~:f!oe b.v res olvine the oon:fliot be~ecn poll ticnl rnd

idcol femhD.r role. i)innond' o study relatoo tho

cloot0!9l euooeae of women to the structure of poll tioo.

~~lUO, sho v-lcws that the probabi11tw af women boiug

el. eo ted to the 1 egial.ature under ooD!11 ti ems of inters e

po1ition1. oonwet1tion is 1ow, but the probabi.U. v t.tst

a woman who ie e1eoted UIUler such conditions wi1l

9 rrene --·iamond, ~e; Roles j_n tho :tnt.e Hause, New Haven: Ynle Univerci iN l>reao, l..'l77.

33

resemble a t:an 1n her career pattern and her legiala'tj_ ve

behaviour will be of a high order. Finally, she deduces

tmt a poJ.itical etrate§ based pr.ln.oj.pal.ly on electoral

incremen1alisetion, that is, electing greater numbers of

\'70men to 1he office, does infl.uenoe the issues involved

in chall.ging women' s status.

Joan Fagot Avil' o study of political partic1pat1 an

of women in Lntin t.oericalO briefly c:maminee variables

like edooat1 on md economic Part1oipat1an ne factors

contributing to the nature am 14.VPe of political

partic1Pation of woman. ~he maintains that women's lack

of participation in poll tics is affected by 'their

relative lack of sooialisation ond mobilization. The

author views womon' s role in child -rearing mare important

than her political role irrespective oi' oul.tllral

differenoes among various camtrles of the \10l!Ld. ,,., anen' a

lives centre around the family. "·'hen :tmni.J.y issues are

pol1 t1c1sed, women teDi to acquire poll tical mobility as

1n the U'n1ted sta'tee. so a chaDge in the bas1o sooial.

oystem involvilJe the family is relevant to act1v1ee womGn

pol! tioal.l,y.

lOJoa.nn Fagot AvU, n Pollt1ca1 Partioipat3. an of ... omen 1n La~ J\mer3.ca", b Yteste~ I?a1tt1,aa1 )wrtarJ..v, r.ieroh, 1081, pp. 17'3.

J'.nthm:w Orum, et.a1.11 1n their stu<\'{ on women• o

pali tical socialization a:n'ive at thl:ee perspectives to

explain differemes 1n political. bel.iefs am behaviour

of ccm and women: political socialization, structural and

situational. factors. This paper reveals that soainl.ization

DLW nat be the only factor in expla1n11'16 differemea in

polltioo1 beliefs on the besie of sex. Bllt bath pal.itioal

eooialisati on and situational theories coalesce to oause

this difference.

It is necessary to refer to the 11 teratnre on the

personality charadteristice of wanen in political life.

In tbie connection, r:.n.Krusohke, 12 in a oo1IU)arieon of

female pol1t1oal.o and apolitioals, avtetrlPted to trace a

relationship betweE!l political. personality snd political

partioipaticm. He co~arod 45 wanen active in politics

(who pert1o1pated in a movement for the construction of a

oivU centre, a sclml board referendum, ana the 1960

preoidential. el.eotion) with 58 elite women vmo ware not

active in politics. He found ei~ficent differermee in

UAnth~ Drum, n. s.Oohen, s.Grasmuok and ~ ..... O;ruc, "~ox Sooial.imation end Politics", Amefoan 0oo1oiogiool, Review, Vol.;m, No.2, 1!Y7 •

12r.. r~.Kruscbke, "!:'oLol.e roll ticals ru:d Apo1itics1s"i~~QQ~~gtP.~ 2400. 2546 ( . JJ •• '• e, • Level. of Opti-mism ns nelated to Fonal.a Political. Belnviom"" 9 §oo1al. pgionoe, 41, pp.G7-75 (l!lGG).

35

fov<nr of pal.itiool women on the foll.owine ctlmsneionas

soc ja bili ty, optit!ll. en, will.1ngneea to rink, 11 beralism11

and a sense of poJ.it1oal-charaoteriet1os that rosembl.e

our f1ndines of greater assertiveness, advanturesomeneoe 9

imagination, and l.iberel attitudes among the women 1n

the state le£d_s1nturee.

·inborn end Jansen•s1' e'ttl.c\v ooup1ed with Krusbke

onkes it clear tl1.:'1t women 1n politics f1. t into the "high

ooore11 desoriptian. Their 1ntell1genoe, assertiveness,

ohivn1%Y, 1maglnat1on and liberal att1tudeo were the msj or

assets i?or their euocese of a powerf'u.l polltioal ro.le,

Bl.beit, oontradiotary to sez-rol.e expectations.

~he onl,y other stu(\y on political women and their

Pcl~aonolity ahareoteristios ie Clade by ~ E. i·:el."Der

nnd Loise r.r. Baabtold.14 It ie based on 103 woman \1ho '

solVed in the 19'70..71 state 1 egialatures. It compares the

nomon logialattn's am elected male loaders with their

respective reference gr~s, i.o. adul.t men and wanen in

the ~narnl popuJ.nt1on. !:'.ar:u;>llng on a wider universe of

13n.n. 111nbont mui n.c-:.Jensen, ".?erscmal.i'ty­Charactorletioo of Campus ~ooiaJ-.:.lQLitical. Action Leaders", .ci~ of ffltWeellim .rtrrch.ql.om;r. 14, pp. 1'3, 96 •

14Rt:D:W :~. -·ro:uer a.nU La:Lee L'I. Daohtol.d, "Persollllity Charnoteriatioo of' '"'amen in J\mortoanPolltios"~1n Jane J. JRquaette (Gd), ;··omen in :f~ tics, Ilew Yarka John ""i,l.y &. '"!ons,i~ , pp. 75-04.

'36

l~sl.Bture, '37 1n number, representinc au. 6eoGrBPhiaal

regions 1n the oountxy, this study 1e concerned with the

eaJ.ient pere c:mali ty omraoterietics that eet wanen

1 egislat ore into a role normally de:f1ned as t:laSOuline

(apart from adult wOOJen in the general popuJ.at1 on, ond

elected mle leaders). The study of personality pattem

of the femal.e pol.itioian9 tallies with the oale

1 ~slat om • in '"1nbom. end J el'lSen' a study mentioned

earlier.

VijEtJ Agenew's book em "-llte ·.oman in Indian

Poll tiosn 15 provides some rel.evanco opoai:fioal.J3 to the

Indian context. Ae;new' s historical perspcot1ve an the

rlae of elite women in Indian polltios beGins w1 th o

aooial 'baclr8r0Wld af the 19th century. The Blthar perceives

a continlli'W between thG conventional end traditional role

played 'ttf women 1n the Hindu society ond the poli ttca1.

wol!leil emerging in the 20th century. "!1 th this innic;ht,

the outhor loOks at the enlightened women who :fought for

the freedom movement, end UB1nta1ns tba t the wol'.lEn ooming

to power eo far are in:f'lnenoed by the male polltioal.

leaders with the ties a£ blood and marriage •. \dmttting

37

the role of Gandhi for wmcn• a ananoipation the author

points out that the influence of Gandhi and Nelml

brouc,ht about c.Mngen in the role and status af onJ.y a

few women, eymboliming a ~ee spirit and close

interaction. some other books aJ.so deal "''i th women and

politioe. Bllt they are mainly historical in context, and

refer to tile overall. status of' woman in India and abroad.16

In relevance to our stuctr Gail Minau1t17 in her

stuey on women• a poll tical. participati em and the it®aot

of the family are],ysea 1n great detaU, three mjor pointe

reGBrding women's political position in our oo\.Ultry, (i)

idantifioati an of the extent to which women ooou.IY elite

pooitian in Indian politics, (U) evaluation a£ poaeibl.e

mo;>lanstione a£ women's prominence in elite pos1 tion, Elld

(iii) expJ.Bmltion af 'tile iUlPaot af women's partioipati one

in politics on the social and eoonoml.o poaS.tian af women

in the naticmal ccntert.

The explanation provided for political pertio1-

pati an of a meagre number a£ el.1 te women is based an two

16Far exampJ.et Urmil.a Phadnie and Indira Mali.ni ( edsJ, t"qmep af 1:hA WorM Pub11shJ.Dg House, New Deihl, i-~~ B.R.Nanda, Fian ~~!an ~ah to ~ose=tt;r,ew nelhi~es,; Ta:m t..U. g, Ipdia 's ~.Yomen Powe;o, DeUlia n. Chand & Oo., 19'76; Jana Matson Evertt, ':'omtm end ~~1a1 Change in India, New Dal.hia Heritage, 19 9.

l7 Gail. Minaul. t, ~he J:Xtqnded Fnnri ~V' . omen ~ Po;!ti.§n1 JBrti,oipatiop !n Indi.O, and __ iet_, el.hJ.a Chanalcya ..... ub1iahero, 1001.

oete of factors. ~he first eat emaml.nea eooio..oul.tural,

expJ.atning the level of women's polltical inVolvement.

:he second identii'iee the po1it1cal. illstitutions, the

prooess of pollticnl euooession, the nature of tm parv structure, etc. ae eu.ppartin6 or opposins the :reorui tma1t

af women to paai tiona a£ poll tioal leaderahip.

~tudiee on qocio...PolitioQl. 59ksround of ··qnen

The findings of some stuCH.es on aoo1o...pol.it1cal.

bnckeround af women are rel.evant to examine certain

hypothesis in our stuctT. Edmond Canstantan118 discussea

the interpl.e.V amng peroedll.ity, eex-rol.e typil:lg and

po11t1onl. oareer at women v1s-a..v1s men. She finds that

politionl women are aften aver-represented in the hiGher

sooio..eoonomlo gt-OQ.P. The differeme between female

pol1 t1o18l'JS and their mal.e ootmterparts 1s :ibund 1n tbe

eeoribed social attributes. According to her, for a wC111811

to assume elite statue in the party, mat is required is

a longer period of apprenticeship than that a£ the

eimil.nrly motivated mal.e.

Iqnnee B. Igl.i tm1n19 fooused on the oooial1Zat1 an

10D1mond o onstantani end K. H. OJ..ark, " .. omen es 1-'ollticiane: The ~ocial. Bnokground, Personalley and I>oJ.itioal. Careers o:f Fema:te :Parcy Leaders", Jou%7Jal. ot SooiaJ. IseJcWa, 20, No.2, 19'72.

19rqnee B. Igl.1 tain, "The Linking af the },poll tical. ~Ot:len" 1n Jana J. J nquette ( ed), '"op,en in l?olliiQg, United ~:tatoo, 1074.

o-:f women in relation to their political Partio1Patian.

The author maintains that the primary a6ents of

eooi.alization oro particularly faml.l.y end school

o anbined to ohanneliee youne women into lower

oocUPltional ezpcctatiom m.d a willi~eee to pl.ay a

nBreinal role in the eoonomlo and poll tic~ aspoots of

oooieocy. 'lu,ie study explores GOI:!S af t!lo oonaequenoeo o:f

the trRditionnl fet2le values of YOtmG girl.s. The study

demonstrated in tho at t1 tudes of a £;roup o:f ll-y ear ol.de

the wide extent of eeLrole etereotypillg nnd its damging

effects on g!.rls. The atudy vas inndeqw>te in the eenoe

that it faUed to analYse the souroe of sex..rol.o stereo.

typinG over a per.lod of time.

~tuctrtng women in local poll tioe in lllo~fW,

Ingunn Norderval. l1Iast1e20 found that broadl.v the women

councillors rrm.st be said to oonfom to tb.e m~t general

Oft ter1B aosooiated w1 th poll tical pos1 ti an. Typ1oal.J3

their d'lildhood environments were pol.1t1o1zed. Their

od'--1Cat1an, Ulough mOdest, was never lam elgnlf~ent than

that of ~e averrtBe male or feoele in the state. Thair

family status wns tlidd1e class. But oooqpati(]Zl...wiea, ccet

of 1hm:1 were housewives. The t%i.pple commitment to home,

20t~ Nordervsl Means, "Pollt1oa1 necrui.tt:mnt a£ ~ .. oman in N.nay", ··--estern ~o~ti~ :uartem, Vol..25, lt172, PP. nl- 21.

40

career and pol.i tioe causes a great strain, end oa a.

rcsul t women hes1 tate to teke to poJ.i tics sa a career.

The author argues that the responsibilitiea of woman,

un1ese eJ-ared lty men, woul.d not hel.p women aahieve

equality in EX1ucnt1on, occupation ond political. power.

As long as women are burdened with multiple roles, 1hey

oannat help rel!rdninc " ordirary" •

~umerating tho ot:ru.oture.l barriers limiting

wODOn'a institutional pnrt1o1pat1an, 0611 L. 3ellman21

aaye that etmoturel. barrl.ers nre relnted to organizatioml

am 1nst1 tutional patterns, piGot1oee, roles and norus

which obstru.ot woman 1n their efforts to enter and

develop themelves 1n political 1nat1tut1cms. soma

lsrriers are there to keep woman out of 'the poll ti oa1.

system. others permit a wotrDn'e entr.v but hinder her

advanocment, thus preo1ud1!lg equal. partio1pat1an. Those

factors 1nolwle family roles, eel' eegxoegat1an, inadequate

facilities for tra1Ding, 1he female ou1ture and different

l.i:fe exper.tencee. ·~amen's pa:rtiotpstian om be put on

an even keal if a change takes p1aoe 1n msouline

21aau L. Zel.1man, "Rol.e af structural Factors Limi tine ~··omen • El Insti tuti anal. Partio1.Patian" , atnnma1 of s ogial. :Iseuog, Vo1.32, ENo.s, 1976, p.ss.

41

veJ.ues and attitudes, political overview, and p~itive

Plann!.ng for women's development.

c:-arles o. Bu:Uock end HEJS'J~n their research

on women's reoruitnent to American Coneress maintains

that the bncktP-'otmd which prePares women to participate

in poJ.i tics is also the SEine for the re<ml1 tmant af wanen

into A"Ocrlcon Conc;rea r~, but differs in that the latter

reqtlires a St1Per1or legis1at1ve oareer with pal1tioal

eXPerieme. /\ooordins to them, higher education and

frequent 1nvo1vement in pol.itioal nct1v1 ties priar to

entering fornal politics faoU1tate a woman's eloction.

Ident1ot4 opinion is expressed ey ausm WeJ.oh23 who BOOS

to hi~iBht the mml., semLurban end polit1call_V

familial beokground of the fe~e leg1sl.ators.

Rita mae Kelly, et.al. 1n their atnda on pa.Uti~

soc ial.1snt1on af women24 arrive at e1milur reml ta.

l.i.th biographical data on 56 elite women, the oonjQga].

parental in:fluenoe 1s examS.ned aceinst its 1~aot u.pan

t..'"le res~ondent t G n political n development • Their

22cbar1ea s.Bu1lo0k III and Pat1~o~a Lee F1nd1ey Heys, "Raorutltment af Women :ror conl)E"ess", ~cstem P$?llUoal. ''uarte&,

. Vol. 25, 107 , pp. 416-23. 23susan Wel.oh, "Reoru1 tment at :.'omen to

Publio Of'fioe: A Diear1mi.nate Anal.yeie" , '''e"iem PQW~rSel. uarta;tv, Vol.'31, 197 , PP.372- •

24n1 ta Mae K43lly md Mary fl.. BoutUier, "l!otharo, Dnughtara and ;,ooia:tizati. an a£ Political. ,..omen", Sex BaJ.eg, Vo1.4, No.3, .TU-?te, 1 ~B •

42

findings sugges't that women ln polltios are costlY

influenced by 'their cathers who are independent inside

the famllY end outside. The non-p<llitioal. woman eJ.ites

lack thls influeme. So a pooitive oorreJ.aticm. aan bo

traced to mather-daughter partioipatian. .:eocmdly,

fathers of political wonen tend to show more respect and

love for their wives, nnl ike non...poli tioo1 women. Thi:m:Ly,

there is a mare fnv ru.rnbl.e ntti tude of :fathers t awards

the rnother£1 of' Politionl women. T.hjs findins suggests

that the female involvement 1n po11tieo io nat neoessar.l.ly

derived from arose-sez.rol.e preferences. In ter1113 at

political sooia.limation, the father's behaviour and

so hievements are not as crucial for tho dOll(?;hter as t bey

are for the a on. More tten the father' a political

aohlevemant, equal sharing of the parent's :famt.l1al. Elld

Pt1bUo rol.e oantr.lbutes to the datlghter'e auoceea 1n

politics.

In e sl.ishtl.v different sbade, Me.ur.l.oe D'1edl.er25

emmlnee the eleation studies af 1972 in .1\merioa. "Men

nnd wonen particiPate to an equal. degree in all major

modes of pol.itioal aotivi-cy, that is, as voters,

25rJiaur1oe Piedl.tn", n The l!art;:I.oipa"ti on af '7omen 1n .4.merioan ~oll t ice" , Qie:n, ~epteober, 1975.

o81JlPS.ignere and oonmnm' oators. None of U1e factors

Bf:f'eot1ng male part1oipat1on (1. e. eoo1 o..eocnomio ar

sooio-Ps:roho1og1onl factors) ~eoto female partioi.I>atian

in f\mdammtally different wwe, althOllBh 1here ere

var.latians. ~omen's participation 1s :Jacilitated eomewmt

more than that o:f' men by high levels af pol1t1oa1 interest,

information end effioaoy rmd ltV socialization 'that inol.uded

a member with politioa1 interest. F1ed1er oonolu.des that

employment outside the home, partioul.arly 1n managerial.

or professional eapao1t1es is most iJ®artant. She sueceste

that women w1 th oareer eXPerience will alreaey have shed

"role ooiJStraints" in tmir own lives, and will have the

potential to be euooessi'ul 1n the polit1oe1 arena.

Paul.B J. Dllbeok. as st\1<1J on 'fiOman' s reorui tment

to Political off1oe 1e 1n tune w1 th the above f1nal.ngs

by Fiedler. Kristi Anderecm'n 1n her study an prafess:lcm

and its 11!U)aot on wanen's political pe.rt1o1Paticn also

emphas1mes on the white collar ~obs motivating women to

26Peul.a J. Dnbeok, "Women and Aooess to Pal.i tical Off':loes 11. Comparison of Fema1e and Mal.e Legislators", · -SOQi,f:l.~oa1 9uarteW, Winter, 1976, pp. 2- 2.

27Xr1.at1 Anderson, "iYOrJd.llg ~omen and Polltioal. Part1oipaticm, 1952 to 1972", reei:'gan J ouml of p olit ig a1 ~ oieno e,

g ngust; 1. •

44

participate in poll tics. mu~ relates eoonomi o 1ndopen..

denoo of women to the increase in thai r number in

po11tical partioipatian.

Thus, the abwe stud1es usde 1n different

countries 1n the west indicate that soo1a..polit1c8l.

'tBollgrotmd omraoter1st1ae pl.a_.v an itQPm-tant role in

in:fluencll1g poll tic a1 women. :· Ol!let1mes the findings a£

the studiee are o o contextual. that their cane ral1zat1 ana

mfW not be applicable to pol1t1onl womm in countries

such as Ind1e.. Im1Bn situation differs fundamental.Jy

from 'the western; it is, therefore, worthwhil.e to

undertake the studies that are made in Izutian o cntexte

only.

Stu,d.1.es gn Wcpen tp Jm13At W;!tipge QPd Reports

ViDa Mawmdar' s bo~ an the statue af woman in

Indian palitios presmts 'the posi t1an o1' wanan 1n Ind1an

political sphere 1n recent years. In Ul1s book, PaPers

have been arranged 1D three parts regarding women's

participat!.on in Indian poll tics. Those are, :fimt.b',

woman in nstioml pollt1oo; seccmd, tm pQ1.1t1o1sat1 em

of women 1n Im1a, th%\9a-state-study, and lastly, profil.e

45

o~ w anen in different state po11 tios 1n India. The

pQPem va~ ereotly in their focus and eo qpe. The book

1n general shows a olose link betwean women• o

participation 1n pdlit1os and thelr so~l status.

A1though it was d1ff1cu1t vo draw gmera11zaticms an all.

tha three StU"'IEW e, adequate mater1al was avail.Bble to

provide the followine oonolusions.' 'rllat, women's

po11t1c1z:ation in India depemed considerably on (1)

Gan4h1' s emphasis on the sooio..poli tical emanoipat1 an a£

women, (2) the level af oodcrnization in a 111rtioular

reBJ.an ar state, ond (3) famU1es with political exposure.

This sUBS eats that fa~ tra<ll ti an ald 1rrfl uenoe of

individuals act ae e1gn1f1oant agents of pQU tical

e ooiall zati an.

BesS. des 1he general. desor1pt1one on women' a

position in Po11t1os, a report bas been broUGht ou.t by

the All India Women's CCIDI:11ttee29 on behalf af Gcnemmo:nt

of India to assess the eta'tne of women. The Oommi ttea

1ncl.uded po11tio1ams, S)01al wcnkere, aoedem1cinne,

trade unian leadem and writers. Their rep~t submittea . 1n 1975 showed a downvsrd trend in women's partioipation

in the country's pol.itioal affairs. The investicatlons

of the Oommi. ttee have revealed that ~ af our

of wonen' e parti o1Pati on

1n the pol.i t1oel process require empirical. verifioat1 em.

The factors like ed uoation, urbani BBti on and :temi~

pressure which were hitherto regarded as mma~

detEmlllnante a£ poJJ.tioal awareness and therefore a£

effeotiw partiai.pation have been shar9ly queeti aned by

the Oommlttee. The report oonal.udee that despite the

Political SUPPOrt promised to women in all the nanii'eetos,

po1itioal parties are indifferent to women. This rrsy be

the reason as to wb:3 the women membership in .Parl.i&ment

and State Legislatures has on the average deo1ined.

Tm t women ln rural areas are gredua.l.ly shC7C'l1n8 a mare

1ndepeDdent attitude towards the electoral p:rooess in

recent yeare 1a revealed 1n the study. Urban \'1omen do

not seem to show muoh interest in thte process.

In view cd 'the ~oregolt.\g devel.opment in the

methotl and oonceptual. tramewolk of stue\vll\g aooio..

po11t1oo1 background of polltical. el.J.tee in a

ootQParetive perspeotlve, the Indian exempl.e presents

rather a CU.sml. picture. Adequate o'tal~ is made on 1he

47

behavioar aJ2d attitudes of Members of the Leg1sl.a1nre

and var1 ous aspects of their l. egislati ve behaviour. 30

Bnt on the social background of leg1slatom, very

llmitea wom 1s done in recent times. An enal.ysls of

the studies is as fQUowea K. v. V1swanatba1ah • e war~1

enqaires into 'the character of tile l.egislatore who aot

as 1uwortant policy-makers of the .PBrtN 1n power 1n Inrlia.

In this oonDSC'ticm. the eooi~oocnom1o md pol.lt1aal

baokgromd 0'£ tm l.eg1s1atore 1s regarded as i~artant.

This etuc't/ throws l.ight an the nature of leaderabiP,

wl'doh ie influenced tu 1heir age, casta, rellgian.

ooou.r:.c ti on. 1no cma, eduo ati on, PBrV ~fi.:U.ati. an. :ilie

author views that all. u~ eo aharaoterietios not Ollly help

them in the formul.atian o:f' at"Utu.das W1d perceptions but

al.so influenoe their bEhavioural pattern.

The study proves the validity of the publ.1o

as~ion that the bulk of tm polltioal deo1sicm.makers

~Bee for <lZ8JDP].e. O;M.Jain, ~H ~1111;!m!a ~~ I~, Delhi, 1972; L.M. eo,

(u.Y nment in tho Ind:lan Pol.i ioal. ~stem' in .'l.. Kanmerg ( ed) , lfeg1s1 stq.res iP iMwntti'-P~r.We, I~ew Y orka Dcl.d Me jay,

, pp. 9- ; Osh Obaniier, 11 SOOiO-Eo cnOI!llo Bnct:gr C1U'Jd a£ tm Metropolitan c ouno1l.l.ors til Del. hi.; An Br:~W1rioal Stu<l.v", jntHa~ Jour <tfJQJJ.tigel, s9aiongeo v0l..33,

uly-veptem er, 1. 2.

3lx:. v. Viswmathaiab., "An rl®i:rioal. study af s oci o.... r..o cnom:l. o and P o1i tical Backgrol.Ul11 of t.ha LIEElbero of Ka.rnatakn State Legi.sl.amrdl 11 Jourpl of Comt1tuti.ona1 gnd 1>nrl,aAmenta.w :tudi.aa, no. 3, v ol..lO, 1976, pp. 307-'313.

48

be1ong to 1he moclerete 1noous-grcnp. 1\V profession,

they are agr1oultu:r1ste and lawyers, they belong to

the parey 1n power, and they poeaess suf'.f1o1ent

admin1strat1ve experience. The DBj ority of the

1e~slstcrs belong to their own ocmsti tuenoies and

eenerally to mlddl.e ege-IJ%'~1 th~ hElVe mrr1ed and

eot on to reJ.at1ve1v en:ell.er fam1l.1ea. Most of them

belong to the dominant castes. Even then, they have

themal.vos 1dent1:t1ed with and worked for the m1nar1ty

oonmnmStios. This study shows a poeitive direotS.on in

favour of an ideal sooio-pol1tica1 force. \The ML~•·, vievs

Mo lrl.s-J ones, • is one a£ the great' gap closers in

Indian pol1 t1oe but we do not yet know whether he 1s

aoh.isvll'lg this ln we:fS favoumblo to the modem ar to the

traditional style."'2

F~e'tor'e article'' is a ~uable oontribut1an

to the unaeretending o'f state leadership in India

part1oul.arl.y of 1he members a£ the Madras LeglelaUve

Aesombl.V between 1962 and 1969.

32~~.T.Morr1s-Jonee.!. "lmia'e Polltioal. Id101!13", in c.n.Fhllllps ( ed), lollti,gs MdsSog1 e1N 1A Ima,a, Lond m, 1963, P.l •

33nu.noan B. Forrester, "State LeBisl.Btore in Madras" ' .I on mal. ot Q omsonwef.\l:th ~~~ Studies, Vol..7, 1969, pp. •

49

Regarding the s oo io.. eo anomie baokgrolDld of "the

pol.i tio1ans, the study views that most of the MLJLS had

an upper ol.ass backgramd. They were profesaionaJ.l,y

lnvqers, teachers, businessmen, e1'ld parcy f'unotionaries.

They belonged to a wide variety o£ associati ems. Inter-

1 ooked caste and eo anomie status were the moat impart ant

factors deternx!ning their omd1datures.

M.X1shtan1sh's wolk34 atte"QPts to grasp the

social, aoonomio md eduoational leve1 a£ Andhm

l.egislatom. Social End eoonood.o status being regarded

as convincing factors far political decisions can,

therefore, determine one's p011t1oal euooeas. They also

suggest the indl.vidual dimension of eooiel tEilsi CZlS in

a charging sooi~v wh11e making allowances for the

c1ass1fioat1on of 1Ddiv1duale into mpresEDtatlves at

pol.itical. erollPS and sooial. movements.

The general feellng that mambersb.ip at uPper

caste w1 th high ino ane is ass oo1a ted w1 th proi'ese1ana.1

Part1o1J)at1cm in state pQll tics is empirically proved 1n

this study. It follows that the higher strata of society

34M. X1ehtan1sh, "~ocia1 Bnokground of the LegisJ.atore in Andhra Pradesh", Joums] of Q onstitut 1 onal, end Par1.1Bmen'tia;x §tudiee, 1971.

50

possess sld.ll.s, motivation and are clooe to pol.itionl

opportunities. Thus, tilers is a close correlation

between thelr soo1a1 posi tian end pol.itical part1cipat1 an.

Lnok of political skill and resources in case of persons

of lower eoc1al positions may discourage the latter's

political involven:rmt. In developing oountr:l.es, fa::1alee

do not actively I;Brtiaipate in pol.i tics beoeuse t~

carry the burden of deprivation, Gild there is usual.J.y a

large gap in eklll.e and opportunities between men and

women. It appears that women are confined to a poJJ. ticel.J.y

peseive role and also ltV etr.lngent socieJ. narms acainet

their parti c illation.'' 'S ems of the e oil.' have batter

chances of getting el.eeted to the '.seem~. Tbe middle..

aged and the old are preferred to Ule nns n1 tiated and

energet!D in the Aseem~ eleotiam. The wel.l,..to..do

farmers str(V in a predomlnant posl tion ainoe ag2icul.ture

is the most famS11ar oocupati Cl1 of the state.

Simllar results oame. forth t.brough G.Ram Bedctv

and athers in their ~.,a In 1he aeme vein, another

35G. D1 Pal.ma, ApathvJmd P~oim~, New YC%k, The Free Press,~, p.r:

36a. Ram Redctl and D. RovSnara Prasad, nnecruitment to the Council of Ministers in Andhra Pradesh" , ~ ~ ~~i.tla-ti,omJ. M\j!fiamsm u e ~ OJ. .10, No.2, pp.l - •

51

study l:tv l)rataP Sin(jl'7 1n n background stllt\v at

Iln:..yana L!L q a establishes that the eucoees of aey

insti tat ion largely depends on the qual.1 ty of leadem.

The naturo ~ leaderr-..Jlip is, hcmever, crea1i.l_v

influenced by aGo, caste, rel.1g1cm, ocou,pat1 CD, inoome,

educatian and PBrV a:ff111ation of 1he m.erl>ers. t.U

these oritcrin not only he1p in the :fonnW.oticn at

attitudes and perceptions but a:Loo influence the

behavioural pattern of 'the membero. As Parry BE\YS, 11 It

is a popul.ar asew:JPtian of political enoiol.OCY that social

baakgrOW'ltl and upbringing of a decisicm..maker will

1nfluenoe hie attitudes and pol1tios." 38 The atu(\V the cmamineelgeneml ae~t1cm tbat the bulk al "the

poll tiool. deoie ion-makers 1s drawn from tbe tUJper oastee

of society, because they possess the necessary skill,

motivation and resources. The naj ar1v of 1he legl.el.atore

1n Hn2Yatla oome from the upper e ooial strata and are

'the eons af the soil. •. They are middl.o-agad persons w1'th

tolerably eood educatlonaJ. mckground. They knatv mcn-e

thnn tVJo leneueges and read more tlmn two ne\\Spapere.

52

Most of them have ag1i.oulture os their maJ.n ocou;paticm.

They have participated in state poll tioe 'IJd th pr.ior

experience at the local level.

Man1ndra K. Mohapatra' e stuay39 on Orissa

Logiel.etors ie an addition to the substantial findings

BlreAC\v d1eoueeed. It starts with an enquiry into ttle

kind of people who become MI.! £1. It seeks to answer a

ntmber of mlated queoti ons regarding their eooi Q.eoanom:l.o

origin, ohUdhood political ooc1al1zo~an, polltioal.

mo'd.vation and roJ.e perception. ,..ith a EWBtematio analyeie

of 'the lee1s1at1ve behaviour af B5 MLAs, this s"tncly

revecl.s derte.in remads:.Bbl.e patterns in the mckg::-o\.Uld

and perceptual data about the Oriaao Legi.sl.ators. First,

ths l.er;ialators 1n Orissa tem to haVe ell. t1at sooial.

or131Jl, somewhat like their counterparts in ather

poll tical aystem. (This also apv11es to :;c~ and STS

in the reseiVed oonat1tuenoiea.) Seoand, 1be 1eg1sltlt1ve

eoals or purvos1ve ra1.es at these leglslators genera1]3'

tma to be constituenoy-or.lented {s1milar to ather

political ayotems). ~s 1s revealed Ulrough oonu;srabl.e

3~ndra Kumar Mahapatra, "Orissa LagieJD.tors• l:'rof11e and Perceptions of Legislatoro in an Indian state", fpg· In~J~maJ. ~ J;!gllti~Gl e;~cn,ga, o1. '3' Jt -ept.' 1972, pp.99-32.

research findinGs. Third, 'the naj or1 v lack tral.nine

far 1t1a ro1e af l~makere w1 thout approprinte 1 ec;al.

and profeesioral el!C[Jorieme. This is in carked contrast

to the trends in ~estern lec1e1aturee (spec1a1J,y the

American) where ls\Wers make the me3 ar1ty.

ThG above e tudy tillW be taken as a follow..QD of

an article written qv tbe ru.thar previously.40 His

findings about Ortsaa politics l>rovide an opportuniv to

make a eub-oul.turol oanparia an of po1i tical eooiol.iooti on

aamc the lcgielatore. Far instance, 'the OOZI)lusion

emrcinc from this atu(lv seems to Slbstentiote the

:_;rovious f'indinlJ; thet pollt ioal sooia.JJ.zatt. on c m oocur

at almost ~ point, even in the case a£ volitioa1 eJ.i tee.

In ouch case, the reBton and nat caste, p~eya a s.iBniflcsnt

role in ear.Lier poll:tioel EJleia~izaUion. The intensity at

~rtmrlental po.U. ticizatian (mu.ab. bEflcmd Ule fem1J3',

e.g. ccmrnm:foetion media, exposure, urbanization eto.)

seems to matter.

Another etwly41 substantiates the findings af Ule

40r:r.x:. Uobapatra, "Pol.i ti on1 S ooializati on of Lecia1ators in arises", .ZQUrlPl ot 0 onstituti %f.' pnd l?arlJ,nrmr Studi,ee, Januar'J-Lla , l!Yll, pp. •

41Prabao na~an nout, "l)o1iticol. .Dcoioicm. Makers in ':eat Bengal.= A s "tltdy o:f 'i."l}leb­Sooi o-Politiool Oharactarietice", T~~ ~o11ticat Soienge Review, pp. 9.

54

invest1g&t1cms done 1n var1 oue states a£ Illdi.a 1:w

exploring and examining ti1s perscmal blokgrounds and

social oharaoterist1os of the polltioal leaders (like

1n w. ~gal). These leaders, according to tile author,

have previous poll tionl. e~erienoes in local. sal. f-.

cavernment, party organizatt ons and trade unions.

~dev Nando' a stuay42 of smial. and ooo~tiorsJ. baokgramd of the people who joined different cabinets

' '

between 1950 end 1974 1ndiDates that agnouJ.turl.ste 1n

the iirat phase ocoapied the pride of place. For this,

the beet GPle!Ption avail.abl.e l:\V the author pointe to

the rural-based agrioul. tural eo CllODW' af Orissa. The trade­

anion bookgramd is almost scarce, mEf{ be, becau.ae af

industrial. baokwardnea s of the state end the consequent

aooence of a militant praletar1at. Next to 1he

a¢oul. turists, the teachers (bath af sohoale and

ooll.egee) l'sve ooo®ied the maximum number af seats.

Tho lei'IY'ere and freedom fighters however enjqr an equel

representation. :su:t 1ater, during the ooal.1tion govemmmt

of 1~7l-72, 'there was a change 1n the order~ teachers and

lawyem exchanged their positions while agnoulturists

42sukadev Nanda, "~ooial. Background o:f CounoUs at Ministers 1n Or.lssa (1950-1974 )", PoUt1oQl. :oienoe Rev1a, 1980, pp.'30~'311.

55

oontinned their predanlname. The freedom..fi[;hters

declined in their number beoause of a diminishing

natioml fervor and an attendent unpopul.arl.ty of 'tho

o ~ress Party.

On the women in power pol1t1oe, a s1uctf by

rrekaah Chal'lder4'3 arrests our attention. 'l'he stud:~ obse:rves that 1he oonstituticmal and 1egsl. @l&%9ntees

have not ha1Ped Indian women get proporbicmato represen­

tati an in the Lok :;abha. The low represEiltatt on of women

in Lok ~obte has been attriba.ted mainly to Ule

tradi t1 mal.ly domestic nature of Indian women, their low

rate at 11teraoy, eoanom1o dePendence on menfolk, their

raluotanoe to contest tm election and the l<l'l peroa1tnge

1n profese1om 11ke l.aw and 3ournal1sm, whioh are

'b'aditional. ebannel.s for poll t1oal careers.

~t af tOO women members e1eoted to 'the Lak Sobl'a,

a t:!ljar1ty be1ong to 1he Oongl'ess Par"tN. They are middle­

aged women with eu&ll. families. They oCJ~E mmtly frot:l

url8n areas with ooJ.l.eee or Wliversity educaU.an. A

caj or.t. ty o:f' t heoe women mm:1bere have v1 sJ. ted foreign

ocnmtriee. Profession-wise, the l.argest number a£ women

members are aooiBl and pollt1oa1 woxkere. Members

belong:J!Jll to 1he Scheduled Oaetes and Scheduled Tribes

oonst1 tute eizeabl.e portion af tm tota1 members in the

f'1ve Lok ~abbas. Tb3 stu.ay al.so establishes that the

mj or1 ty of women membem o£ the Lok Sabha have tad some

pravi ous logisl.etive axperieooe at various l.evel.s. so the

~11cat1on that a omdidate hss to serve oome sort of

poU.t1ca1. apprenticeship before asp1ril?8 for the Ldk

~abha msnbCUJh1P holds good. The reapondents do not have

experience in villege-l.evel pol.i tics. Her study differs

in the sense that he:i" re~ondernts did not have arJY

obataol.e l:U not bc:iloneing to tm mral sector an4 Bl.so

nat having mnoh of previous political ezperienoe.

In gmeral, ava1lable llteretu.re 1n 'the state em

women 1n pol1 t1os is far from adequate, bar aug a few

1ndldental bocks written 1n Or1ya and EnglSsh 'that cover

tho pre-independence period. ILK. *lstab 1n his boak44

touches the freedom movement 1n Od.sea against a

historloal perspective. Nat a proper e1n<\V on ansr af

women's 1.ssuee, the book cites a few names a£ active

44 H.K.Uinhatab, Ilietcmr ot;'reedQJll Mgyemellt in 9.r:l.sea. , Cut taok, 195 •

57

women 1n 1he f'reedom struggle. S1mllarl.v there are sCJ:l.e

other books45 lzy' different authors, nat vefY !"elavant

to our etuc\v. A cood number az journals avail.eble in

Orissa are fldi ted ltv wcmmn, but nat uoefUJ. for oar

purpooe, in the eense that thoy do not publish Brtl.o1es

on wanen in poll:ios.

'l:he three bl'OBdly diVided categories af silld1es

mantianed above on the m:nnan•s :-o1e, nature em 'WPe af

participation in polltics, eXP1are various factors

afieoting womm'e J;Brtioi,pation in polltios throUBhout

the world. ihe theoretical tnd anpirioal studies 1n ID11a

and abroad cive us a sanarnl. im,preeed.on, at best reBBrding

the level a! woman • s perti Cit'ati an. But "tmy have failed

to project tho reali'W ezistlllg 1n dif:fermt regicma.

A gul.f a£ difference a:d.s'ts among regiom 1n other

oountrJ.ee as it does in Ind1a 1toelf. These differences

are too imi·ortant to be !.Bnared, oons1denne their rol.e

in o!'aping the nature ond level of' women' e partia:lpati an

1n pol1t1os. Oar etu.ay a1m9 to exp1ora the nattu-e and

lava"l. af v.omen' ~ part1cipat1an 1n Orissa polltios and

aloo to identify the fnoto:re rosponaibl.e for suoh a

poor ::representation. The following chapter will be

dav CJted to en exam1.nat1an of the demoeraph1o ocmdi t1 an

of' tho etete nlonc rl.th r.m uPtodate ru.new oi' the

pae1tian of wot:1en 1n state polltioe.