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A QUANTITATIVE STUDY OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN DEMOGRAPHIC

CHARACTERISTICS, PERSONALITY, AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PERSONNEL IN HO CHI MINH CITY, VIETNAM

by

Heidi Nguyen

GREGORY GULL, PhD, Faculty Mentor and Chair

VIRGINIA HINRICHS, PhD, Committee Member

KEITH JOHANSEN, PhD, Committee Member

William A. Reed, PhD, Dean, School of Business and Technology

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University

August 2012

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© Heidi Nguyen, 2012

Abstract

The shortage of high-skilled labor has become a challenge for multinational

corporations (MNCs) conducting business in emerging market countries. To address this

issue, MNCs have searched for effective ways to attract and retain talented individuals.

Job satisfaction was identified as a potential factor that influences the employee’s

turnover decision. Therefore, this quantitative study sought to verify the relationship

between demographic variables and job satisfaction as well as between personality traits

and job satisfaction. The current study was based on the two-factor theory developed by

Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959), which aims to explain the job satisfaction

and dissatisfaction using two factors: intrinsic/motivator and extrinsic/hygiene.

Data were collected from a random sample of 166 participants who are working

for information technology MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. The study utilized the

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire to measure job satisfaction and the Ten Item

Personality Inventory to assess personality traits. Correlation analysis and multiple

regression analysis were employed to analyze the collected data, and the significant level

was set at 0.05. The findings revealed no significant relationships existed between all

aspects of job satisfaction (overall, extrinsic, and intrinsic) and the two variables

(demographic characteristics and personality traits), except for a significant relationship

between job status and intrinsic satisfaction. The study results also indicated no support

for the Herzberg et al.’s (1959) theory.

iii

Dedication

I dedicate this dissertation to the two special women in my life. My late mother,

Hoàng Thị Yến (1934-2010), was my shining example of compassion, perseverance, and

personal sacrifices. My mother-in-law, Frau Doktor Helene Bruscha, has been my

inspiration to pursue the doctorate degree.

I also dedicate this dissertation to my father, Nguyễn Danh, who has taught me

the importance of education and instilled in me the desire to attain higher education. I

must also thank my loving sister, Amy Kenney, who has been my best cheerleader

through not only the process of graduate school, but also my entire life.

Finally, I dedicate this work to my wonderful husband, Bernhard Bruscha. I

could not have completed this journey without his steadfast support, intelligent inputs,

and great sense of humor. Thank you for your encouragement, understanding, and

unwavering love.

iv

Acknowledgments

This dissertation would not have been possible without the continuous support of

my ideal dissertation committee.

First and foremost, I would like to thank my esteemed dissertation mentor, Dr.

Gregory Gull, for his expertise, guidance, patience, and availability. His mentorship was

paramount and crucial to the completion of my dissertation.

I would also like to express my deepest gratitude to my respected dissertation

committee members, Dr. Virginia Hinrichs and Dr. Keith Johansen, for their valuable

contribution. Their insightful comments were absolutely necessary for my research and

greatly appreciated.

v

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………….iv

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………..…..viii

List of Figures………………………………………………………….…………….x

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1

Introduction to the Problem ......................................................................................... 1

Background of Study ................................................................................................... 5

Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................... 16

Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................. 18

Rationale .................................................................................................................... 19

Research Questions ................................................................................................... 20

Significance of the Study .......................................................................................... 21

Definition of Terms ................................................................................................... 22

Assumptions and Limitations .................................................................................... 22

Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................. 23

Organization of the Remainder of the Study ............................................................. 25

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 26

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 26

Job Satisfaction .......................................................................................................... 26

Personality Traits ....................................................................................................... 44

Demographic Characteristics .................................................................................... 60

Cross-cultural Studies on Job Satisfaction ................................................................ 72

Summary of Literature Review ................................................................................. 80

vi

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 82

Introduction ............................................................................................................... 82

Research Design ........................................................................................................ 82

Population/Sample ..................................................................................................... 86

Instruments/Measurers .............................................................................................. 89

Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 99

Data Analysis .......................................................................................................... 103

Validity and Reliability ........................................................................................... 107

Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................. 108

Summary ................................................................................................................. 109

CHAPTER 4. RESULTS ............................................................................................... 110

Introduction ............................................................................................................. 110

Description of the Sample ....................................................................................... 111

Summary of Results ................................................................................................ 114

Details of Analysis and Results ............................................................................... 116

Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 135

CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS ................ 138

Introduction ............................................................................................................. 138

Summary of the Results .......................................................................................... 139

Discussion of the Results ........................................................................................ 142

Discussion of the Conclusions ................................................................................ 147

Limitations of the Study .......................................................................................... 157

Recommendations for Further Study ...................................................................... 159

vii

Summary ................................................................................................................. 160

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 163

APPENDIX A. SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE…….……. ............................................ 181

APPENDIX B. X-Y PLOTS …….……. ......................................................................... 185

viii

List of Tables

Table 1. Trend of FDI Inflows from 1988 to 2011 ........................................................... 10

Table 2. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory .......................................................................... 31

Table 3. Summary of Research Related to Job Satisfaction Effects ................................. 43

Table 4. Summary of Job Satisfaction Research Related to Personality Traits………….59

Table 5. Summary of Job Satisfaction Research Related to Personal Characteristics ...... 70

Table 6. Summary of Job Satisfaction Research in the International Contexts………….79

Table 7. Input and Output Parameters for A-priori Power Analysis ................................ 88

Table 8. Data Collected Planning Chart ......................................................................... 101

Table 9. Variables of Interest .......................................................................................... 107

Table 10. Descriptive for Demographic Variables ........................................................113

Table 11. Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test on Personality Trait Variables ...........................117

Table 12. Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test on Satisfaction Variables ...................................118

Table 13. Reliability Analysis of Constructs .................................................................121

Table 14. Spearman’s Correlation Analysis on Overall Satisfaction

and Demographic Characteristics ..................................................................123

Table 15. Spearman’s Correlation Analysis on Extrinsic Satisfaction


Table 16. Spearman’s Correlation Analysis on Intrinsic Satisfaction


Table 17. Pearson’s Correlation Analysis on Overall Satisfaction

and Normally-Distributed Personality Trait Variables ..................................127

Table 18. Spearman’s Correlation Analysis on Overall Satisfaction

and Non-normally-Distributed Personality Trait Variables ...........................127

ix

Table 19. Pearson’s Correlation Analysis on Extrinsic Satisfaction


Table 20. Spearman’s Correlation Analysis on Extrinsic Satisfaction


Table 21. Pearson’s Correlation Analysis on Intrinsic Satisfaction


Table 22. Spearman’s Correlation Analysis on Intrinsic Satisfaction


Table 23. Linear Regression Analysis for Overall Satisfaction .....................................132

Table 24. Linear Regression Analysis for Extrinsic Satisfaction .................................133

Table 25. Linear Regression Analysis for Intrinsic Satisfaction ...................................134

x

List of Figures

Figure 1. Focus of Analysis ..............................................................................................19

Figure 2. The theoretical framework of the study............................................................ 24

Figure 3. The Two-Factor Theory’s Argument ............................................................... 33

Figure 4. Observed versus Predicted Plot for Extrinsic Satisfaction .............................119

Figure 5. Observed versus Predicted Plot for Intrinsic Satisfaction ..............................120

Figure 6. Observed versus Predicted Plot for Overall Satisfaction ...............................120

1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Introduction to the Problem

In order to stay competitive in a global market, multinational corporations

(MNCs) invest in overseas operations, especially in emerging markets. Along with other

factors, low labor cost and the availability of labor force in the host country have been

identified as two significant determinants of foreign direct investment (Noorbakhsh,

Paloni, & Youssef, 2001; Zhang, 2001). In their study, Boonlua and Suwan-Natada

(2011) confirmed that human variables, such as education level and low cost labor, are

the most important factors that attract foreign investment inflows from the United States

and Japan into Thailand. Similarly, Ranjan and Agrawal (2011) suggested that low labor

cost is one of potential reasons that foreigners invest in Brazil, Russia, India, and China.

In the long-term, the growing demand of skilled labor would lead to an increase in labor

costs, which would subsequently diminish the advantage of low wage labor (Pissarides,

1997). This issue may offset the cost-saving that companies initially look for when

investing in other countries. Having a competent and productive workforce may help

solve this problem; therefore, MNCs in developing countries have been searching for

ways to improve their hiring and retaining policies.

To employ an appropriate employee, considering both cost and skills, MNCs

often compete directly with domestic companies. For example, foreign-owned

companies in China offer higher salary and provide a better working environment as

opposed to state-owned Chinese enterprises to attract skilled labor and retain their quality

employees (Bartram, Stanton, & Thomas, 2009). The shortage of skilled labor also leads

2

to poaching employees, in which employees are enticed to transfer to another company

from their current employers (Dessler, 2006). In essence, the ongoing labor shortage

poses a quandary for MNCs in emerging markets. It also means their success in

acquiring qualified human asset depends on how effective they are in recruiting and

maintaining key employees.

The continuing struggle of MNCs in hiring talented individuals and preventing

turnover in the host country emphasizes the importance of employee satisfaction in the

workplace because satisfaction is deemed as a moral factor that affects employees’

commitment and retention. Empirical evidence revealed that job satisfaction has long

been associated with turnover intention of employees (Mobley, 1977; Poon, 2004; Price,

2001). The results of Smyth, Zhai, and Li’s (2009) study showed that demographic

characteristics, job characteristics, and job satisfaction influenced employees’ decision to

leave their companies. In addition, the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards on

employee satisfaction and turnover behavior have been regularly examined (Bodla &

Naeem, 2010; Dave, Dotson, Cazier, Chawla, & Badgett, 2011; Obaid, Khan, & Saeed,

2011). Overall, these existing studies offer a new perspective on assessing job

satisfaction and turnover intention in a global market context. Understanding factors that

contribute to employee satisfaction or dissatisfaction is crucial because managers in

MNCs can consider this information to successfully hire and retain professional

employees in developing countries.

Despite the recent global financial crisis, foreign investors continue to invest in

Vietnam. This trend indicates that demand for both unskilled and skilled labors is

increasing in Vietnam, especially in Ho Chi Minh City. As Truong, van der Heijden, and

3

Rowley (2010) pointed out, the current labor force in Vietnam consists mainly of manual

workers combined with a serious deficiency of skilled employees. This fact implies that

the demand of unskilled labor is easy to meet; however, this is not the case for high-

skilled employees. Many foreign companies struggle to fill technical and management

positions in their Vietnam subsidiaries because of the difficulty in finding sufficient

technical and business trainings among Vietnamese graduates or in attracting expatriate

employees (“Finding Talent in Vietnam”, 2009). A shortage of high-skilled labor in the

services industry, especially in engineering and management, has been reported

(“Building a High-skilled Economy,” 2011; Truong, van der Heijden, & Rowley, 2010).

The lack of skilled professionals and the increasing employee turnover have become a

challenge for human resource managers of MNCs conducting business in Vietnam.

Therefore, knowledge regarding satisfaction factors that affect employees’ decision to

accept a job and stay with the company should help the management of MNCs deal more

effectively with the labor shortage in Vietnam.

The significant growth of the Vietnamese economy has generated a huge interest

in researchers, investigating the trends and patterns of foreign investments in Vietnam

(Brooks & Hill, 2004; Mirza & Giroud, 2004; Vo & Nguyen, 2009) as well as the effect

of these investments on the country (Anwar & Nguyen, 2010; Menon, 2009; Vo &

Nguyen, 2009). Although these studies have provided a better understanding of the

Vietnamese economy in an international business context, there is no research available

regarding the satisfaction levels of local and expatriate employees working at a foreign-

owned company. Because Vietnam is still a developing country, extrinsic rewards such

as salary or working condition may be significant to Vietnamese employees compared to

4

employees in more developed countries. In fact, Manning (2010) asserted that higher

salary attracted higher quality and motivated employees in Vietnam. Expatriate

employees from developed countries, on the other hand, might consider other factors

such as job characteristics or recognition within their working environments. Since the

influx of foreign investments, Vietnamese employees have also become more aware of

their rights and marketability of their skill; hence, their job attitude and expectations

might be changing. For these reasons, the need to investigate the job satisfaction levels

of expatriate and Vietnamese employees is important. The results of the current study

contribute to the job satisfaction literature by offering insights in relation to the job

satisfaction of high-skilled employees in an emerging market economy.

In summary, one of the challenges that MNCs conducting business in developing

countries face is the shortage of certain skilled professionals, including information

technology experts, computer science specialists, and managers. This labor shortage

leads to fierce competition among domestic and foreign-owned companies in emerging

market countries for competent employees. Whereas job satisfaction has been recognized

as a good predictor of organizational effectiveness, existing studies have focused mainly

on the issues influencing expatriate effectiveness. For example, researchers have

conducted studies to investigate the work adjustment of expatriates (Harrison, Shaffer, &

Bhaskar-Shrinivas, 2004) or the adaptation of expatriate managers to the host country

environment (Caligiure & Di Santo, 2001; Lee, 2007). Essentially, the job satisfaction of

both expatriate and domestic employees working for foreign-owned companies in

developing countries has been relatively under-researched. In response, the current study

examined the correlation between the demographic characteristics, personality traits, and

5

job satisfaction among the Vietnamese and expatriate professionals working for

information technology MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City. The study was based on the two-

factor theory of Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959) and the five-factor model of

Costa and McCrae (1985). The findings of this study should assist managers of MNCs in

Vietnam with their recruitment and retention policies.

The remainder of this chapter is organized in the following order. The first part

describes the background of the current study focusing on the activities and impacts of

foreign investment in developing countries, particularly in Vietnam. The second part

presents the statement of problem, purpose of the study, the rationale, and significance of

the study to elucidate the reasons for conducting a research in Ho Chi Minh City,

Vietnam. The third part states the research questions as well as assumptions and

limitations of the current study. The final part portrays the theoretical framework, which

explains how this study was conducted.

Background of Study

Foreign Investments in Developing Countries

As suggested by Porter (1990), a skilled, flexible, and well-educated workforce

has a significant impact on the competitive edge of an economy. In developing countries

that receive a large number of foreign investments, this kind of workforce is difficult to

acquire due to the lack of quality training and the increasing demand of skilled labor.

Vietnam is a good illustration. A report from ManpowerGroup indicated that the skill of

the labor force in Vietnam was rated as fair or poor, and the shortage of skilled

6

employees in this country was considered far more serious than other prominent

developing countries, such as China and India (“Building a High-skilled Economy,”

2011). In practice, MNCs in developing countries continue to search for an optimal

approach to obtain a quality workforce. This quest has prompted global human resource

managers and scholars to determine how MNCs can find new talents and enhance the

organizational commitment of the current employees.

In an attempt to examine factors that influence employee satisfaction, researchers

have relied on established theories of job satisfaction. One of the most prominent

theories that have been widely referenced in the management literature is the two-factor

theory (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). In this theory, Herzberg et al. (1959)

identified two types of factors that affect job satisfaction: motivator/intrinsic factors and

hygiene/extrinsic factors. The two-factor theory is relevant to the purpose of this study,

which investigated how demographic characteristics and personality traits related to all

aspects of job satisfaction: overall, extrinsic, and intrinsic. By considering all three

categories of job satisfaction, the results of the current study provided a comprehensive

understanding of the relationships between these variables.

Furthermore, the current study relied on the five-factor personality traits model

(Costa & McCrae, 1985), also known as the Big Five, a theory that examines which

personality traits are predictive of job satisfaction. The five-factor model describes the

essential factors of personality: extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness,

conscientiousness, and openness to experience as basic dimensions of an individual’s

character. Over the last 20 years, researchers and personality theorists have shown a

considerable interest in the influences of personal differences on job performance and job

7

satisfaction (Barrick & Mount, 1991; Franek & Vecera, 2008; Judge, Heller, & Mount,

2002; Matzler & Renzl, 2007). The findings of their research, though inconclusive,

revealed that personality traits account for a significant proportion of employee

satisfaction whether in terms of overall job satisfaction or across of job satisfaction

facets. Moreover, empirical evidence has suggested that personal characteristics such as

age, gender, job tenure, education level, or nationality influenced employee satisfaction

(Bender & Heywood, 2006; Elamin, 2011; Furnham, Eracleous, & Chamorro-Premuzic,

2009; Randolph, 2005). Since the surge of globalization in 1990s, MNCs have

encountered a high turnover rate among expatriates and domestic employees, which

increased the cost of conducting business overseas. This problem leads to the renewed

interest on the subject of employee satisfaction. The knowledge of which factors may

influence employee satisfaction would help managers effectively retain key employees.

Foreign Investments in Vietnam

After the economic reform in 1986, the Vietnamese government has recognized

the importance of foreign direct investments to the country’s economic growth. As a

result, the law on investments was introduced and has been amended several times

adapting to the new experiences of a market economy in order to attract foreign

investments. These reforms provided opportunities for Vietnamese enterprises to emerge

as competitors in the regional and world economy, likewise, for foreign companies to

invest in Vietnam (Tran, 2009; Vo & Nguyen, 2009). It is this researcher’s intent to

analyze the trends and patterns of foreign investments in Vietnam in light of the reform

policies and to present the impacts of these investments on the country’s economy.

8

Moreover, the underlying causes and solutions of labor shortage are also discussed. The

analysis should prove relevant and timely for foreign companies investing in Vietnam.

Trends of foreign investment inflows in Vietnam. Although Vietnam is

considered successful in attaining foreign investment inflows, the implementation process

has not always been smooth. At the beginning, from 1990 to 1997, Vietnam was very

successful in receiving foreign investments. The number of foreign investments to

Vietnam during this period, as a percentage of gross national product, was the second

highest in the world (Freeman, 2004). In a 2008 study, Quang Tran confirmed that four

years after the reform, foreign investors started investing in the country. Nevertheless,

the foreign investment inflows were small due to the volatility of the country’s economy

as well as the effects of many existing restrictions from the investment law. In his

following study, Tran (2009) further noted that the amendments to the investment law in

1992 and 1996, which lessened the discrimination against foreign-owned enterprises in

comparison with joint ventures and promoted export production, contributed to the

significant increase in the foreign investment inflows . Additionally, the accession of

Vietnam to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and the removal of the United

States investment embargo have drastically increased the number of foreign investments

into the country. In line with Tran’s (2009) observations, Mirza and Giroud (2004)

asserted that Vietnam attracted more foreign investments than other emerging economic

countries in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations during this period. The rise in

foreign investments suggested that the revision of the investment law played a crucial

role in attracting more investments into Vietnam. However, the foreign investment influx

took another turn in subsequent years.

9

From 1998 to 2008, the number of foreign investments in Vietnam fluctuated for

several reasons. The financial crisis in Asia in 1997 and 1998 was the reason for foreign

investors to be more cautious in their investment behaviors (Brooks & Hill, 2004). This

predicament has greatly affected Vietnam, in which the foreign investment inflows

slowed down until 2000. Next, the bilateral trade agreement between the U.S. and

Vietnam in 2001 has caused a modest increase in foreign investments (Tran, 2009).

Although not impressive, this trend started to recover from 2001 to 2005. In the next

period of 2006 to 2008, Vietnam experienced an unexpected growth in foreign

investments due to the introduction of new investment law and the commitment of

Vietnam to the World Trade Organization (Tran, 2009; Vo & Nguyen, 2009). Despite

the recent surge, the ratio of realized foreign investments over registered investments

reduced significantly compared to the average ratio from 1988 to 2007 (Tran, 2009).

Reasons for the decrease in foreign project implementation include delay in some major

projects, weakness in infrastructure, lack of trained employees, and effects of the global

financial crisis in 2008 (Pincus, 2009; Tran, 2009).

The continued growth in foreign investments indicated that the recent global

financial crisis in 2008 did not affect Vietnam as much as it did to the neighboring

countries. The data from Foreign Investment Agency as of June 2011 revealed that

foreign investments in Vietnam have slowly recovered and increased more than 50%

compared to the previous year, especially in sectors such as manufacturing, real estate

business, construction, and accommodation services (“Ministry of Planning,” 2011). In

addition, ManpowerGroup suggested that the economy of Vietnam will remain strong in

the next two decades, which might result in higher demand for skilled labor (“Building a

10

High-skilled Economy,” 2011). This demand might worsen the labor shortage problem

since the demand for high-skilled labor has been difficult to satisfy due to the lack of

training and a serious deficiency of skilled employees (Truong et al., 2010). Table 1

describes the trend of foreign investment inflows and the major factors that affected this

trend from 1988 to 2011.

Table 1. Trend of Foreign Investment Inflows from 1988 to 2011

Periods Level Factors affect FDI inflows

1988-1991

Weak

Internal instability of Vietnam economy and

restrictions of investment law

1992-1997

High

Revisions to investment law in 1992 and 1996,

accession to the Association of Southeast Asian

Nations, lift of the U.S. investment embargo

1998-2000

Significantly

low

Financial crisis in Asia

2001-2005

Slowly

recovered

Financial stability in Asia regained, bilateral trade

agreement with the U.S.

2006-2008

Suddenly

increase

New investment law passed in 2005, accession to

World Trade Organization in 2007

2009-2011

Slowly

recovered

Global financial crisis

Sources: Brooks & Hill, 2004; “Ministry of Planning”, 2011; Pincus, 2009; Tran, 2008,

2009; Vo & Nguyen, 2009.

Overall, the trend of foreign investment inflows suggests that MNCs maintain a

great interest in the emerging economy of Vietnam. The reforms of the investment law

have considerably influenced the investors’ decision to invest in the country. As a result,

the number of foreign investments in Vietnam is still significant compared to other Asian

11

countries despite some issues such as lack of skilled employees or poor infrastructure. In

fact, the volume of registered foreign investments has increased in recent years although

it has slowed down due to the global financial crisis. However, it is worth noting that if

Vietnam fails to meet the high demand of skilled employees, the country could risk

losing potential investors.

Patterns of foreign investment inflows in Vietnam. The analysis of the foreign

investment movement above indicates that Vietnam is still a promising market for

MNCs. A review into the patterns of these investments illustrates the reasons for

investing in Vietnam and explains the cause of increasing in demand for high-skilled

employees in certain regions. Specifically, this section discusses the source of countries

investing in Vietnam, the motivation of these investors, and the allocation of foreign

investments among regions.

Source countries investing in Vietnam. By the end of 1994, seven Asian

countries were among the top ten investors in Vietnam with major investments from the

“four tigers” in Asia: Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and South Korea (Dollar, 1996).

Besides these four major investors, Japan, The British Virgin Islands, Malaysia, the

United States, The Netherlands, and France were included to the top ten list as of 2007

(Nguyen & Yuqing, 2008; Tran, 2009). Currently, Taiwan, Singapore, and South Korea

continue to be the three largest investors in Vietnam (“Ministry of Planning”, 2011). The

competitive position of Vietnam within the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and

Asia as a whole explains the consistent interest of some Asian countries to invest in

Vietnam. In addition to the lower-wage labor, foreign investors prefer Vietnam to other

Asian countries due to its large population, political stability, and diversified industrial

12

base (“Building a High-skilled Economy,” 2011; Mirza & Giroud, 2004). This also

means that market-seeking is a motivation for foreign investors in Vietnam.

Motivation of foreign investors. The foreign investors in Vietnam concentrate on

market-seeking rather than efficiency-seeking. Efficiency-seeking investors focus on

using cost-effective local factors such as low labor cost, good infrastructure, and regional

penetration to service regional and global markets. On the other hand, market-seeking

investors aim at gaining local market share; therefore, the country’s growth rate and

market size are important to this type of investors. In their study, Mirza et al. (2003)

reported that only 14% of the reasons for investing in Vietnam were regarded as

efficiency- seeking, whereas 45% of those were market-seeking. This data proved that

foreign investors are interested in Vietnam for its potential consumption power rather

than its labor source. Moreover, the type of activities of foreign investments in Vietnam

consists of mainly labor-intensive operations such as manufacturing, construction, and

services (Brooks & Hill, 2004; Mirza & Giroud, 2004). However, Tran (2009) suggested

that the pattern has recently changed from manufacturing toward infrastructure

development because of the increase in the number of projects. In general, market size

and low labor cost seem to be significant determinants for investing in Vietnam.

Regional allocation of foreign investments. The regional allocation of foreign

investments influences the economic growth of each region. Therefore, it is important to

recognize that the unequal distribution among regions leads to the differences in the

development of regional economic in Vietnam. According to Pham (2002), the regional

allocation depended on the differences between the development and condition of the

regions’ infrastructure. For example, the Southeast and Red River Delta regions received

13

a larger number of foreign investments with the highest number belonged to Ho Chi

Minh City, whereas the North and Central regions received a lesser amount (Anwar &

Nguyen, 2009; “Ministry of Planning”, 2011; Pham, 2002). In other words, foreign

investors tend to put more capital in the better developed regions. As a result, the

impacts of foreign investment inflows on regional economic developments vary between

regions. The implication of the uneven allocation of foreign investments among regions

is the high demand for both skilled and unskilled labor in the most invested cities. Thus,

it is relevant to conduct a study obtaining data from MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City.

Impact of foreign investments. The following discusses the impact of foreign

investments on the economy of Vietnam focusing on the economic growth and economic

stability of the country. In addition, the high-skilled labor shortage is addressed to

illustrate the inherent problem that MNCs encounter in Vietnam.

Economic growth. Foreign investments have significantly contributed to the

economic growth of Vietnam. The most obvious contribution involves the expansion of

export and production. As foreigners invest in Vietnam, they provide the country with

opportunities to enter foreign markets, which then leads to the rise in the export growth

rate. Studies demonstrated that the export growth occurred in key industries such as

footwear, garments and textiles, and electronics and electrical supplies (Menon, 2009,

Mirza & Giroud, 2004, Nguyen & Xing, 2006). Similarly, Brooks and Hill (2004)

confirmed that Vietnam had the highest growth in export values compared to other

Association of Southeast Asian Nations economies, specifically in the processed food and

textile sectors. These sectors are Vietnam’s core competencies in production.

14

In addition, the foreign investments have triggered the increase in overall

productivity growth of Vietnam. The results of Anwar and Nguyen’s (2010) research

revealed a rise in the industrial capital stock as well as the raised output in terms of the

value of goods produced by an average worker. This also means the strong supply of

capital has enabled Vietnam to produce more besides being efficient in production.

Moreover, the benefit from the knowledge spillovers, which improves the performance of

domestic firms, contributes to the productivity growth (Meyer, 2004). To support this

assessment, Meyer (2004) explained that when the employees from foreign companies

move to domestic firms, they bring with them the knowledge that benefits these domestic

firms. Anticipating these benefits, domestic companies are motivated to entice

employees from foreign companies. Consequently, MNCs in Vietnam are pressured in

encouraging their employees to stay.

Economic stability. As Vietnam becomes more integrated into the regional and

global economies, the country may also be more exposed to macroeconomic instability,

such as external shock. For example, the recent global financial crisis and the increase in

oil and rice prices have greatly affected the economy of Vietnam (Vo & Nguyen, 2009).

In addition, the massive surge in foreign capital inflows created inflation, a critical

problem for the country. The exceptional rise in foreign investment inflows in 2007 is a

case in point. The stream of foreign investments caught the Vietnamese policy makers

by surprise; therefore, their attempt to control money supply was ineffective, resulting in

worse inflation (Vo & Nguyen, 2009). Reviewing the last two decades of economic

growth and development in Vietnam since the economy reform in 1986, Leung (2010)

arrived to similar conclusions and suggested that continuing international integration

15

would bring substantial benefits to Vietnam’s economy. However, Leung also noted that

the numbers of qualified and experienced staff needed to achieve this goal could be

relatively few in Vietnam, indicating the shortage of high-skilled labor.

Shortage of high-skilled labor. The lack of talented employees has been a

common challenge for foreign companies in developing countries (Farrell & Grant, 2005;

Gilmore, O’Donnell, Carson, & Cummins, 2003), and Vietnam is not different. The

labor shortage in Vietnam is a result of several distinguishing characteristics of the

country’s workforce and the imbalance between demand and supply of quality labor

among industries and regions. The current labor market in Vietnam contains an

abundance of manual workers combined with a serious deficiency of skilled workers

(PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2008; Truong, et al., 2010). The lack of professional training

exacerbates the shortage of skilled labor in service sectors, particularly in engineering or

managerial positions (“Building a High-skilled Economy,” 2011; Truong et al., 2010). A

2008 Vietnam business annual report revealed that the recruitment of high-skilled

employees, especially for competent managers, was more difficult than the recruitment of

unskilled employees (VCCI, 2009). The report also revealed that foreign-owned

companies have better capacities in retaining talented employees in comparison to local

companies. In general, the limited qualification of the Vietnamese labor is a challenge

for human resource managers of MNCs in Vietnam.

Due to the insufficient technical and business training among local employees,

MNCs have turned to expatriates to fill managerial positions in their subsidiaries (Ang,

van Dyne, & Begley, 2003). In the case of Vietnam, MNCs usually recruit foreign

professionals from countries investing in Vietnam or from countries in the region such as

16

Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, and Philippines (Hoang Anh, 2007;

PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2008). These companies also extensively look for talent from

Vietnamese overseas (“Finding Talent in Vietnam,” 2009; Gross, 2008; Tran, 2007).

Moreover, MNCs in Vietnam attract quality employees by offering higher salary and

providing better working conditions compared to state-owned and private companies.

However, an increase in salary also means higher cost in conducting business, which

subsequently will offset the primary purpose of foreign investors in Vietnam.

Summary

Vietnam has been pursuing the goal of promoting foreign investments by

modifying its investment policies to conform to international norms. The reforms of the

investment laws have achieved positive results, attracting numerous foreign investments

to the country. In addition, the low technology and labor-intensive sectors continue to be

the focus of foreign companies. The continued influx of foreign investments also

increased the demand for both skilled and unskilled labor in different regions at various

levels. Whereas the unskilled demand is relatively easy to fulfill, the demand for skilled

labor is more difficult to attain, especially in industries such as manufacturing and

services. As a result, a shortage of high-skilled labor in identified industries has become

a challenge for companies that are conducting business in Vietnam.

Statement of the Problem

The two-factor theory (Herzberg et al., 1959) and the five-factor model (Costa &

McCrae, 1985) have frequently been applied in job satisfaction research. Researchers of

17

seminal studies have found support for the two-factor theory, which proposes that job

satisfaction could be arranged into two distinct dimensions – intrinsic/motivator factors

and extrinsic/hygiene factors (Hirschfeld, 2000; Spector, 1997; Weiss, Davis, England &

Lofquist, 1967). In recent studies, researchers have also regularly studied the effects of

intrinsic and extrinsic rewards on employee satisfaction and their leaving behavior (Bodla

& Naeem, 2010; Dave et al., 2011; Obaid et al., 2011). Similarly, researchers have

sought to verify the influences of personality traits on job attitudes and job satisfaction

(Bender & Heywood, 2006; Franek & Vecera, 2008; Furnham et al., 2009; Furnham,

Petrides, Jackson, & Cotter, 2002; Furnham, Petrides, Tsaousis, Pappas, & Garrod,

2005). The relationship between job satisfaction and different demographic variables,

such as age, gender, education level, job status, and job tenure have also been examined

(Ahmed et al., 2010; Bender & Heywood, 2006; Eskildsen, Kristensen, & Henrik, 2010;

Franek & Vecera, 2008; Furnham et al., 2009). Despite inconsistent findings, these

studies demonstrate an increasing interest in research of personality and personal

characteristics in relation to job satisfaction.

Although a considerable amount of research on personality traits and personal

characteristics has existed in the job satisfaction literature, only few studies have been

conducted on the contribution of these factors to different aspects of job satisfaction as

defined by the two-factor theory (Judge et al., 2002). Among these limited studies are the

studies of Ahmed et al. (2010) and Furnham, Eracleous, and Chamorro-Premuzic (2009).

The findings of their research confirmed the significant effect of several personality traits

as well as demographic variables on job satisfaction facets. Therefore, additional study

18

seems warranted to examine the effects of these elements on the level of employee

satisfaction.

Research indicates that being unsatisfied with the job is one of the most common

reasons for employees leaving their workplace. Conducting research concerning this

phenomenon in the context of Vietnam, the current study offers useful information on

how demographic and personality trait variables correlate with job satisfaction of skilled

employees in developing countries. The findings of this study may help the human

resource manages of MNCs in developing countries improve their practices.

Purpose of the Study

This quantitative study focuses on the correlation among personality traits,

demographic characteristics, and the three categories of job satisfaction: overall, intrinsic,

and extrinsic factors of information technology (IT) professionals working for MNCs in

Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. The personality traits included five domains, known as the

Big Five, (a) extraversion, (b) agreeableness, (c) conscientiousness, (d) neuroticism, and

(e) openness to experience. The demographic characteristics consisted of five

dimensions (a) age, (b) gender, (c) job status, (d) education level, and (e) nationality.

Figure 1 describes the relationships among variables of the current study.

The purpose of this study is to provide the management of MNCs in Vietnam with

practical information to apply in addressing the skilled labor shortage. As presented, the

characteristics of the two-factor theory and the five-factor model are relevant to the topic

of the current study. The findings of this study offered a better understanding of the

extent to which these factors correlated to employee satisfaction. As a result, the

19

management of these MNCs should be able to develop effective hiring and retaining

policies. In addition, the two categories of intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction factors

should help managers and leaders to implement appropriate interventions that contribute

to long-term employee satisfaction.

Figure 1. Focus of Analysis

Rationale

The current study aims to fill two important gaps in the job satisfaction literature.

First, the study responded to the lack of research that examined the influences of the Big

Five personality traits on different models of motivation or satisfaction, such as the two-

factor theory as suggested by Judge, Heller, and Mount (2002). Second, the analysis of

the scarce research in this area has revealed mixed results. For instance, Furnham et al.'s

(2009) study found a positive relationship between job status as well as between

conscientiousness with all three job satisfaction categories: general, intrinsic, and

extrinsic. Ahmed et al. (2010), on the other hand, discovered a significant relationship

between intrinsic factors and job satisfaction, but no significant relationship existed

Demographic Characteristics

Age, Gender, Job Status, Nationality, Education

Personality Traits

Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness,

Agreeableness, Conscientiousness

Job Satisfaction

Overall, Intrinsic, Extrinsic

20

between extrinsic factors and job satisfaction. Building upon the study of Furnham et al.,

the current study seeks to verify the relationship between personality traits and personal

characteristics with different aspects of job satisfaction, enhancing the current body of

knowledge in job satisfaction literature. Moreover, considering the impact of intrinsic

and extrinsic satisfaction aspects, this study contributed to an overall understanding of the

role of job satisfaction in employee retention.

Additionally, conducting a study among MNCs in Vietnam adds to the limited job

satisfaction in the cross-culture context, especially in the emerging market countries.

Because the supply of skilled labor in the host country is less than its demand, MNCs

often hire expatriate employees to fill the positions (Ang, van Dyne, & Begley, 2003).

For that reason, it is important to determine which factors influence the satisfaction of

both local and expatriate employees. Including the nationality variable besides other

individual characteristics, the current study may reveal new information regarding the

differences in job satisfaction levels between domestic and expatriate employees.

Research Questions

In an attempt to discover the factors that relate to job satisfaction among

information technology (IT) professionals of MNCs in an emerging economy, the current

study focuses on two questions:

(1) What is the relationship between job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and

extrinsic factors) and demographic characteristics (age, gender, job status, education

level, and nationality) of IT personnel in MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam?

21

(2) What is the relationship between the job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and

extrinsic factors) and the personality trait variables (extraversion, agreeableness,

conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience) of IT personnel in MNCs in

Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam?

Significance of the Study

In light of the continued shortage of skilled labor in an emerging economy, the

current study contributes to both theory and practice. On the theoretical level, this study

enhances the understanding of job satisfaction among professionals working for MNCs in

developing countries. The results of this study bring a balance to the understudied

aspects mentioned above. On the practical level, the study results are beneficial to

decision makers in MNCs by identifying which factors are most valued to employee

satisfaction. Consequently, business leaders should be able to improve company policies

leaning towards an increase in job satisfaction and reduction in turnover for highly skilled

personnel. In other words, this research provides useful insights for the management of

foreign companies that are and will be doing business in Vietnam. The management of

these companies may apply this knowledge to attract and maintain the expatriate as well

as Vietnamese professionals that will lead to cost reduction and productivity

improvement. Therefore, this study has both theoretical and practical implications for

developing a better understanding of highly skilled employees in emerging markets.

22

Definition of Terms

Extrinsic job satisfaction refers to the emotional reaction of individuals toward

the content of the job, for example, salary, relationships with supervisors and co-workers,

or working environment.

High-skilled employees refer to employees who possess high expertise and

knowledge in their profession. In this current study, it specifies professionals working in

positions such as analyst, engineer, sales, and management in IT firms.

Intrinsic job satisfaction refers to the emotional reaction of individuals toward the

context of the job, for example, recognition, achievement, or job characteristics.

Multinational corporation is defined as an organization that has subsidiaries and

conducts business in multiple countries.

Overall job satisfaction is a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction.

Poaching occurs when a company tries to lure and hire away talented employees

of other companies by offering them better salary or rewards.

Assumptions and Limitations

Assumptions

The current study was conducted with three assumptions. First, the number of

participants was substantial for the findings to be meaningful and valid. Second, the

participants fully understood the questions and scales in the questionnaires that were used

in this study. Third, the sample of skilled employees in this study represented the

population of IT personnel working in foreign-owned companies in Vietnam.

23

Limitations

As any research, this study had several limitations. First, the participants of the

study were the IT professionals working for foreign-owned companies in Ho Chi Minh

City; thus, the results may not be generalized to another setting, company, or broader

populations. Second, the current research employed correlation analysis, in which an

evaluation for influence or cause and effect is not permitted; therefore, it is impossible to

verify whether the demographic characteristics or personality traits of the IT personnel

caused their job satisfaction. Third, because the effects of variables other than the ones

included in the study may directly influence job satisfaction, it is necessary to explore

other relevant factors further.

Theoretical Framework

This quantitative study focused on the factors affecting job satisfaction within

targeted employees from the skilled labor population. Specifically, the current study

employed a correlational design to assess the extent of which factors influenced the job

satisfaction facets in the high-skilled personnel. Data were gathered from participants

using two survey instruments. Figure 2 shows the conceptual framework of this study.

The research design incorporated one dependent variable job satisfaction and two

independent variables (personality traits and demographic characteristics). The job

satisfaction consisted of three facets: overall satisfaction, intrinsic satisfaction, and

extrinsic satisfaction. The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967) was

used to measure these three job satisfaction facets. The personality traits have five

domains: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness.

24

These traits were evaluated using the Ten Item Personality Inventory (Gosling, Rentfrow,

& Swann, 2003). The demographic characteristics contain five dimensions: age, gender,

job status, education level, and nationality. This information was collected via the survey

questionnaire.

Job satisfaction

Figure 2. The theoretical framework of the study

The theoretical framework applied in this current research was the two-factor

theory developed by Herzberg et al. (1959). The data obtained were used to answer the

two research questions above. If the relationship between job satisfaction variable and

personality traits or demographic variables exists, the Herzberg et al.’s theory is

supported. The evidence would help human resource managers understand what IT

professionals of MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City expected from their jobs, which then would

lead to appropriate decision-making to improve employee satisfaction and reduce


- Age - Gender

- Job status - Education

- Nationality

Overall satisfaction

Intrinsic satisfaction

Personality variables

- Neuroticism - Extraversion

- Openness - Agreeableness

- Conscientiousness

Extrinsic satisfaction

25

dissatisfaction. In addition, the results relating personal demographics and personality

should be beneficial in the hiring process of MNCs in developing countries.

Organization of the Remainder of the Study

The following four chapters present the remainder of the study. Chapter 2

reviews the literature of job satisfaction in terms of concept, theories, and relevant

studies. Chapter 3 explains the research design and describes how data were collected

and analyzed. Chapter 4 reports the results of testing the hypotheses of the current study.

Finally, Chapter 5 discusses the study results, addresses theoretical and practical

implications of the study, and provides recommendations for future studies.

26

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

The current study seeks to identify the relationship between job satisfaction and

personality traits as well as personal characteristics of information technology (IT)

professionals working in multinational corporations (MNCs) in Ho Chi Minh City,

Vietnam. The literature review is organized by the independent and dependent variables

of the study. The first section discusses the concept of job satisfaction, the two- factor

theory (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959), job satisfaction measurement, and the

effects of job satisfaction. The next section focuses on the concept of personality traits,

the five-factor personality model (Costa & McCrae, 1985), personality trait measurement,

and the related studies. The following section reviews job satisfaction studies that

connected to demographic characteristics as well as those in an international context.

Finally, a summary of the main points discussed in the literature concludes the chapter.

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction has received enormous attention in the management field

(Baotham, Hongkhuntod, & Rattanajun, 2010; Karatepe, Uludag, Menevis,

Hadzimehmedagic, & Baddar, 2006; Lacity, Iyer, & Rudramuniyaiah, 2008; Randolph,

2005; Tett and Meyer, 1993). Researchers have continued to investigate the antecedents

of job satisfaction and its effects, including organizational commitment and employee

turnover intention. Identifying these factors is important to organizational leaders around

the globe because it can potentially improve employee satisfaction, which will lead to

27

increasing employee performance and decreasing turnover intention. Before one can

actually understand the underlying relationships between job satisfaction and other

variables, the concept of job satisfaction and the two-factor theory should be discussed.

The Concept of Job Satisfaction

Definition of job satisfaction. Over the years, various definitions of job

satisfaction have been presented. Among the earlier definitions, the most cited one

originated from Locke (1969), which stated “job satisfaction is the pleasure emotional

state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job as achieving or facilitating the achievement

of one’s job values” (p. 316). Locke asserted that the evaluation of job satisfaction could

be determined by the have-want discrepancy that one regards of the job, the importance

of the job, and the interaction that one has with the job. The findings of Wu and Shujie

(2006) suggested that the level of satisfaction/dissatisfaction toward an item was

dependent on how one perceived the importance of the item, supporting Locke’s

assertion. In the more recent years, researchers and scholars have attempted to provide

different definitions of job satisfaction. For example, George and Jones (2008) described

job satisfaction as “the collection of feelings and beliefs that people have about their

current jobs. People’s levels or degrees of job satisfaction can range from extreme

satisfaction to extreme dissatisfaction” (p. 84). Robbins and Judge (2009) described job

satisfaction as “a positive feeling about one’s job resulting from an evaluation of its

characteristics” (p. 31). Although worded differently, these definitions refer to the

similar elements that involved satisfaction evaluation. The common factors are the

emotional reaction of an individual toward the job and the characteristics of the job itself.

28

Job satisfaction and motivation theories. For decades, organization

development theorists have tried to identify the conditions that generate motivated and

satisfied labor force. One of the most influential theories is Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy

of needs theory. In this theory, Maslow suggests that individual needs can be classified

in five categories from the lowest to highest order: physiological needs, security and

safety needs, social needs, self-esteem needs, and self-actualization. The theory is

constructed on the premise that the upper level needs could not be satisfied until the

lower level needs are first addressed. For example, once employees have satisfied their

physiological needs, such as hunger and thirst, they will try to obtain security needs, such

as shelter and protection. Similarly, when their employments are stable, employees tend

to seek for relationships to satisfy their need for emotional relationship. Eventually, they

will search ways of fulfilling the final goal of self-actualization. In essence, Maslow

argues that a need in the hierarchy becomes less significant to an individual once

satisfied, and the individual is motivated by the need at the next level up.

Similar to Maslow’s theory, the two-factor theory developed by Herzberg,

Mausner, and Snyderman (1959) emphasizes the specific factors that satisfy or motivate

employees. Herzberg et al. suggest that people are influenced by two factors –

intrinsic/motivators and extrinsic/hygiene factors. Particularly, intrinsic/motivators are

believed to be effective in motivating employees, whereas extrinsic/hygiene factors are

considered as the cause of dissatisfaction. Since the current study was based on this

theory, the next section discusses the theory in detail.

Different from Maslow (1943) and Herzberg et al. (1959), Vroom (1964) focuses

on the psychological forces rather than the specific factors in determining the motivation

29

level of an individual. Vroom’s expectancy theory suggests that the perception of a

relationship between effort and reward is important to job motivation. According Vroom,

motivation is the outcome of three factors: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.

This motivation can be determined by a formula: Motivation = Expectancy x

Instrumentality x Valence (Vroom, 1964). Expectancy refers to the individual’s

perception of the likelihood that the task is accomplished. Instrumentality involves the

feeling that achievement of the task will be helpful in getting an individual a better

outcome or reward. Valence implies that rewards have different values to different

individuals due to the differences between individuals. In essence, Vroom advocates that

motivational force of a job can be calculated if the three mentioned values are known.

From the broad spectrum of possible variables within the aforementioned

theories, Hackman and Oldham (1976) designed the job characteristic model that

identifies the conditions under which employees will become motivated. Specifically,

the job characteristic model focuses on three aspects: the job characteristics, the

psychological states of employees, and the personal and work outcomes. The job

characteristics involve five major dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task

significance, autonomy, and task feedback. According to Hackman and Oldham, when

these main characteristics are substantial in a job, employees might experience different

psychological states, which then influence their motivation and satisfaction. Essentially,

the job characteristic model proposes that objective characteristics have great impact on

job satisfaction.

Overall, job satisfaction is considered as a collective multidimensional construct,

which is a combination of interrelated elements called facets (Law, Wong, & Mobley,

30

1998; Locke, 1969, 1976). In particular, researchers have suggested that job satisfaction

facets could be organized into two dimensions – intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction

(Hirschfeld, 2000; Spector, 1997; Weiss, Davis, England, & Lofquist, 1967). The two

dimensions reflect the two-factor theory of Herzberg et al. (1959), which proposes two

distinct lists of job satisfaction – motivator and hygiene factors. Empirical evidences

have specified the important factors that are significant to employees in terms of job

satisfaction, including working conditions, wage and benefits, promotion opportunities,

and relationship with supervisor and colleagues (Van, Emans, & Vliert, 2001; Witt &

Nye, 1992). However, Oshagbemi (2000, 2003) suggested that theories of job

satisfaction should consider the individual differences because the influence of personal

factors on job satisfaction has not been widely studied. Taking into account this research

gap, the current study considered personality traits and characteristics as well as all

aspects of job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic factors).

The Two-Factor Theory

Development of the two-factor theory. The two-factor theory (Herzberg et al.,

1959) served as the theoretical perspective of the current study. Built on the earlier

theories that suggested a correlation between job satisfaction and job performance

(Brayfield & Crockett, 1955; Lewin 1951; Mayo, 1933) and the hierarchical needs of

employees from their jobs (Maslow, 1943), Herzberg and colleagues (1959) sought

further to explain what factors have an effect on satisfaction in the workplace. In order to

identify the attitudes of individuals toward their jobs as well as the causes and

implications of these attitudes, Herzberg et al. asked 202 accountants and engineers to

31

describe their exceptionally positive and negative job experiences using the critical

incident method. The experiment revealed that the identified factors that contribute to

job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are distinct from each other and can be separated into

two dimensions: intrinsic/motivator and extrinsic/hygiene. The six intrinsic/motivators

are recognition, achievement, possibility of growth, advancement, responsibility, and job

characteristics, and the ten extrinsic/hygiene factors are salary, factors in personal life,

relations with supervisor, relations with subordinates, relations with peers, company

policy and administration, supervision-technical, working conditions, job status, and job

security. Table 2 summarizes the two groups of factors in Herzberg et al.’s theory.

Table 2. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Intrinsic/Motivator Factors Extrinsic/Hygiene Factors

(Job Satisfaction) (Job Dissatisfaction)

Recognition Salary

Achievement Factors in personal life

Possibility of growth Relations with supervisor

Advancement Relations with subordinates

Responsibility Relations with peers

Work itself Company policy and administration

Supervision - Technical

Working conditions

Job status

Job security

Note. Adapted from The Motivation to Work, by F. Herzberg, B. Mausner, and B. B.

Snyderman, 1959, New York: John Wiley, p. 44-50.

32

Herzberg et al. (1959) referred the motivators to the job context and the hygiene

factors to the job content, and both factors influence job satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

In particular, Herzberg et al. argued that motivating/intrinsic factors could generate

satisfaction and hygiene/extrinsic factors, although may not create satisfaction, could lead

to job dissatisfaction if not handled properly. Using the term “motivator”, Herzberg et al.

highlighted the fact that a majority of responses regarding positive experiences concerned

high levels of self-direction and productivity. This implies that from a manager’s

viewpoint, the employees in the satisfying situations appear to be motivated. Herzberg et

al. elucidated further that the presence of intrinsic/motivators would generate job

satisfaction, but their absence would not cause job dissatisfaction. Essentially, a neutral

state, which means neither satisfaction nor dissatisfaction exists, would arise when

factors intrinsic to the job are missing.

In contrast, the term “hygiene” referred to the unhealthy environment that resulted

in negative experiences at workplace (Herzberg et al., 1959). The theory indicated that

good hygiene factors, such as fair pay or policies, would prevent dissatisfaction although

did not provide longer effect of satisfaction. Specifically, Herzberg et al. (1959) argued

that certain extrinsic/hygiene factors, when present, could lead to the reduction or

elimination of job dissatisfaction, but would not automatically cause job satisfaction.

Conversely, the absence of factors extrinsic to the work could cause job dissatisfaction.

However, the theory also suggested that in those cases where motivator factors were

present and hygiene factors were absent, job dissatisfaction would occur. Figure 3

describes the two-factor theory’s argument.

33

Figure 3. The two-factor theory argument of Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959).

Overall, Herzberg et al. (1959) proposed that job satisfaction is not opposite but

rather separate from job dissatisfaction. To support this position, Herzberg (1987) later

explained that “the opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction but, rather, no job

satisfaction; and similarly, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction, but

no job satisfaction” (p. 4). In addition, the theory suggests that despite the potential of

causing great satisfaction, certain motivator factors if absent would not provoke

dissatisfaction. Likewise, the presence of certain hygiene factors would not lead to high

level of job satisfaction while absent would cause great dissatisfaction. This promising

development has been a great inspiration for many studies as well as a source for a

variety of criticism, which will be addressed in the following sections.

Strengths. The two-factor theory contributes positively to the knowledge of job

satisfaction in several ways. First, Herzberg et al. (1959) refuted the traditional view in

which satisfaction and dissatisfaction were perceived to exist on the opposite ends of the

same spectrum and treated as one dimension (Behling, Labovitz, & Kosmo, 1968). In

Dissatisfaction

Hygiene

Factors

Motivator

Factors Neutral Satisfaction

Neutral Dissatisfaction

Absent Present

Absent

Present

34

contrast, the two-factor theory proposes that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are

distinctive aspects rather than two values of the same dimension. The argument that not

being satisfied does not imply one is dissatisfied and not being dissatisfied does not mean

one is satisfied provides logical and valuable explanation for the dual structure of the

theory. By proposing the hygiene and motivator factors, Herzberg et al. have broadened

the scope of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

Second, the validity and reliability of the theory’s basic principles on job

motivation and satisfaction have been supported by a wide range of studies. For instance,

French, Metersky, Thaler, and Trexler (1973) tested the validity of the two-factor theory

using both written and oral procedures on the same group of participants. The results

obtained from 25 male system analysts and system engineers confirmed their assumption

that no difference existed between the oral and written data. This finding invalidated the

criticism of method dependence by Ewen (1964) or Vroom (1964); this particular critique

is discussed further in the criticism section.

Third, Herzberg et al.’s theory (1959) has inspired the advancement in

redesigning jobs that leads to the improvement of organizational effectiveness. For

example, Hackman and Oldham (1980) developed a job characteristic model based on

Herzberg et al.’s study. Their job characteristic model explains how the job intrinsic and

extrinsic factors affect employee motivation and satisfaction. This model suggests that

jobs that score high on skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and

feedback will lead to high satisfaction and performance. Similarly, Kopelman (1986)

entailed numerous experimental studies that revealed increases in quality of performance

35

applying the two-factor theory. In essence, the results of these studies have verified the

significance of hygiene and motivator factors and the validity of the theory.

Criticism. Despite the aforementioned strengths, prior researchers believed that

the two-factor theory has certain weaknesses (Caston & Braito, 1985; Dunnette, Campell,

& Hakel, 1967; Ewen, 1964; House & Wigdor, 1967; Vroom, 1964, 1966). One of the

most powerful critiques is related to the methodology of Herzberg et al.’s (1959)

research. Whereas the proponents of the theory maintained that the critical incident

method allowed the participants to answer open-ended questions with freedom, its

opponents argued that Herzberg and colleagues have depended too much on a subjective

research methodology to support the theory. To substantiate this opinion, Ewen (1964)

reasoned that it was easier to recall incidents related to promotions than those that did not

result in achievement; therefore, using the critical incident method alone would produce

biased results. This same criticism was found in the works of Vroom (1964, 1966).

Despite this negative assessment, none of the scholars was able to explain why this

method generated significantly consistent outcomes compared to the original results.

Next, the review of House and Wigdor (1967) suggested additional weaknesses of

the two-factor theory. House and Wigdor asserted that in the same sample, a given

element could contribute to both job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Subsequent studies

reported similar findings that the same factor could cause both satisfaction and

dissatisfaction for an individual, for instance, salary (Maidani, 1991; Oshagbemi, 1997;

Quarstein, McAfee, & Glassman, 1992). House and Wigdor also suggested that intrinsic

job factors in general played a more significant role on both job satisfaction and

dissatisfaction. Their conclusions were in line with Dunnette, Campell, and Hakel’s

36

(1967) findings, which proposed that the two-factor theory had oversimplified the

relationship of motivation and satisfaction as well as the causes of job satisfaction and

dissatisfaction. Basically, the researchers argued that satisfaction and dissatisfaction

factors were not distinct as Herzberg et al. (1959) categorized.

Another criticism involves the sample of Herzberg et al.’s (1959) study, which

consists of only 202 accountants and engineers. As a result of the small sample and

including only professionals, Caston and Braito (1985) raised the issue of generalization.

They criticized that the two-factor theory aimed at explaining job satisfaction rather than

work motivation and without measuring it. Apparently, their critique was not unfounded

as Herzberg (1966) did acknowledge the concerns regarding the validity of the findings

due to the overgeneralization and the limited sample.

Application. In spite of the criticism, the two-factor theory has continued to hold

the interest of numerous scholars and practitioners in various fields of research. Besides

being continually taught in business schools and included in management textbooks, this

model has been frequently applied in different fields such as engineering, manufacturing,

nursing, healthcare, consumer satisfaction, education, finance, construction, or tourism

(Byrne, 2006; Halepota, 2005; Martin, Mactaggart, & Bowden, 2006; Rothausen,

Gonzaler, & Griffin, 2009; Smerek & Peterson, 2007). Recognizing the importance of

the two-factor theory to the emerging field of positive psychology, Sachau (2007)

insisted on a renewal of this theory. Particularly, Sachau proposed that the “motivation-

hygiene theory is still useful and can serve as an organizing framework for research on

happiness, intrinsic motivation, and materialism” (p. 379).

37

On the practitioner side, human resource managers may apply the two-factor

theory to identify what causes employees happy and unhappy in relation to their work.

As a result, they may design new programs or improve the organization’s policy to

enhance employee growth and development. Based on the two categories of intrinsic and

extrinsic satisfaction factors, managers and leaders can focus on the type of intervention

or training that will lead to long-term satisfaction. In addition, Herzberg et al. (1959)

suggested that the two-factor theory was not only applicable to American workers. In

fact, a review of literature indicated that the concept has been applied to diverse cultures

and demonstrated the patterns of workers’ needs around the world, which will be

discussed further in the cross-cultural research section.

Job Satisfaction Measurement

The current study measured the participant’s job satisfaction using the Minnesota

Satisfaction Questionnaire developed by Weiss, Davis, England, and Lofquist (1967).

The questionnaire measures 20 facets that are categorized into three subscales: intrinsic,

extrinsic, and overall satisfaction. Whereas the long-form of the Minnesota Satisfaction

Questionnaire, which consists of 100 items, may need 15-30 minutes to finish, the short-

form may need five to ten minutes to complete. Both questionnaires require the

participants to answer to the questions using 5-point Likert scale, which ranges from very

dissatisfied to very satisfied. The current study used the short-form Minnesota

Satisfaction Questionnaire because it takes less time to complete and is also comparable

to the long-form in terms of reliability and validity (Weiss et al., 1967).

38

Effects of Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction apparently influences employees’ decision to stay or leave the

organization. In fact, Locke (1976) and Kalleberg (1977) asserted that the perception of

an individual about the job situation in relation to his/her value priorities influences the

intention to leave the organization in the future. These observations imply that the job

satisfaction of an individual, which determines his/her turnover intention, is dependent on

his/her work values. In light of Kalleberg and Locke’s assertion, a number of studies on

employee turnover found a negative relationship between satisfaction and turnover (Tett

& Meyer, 1993). This means the happier an individual is with her/his jobs, the less likely

she/he will leave. The results of various studies revealed how job satisfaction influenced

the turnover decision of high-skilled employees in different industries (Baotham et al.,

2010; Karatepe et al., 2006; Lacity et al., 2008; Randolph, 2005).

In their meta-analysis, Tett and Meyer (1993) assessed the correlation among job

satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intention, and turnover. Applying path

analysis to meta-analytic correlation among the four mentioned variables, Tett and Meyer

aimed to compare job satisfaction and organizational commitment as distinctive

antecedents of employee turnover intention/withdrawal cognitions. Data were collected

from 155 studies from 1968 to 1992. The results demonstrated a more significant

correlation of job satisfaction than commitment to turnover intentions with r = -70 versus

-.55, respectively. On the other hand, commitment correlated more strongly than

satisfaction in relation to turnover with r = -.33 versus -.27, respectively. Overall, Tett

and Meyer concluded that satisfaction and commitment were separate and contributed

distinctively to turnover intention/withdrawal cognitions although moderately related.

39

This conclusion suggested that job satisfaction was significantly predictive of employee’s

turnover intentions.

With respects to the measurement options, Tett and Meyer (1993) noted that the

combination of the single-item versus multi-item satisfaction and/or intention to leave

scales, the short form versus long form of organizational commitment questionnaire, and

withdrawal cognitions versus turnover intentions might have produced biased outcomes.

Consequently, Tett and Meyer suggested that future turnover research should take into

consideration these potential sources of variability. In addition, the study comprised only

the most cited relationships among turnover and its determinants; therefore, the

researchers recommended that including relationships among a broader set of variables

would allow to a more powerful investigation of the turnover process.

Adopting Tett and Meyer’s (1993) recommendation, Randolph (2005) examined

the effects of extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction factors on healthcare employees’

intention to stay on the job based on the self-efficacy and Herzberg et al. (1959)’s theory.

A sample of 328 occupational therapists, physical therapist, and speech language

pathologists was randomly selected from different membership files. Randolph utilized

the survey instruments that were developed and tested by Barnes and her thesis

committee in 1995 to collect data (as cited in Randolph, 2005). The results of

Randolph’s study indicated that intrinsic factors, including professional growth and

recognition for achievement, were predictors of job satisfaction and intention to stay

among these healthcare professionals. On the other hand, extrinsic factors, such as

salary, were found insignificantly predictive of satisfaction and decision to stay among

them. Although the sample was not representative of the rehabilitation personnel,

40

Randolph’s study included a large sample of professionals with various types of clinician.

As a result, managers in health organizations may apply the findings to recruiting and

retaining rehabilitation staff. For instance, managers may focus on the intrinsic benefits

rather than the extrinsic rewards to improve employee satisfaction and reduce turnover

intention. More preferably, Randolph suggested that managers and rehabilitation

professionals should work together to develop policies or programs that would help with

satisfaction and retention.

One of the primary goals of Karatepe, Uludag, Menevis, Hadzimehmedagic, and

Baddar (2006) was to investigate the effect of job satisfaction on turnover intention

among frontline employees in the tourism and hospitality firms. Surveying 448 frontline

employees in 3-, 4-, and 5-star hotels in Northern Cyprus, Karatepe et al. (2006)

discovered that job satisfaction was negatively correlated with frontline employees’

turnover intentions. The negative relationship implies that when the frontline employees

are unhappy with their current job, their levels of turnover intention tend to be high. This

finding is important because intention to leave may lead to turnover, which is a serious

issue for the hotel industry (Martin et al., 2006). Following the results, Karatepe et al.

recommended that hotel managers in Northern Cyprus should develop and preserve a

good relationship with their frontline employees to enhance their level of job satisfaction,

which in turn would prevent turnover intentions. Karatepe et al. also suggested that

future studies should include different service industries, such as airlines, restaurants, and

travel agents, so that the results can be generalized to other settings.

Using a mixed-method research, Lacity, Iyer, and Rudramuniyaiah (2008) aimed

to evaluate the applicability of their turnover intentions model to the Indian information

41

system professionals. The model was developed based on the turnover intentions model

of Kelley and Thibaut (1978), which identified five basic determinants of turnover

intentions: job satisfaction, job attraction, organizational commitment, investment in

current organization, and organization alternative. First, Lacity et al. (2008) interviewed

25 Indian information system staff from 13 supplier firms to determine whether the Kelly

and Thibaut’s model would be suitable for the Indian context. Then, the researchers

verified the correlation among the variables by running two nonparametric statistical

tests. The results revealed that job satisfaction among the participants was negatively

related to their turnover intentions, which complemented Tett and Meyer’s (1993)

conclusion. On the other hand, job satisfaction was found unrelated to the commitment

of the information system professionals in India, which was contradicting with prior

studies (Farrell & Rusbult, 1981; van Dam, 2005).

Lacity et al.’s (2008) study contributes to researchers and practitioners in several

ways. Since the Indian information system professionals value intrinsic satisfaction more

than extrinsic satisfaction, management could offer work that is more interesting rather

than more compensation, or create a fun, supportive and flexible schedule working

environment in order to improve employee satisfaction. More importantly, Lacity et al.

provided the first turnover intentions model, which was applicable to the Indian context,

especially to the information system professionals. Using the mixed-method

methodology, Lacity et al. were able to identify the focal constructs for their model.

However, due to the purposive and small sample, the results could not be generalized to

other settings. For that reason, Lacity et al. expressed the hope for conducting a further

research to verify this model with a larger sample.

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With intent to assess how job satisfaction and organizational commitment

influence turnover intentions and how job satisfaction affect organizational commitment,

Baotham, Hongkhuntod, and Rattanajun (2010) conducted a study among Thai

employees in a university. The study included a random sample of 472 participants from

the Rajamanagala University of Technology Isan, Thailand. The participants were asked

to rate the degree of their job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover

intentions based on the five-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly

agree. The questionnaire was designed by the authors and verified by experts to

eliminate any ambiguities. The results reflected a significant relationship between job

satisfaction and turnover intentions among the university employees, which was in line

with the findings of Lacity et al.’s (2008) and Tett and Meyer’s (1993). However, the

results also revealed that job satisfaction was positively related with organizational

commitment, which was inconsistent with Lacity et al.’s findings although in line with

those of Farrell and Rusbult (1981) and van Dam (2005). Baotham et al.’s study was the

first research that established the correlation between job satisfaction, organizational

commitment, and turnover intentions among the university employees in Thailand. The

findings of the study not only advance the literature in this field but also assist human

resource managers and leaders of university to design strategies that would encourage the

employees to stay. Furthermore, the researchers suggested that future studies should

provide a method to identify the importance of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction sources in

addition to the overall job satisfaction. This would help the university policy makers

develop effective strategies focusing on each job satisfaction/dissatisfaction source.

Table 3 provides a summary of studies examined the effects of job satisfaction.

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Table 3. Summary of Research Related to Job Satisfaction Effects

Author Date Findings

Tett & Meyer

1993

Job satisfaction and commitment are separate

and significant predictors of turnover intention.

Randolph 2005 Intrinsic factors (professional growth and

recognition) and extrinsic factors (pay) are

predictive of job satisfaction and decision to

stay among healthcare professionals.

Karatepe, Uluda, Menevis,

Hadzimehmedagi, & Baddar

2006 Job satisfaction is negatively related with

turnover intention among frontline employees.

Lacity, Iyer, &

Rudramuniyaiah

2008 Job satisfaction is negatively related with

turnover intention, but not related to

organizational commitment among information

system professionals.

Baotham, Hongkhuntod, &

Rattanajun

2010 Job satisfaction is significantly related to

turnover intentions of university employees.

Summary of research on job satisfaction effects. The above studies

demonstrated a significant relationship between job satisfaction and turnover intentions

among high-skilled employees of various occupations in different countries. Overall, job

satisfaction was found negatively related to turnover intention, and the intrinsic factors

were found to be more important than extrinsic factors in determining employee

satisfaction and turnover intentions. The knowledge of the factors that influence turnover

intentions or decision to stay provided useful guidance for the managers and leaders of

organizations that attempt to attract or retain competent employees. This information is

significant for the situation where labor shortage is an issue.

44

Personality Traits

Personality refers to a group of traits or characteristics that an individual

possesses. As defined by Funder (2001), personality is the characteristic patterns of an

individual in terms of thought, emotion, and behavior, as well as the psychological

mechanisms behind these patterns. Empirical studies have reported a correlation between

personality traits and job satisfaction. The majority of these studies focused on five

dimensions of personality traits such as neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness,

openness, and conscientiousness. These five broad dimensions represent the most salient

aspects of an individual personality. The following section provides an overview of the

five personality trait dimensions and the instruments that measure these personality traits.

Furthermore, this section describes how personality traits have been examined as

correlates of job satisfaction.

Personality Dimensions

Extraversion. According to Depue and Collins (1999), one of the central

characteristics of extraversion is interpersonal engagement, which includes traits such as

sociability and agency. Sociability refers to appreciating close interpersonal relationships

as well as being warm and affectionate; agency portrays social dominance, assertiveness,

and a desire to accomplishing goals. Prior studies have suggested that extraversion trait

significantly correlated with positive affectivity, such as rewards (Costa & McCrae,

1980; Tellegen, 1982). Moreover, extraverts emphasize the importance of intrinsic

factors of the work environment while also recognize some value of certain extrinsic

factors (Furnham, Forde, & Ferrari, 1999; Furnham et al., 2002).

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Neuroticism. In contrast with extraversion, neuroticism is associated with

negative affectivity. Costa and McCrae (1992) defined neuroticism as a key aspect of

personality that emphasizes the differences between adjustments of emotional stability

with maladjustments of negative emotionality. Concerning job satisfaction, neuroticism

was found to be the strongest and most consistent predictor with a negative relationship

(Judge et al., 2002). This observation is consistent with the Moyle’s (1995) finding

which suggests that individuals who score high on negative affectivity tend to view work

as negative, creating lower job satisfaction. The negative relationship means that an

increase in job satisfaction will lead to a decrease in neuroticism.

Conscientiousness. Conscientiousness refers to the tendency of an individual to

be achievement-oriented and responsible. Conscientiousness includes traits such as

competence, self-discipline, deliberation, and following rules (Costa, McCrae, & Dye,

1991). Therefore, individuals that are high on conscientiousness tend to set goals and are

committed to achieve these goals. Research revealed that conscientiousness is not only

the best predictor of job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991), but also is significantly

related to both intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction factors (Furnham et al., 2002).

Agreeableness. Unlike the extraversion trait, which reflects social influence,

agreeableness aims at maintaining positive interpersonal bonds with others. Specifically,

agreeableness describes how individuals are different in their orientations toward

interpersonal relationships. Whereas agreeableness displays a strongest linkage to not

only overall job satisfaction but also across the job satisfaction facets, extraversion and

conscientiousness correlate only to some aspects of satisfaction (Franek & Vecera, 2008).

Basically, individuals with agreeableness trait tend to be cooperative, unselfish,

46

straightforward, and modest (Costa et al., 1991). As a result, these individuals are more

likely to experience greater levels of satisfaction for getting along well with others.

Openness to experiences. Openness to experiences implies how individuals are

willing to adjust their mindsets and demeanors as they approach to new environments

(Digman, 1990). In comparison to other four personality traits, openness has the weakest

relationship with job satisfaction (Judge et al., 2002). Moreover, when controlling for

other traits, openness is negatively correlated with job satisfaction (Zimmerman, 2008).

In other words, individuals with high openness tend to be less satisfied with their job.

This assessment can be explained by Maertz and Griffeth’s (2004) theory, which suggests

that individuals with high openness might lose interest in their current job and start

looking for new positions.

The Five-Factor Model of Personality

Development of the theory. The five-factor model of personality (Costa &

McCrae, 1985), also known as the Big Five, represents five broad and relatively

independent aspects of personality: (1) neuroticism, (2) extraversion, (3) openness to

experience, (4) agreeableness, and (5) conscientiousness. Personality theorists have

taken two approaches, the lexical approach and the personality questionnaire approach, in

studying personality. In the lexical approach, the ordinary language trait terms were used

to arrive to the agreement on the five factors. For instance, Cattell (1946) systematically

categorized the personality terms, developed by Allport and Odbert (1936), into synonym

groups and constructed rating scales narrowing groups of adjectives. Subsequently,

Tupes and Christal (1961) discovered five recurrent factors using the rating scales created

47

by Cattell. Tupes and Christal named these factors as surgency, agreeableness,

dependability, emotional stability, and culture. This finding generated a serious interest

in the five-factor model in some researchers at the time (Digman, 1990).

In addition to the lexical approach, personality theorists have utilized personality

questionnaire approach, which actually had a much larger role in the history of

personality research. In this approach, personality was measured based on questionnaires

with scales that were created for specific practical applications or evaluating constructs

derived from personality theory (Goldberg, 1971). Initially, the two factors – neuroticism

and extraversion were proposed as main components of personality (Eysenck & Eysenck,

1964, 1976). Then, openness to experience and conscientiousness were added in the later

years (Costa & McCrae, 1976, 1980; Tellegen, 1982; Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974). The

fifth dimension, agreeableness, appeared to be found in Leary’s (1957) analyses. In

essence, the questionnaire approach examines the characteristics of theoretical interest to

personality psychologists. Despite the emerging consensus on the five factors, the

significance of the five factors was not revisited until in the 1980s.

Conducting a comprehensive review to examine the theoretical structure of

personality, Digman (1990) found a convergence of views for the five identified factors

underlying the multitude of personality scales. His work detailed how the five-factor

model explained the extensively-studied trait variables of Cattell (1946). For example,

Norman (1963) reported that these five main factors were adequate to account for a

substantial number of personality traits, or Digman and Takemoto-Chock (1981)

concluded that the five factors represented an impressive theoretical structure. In the

same year, Goldberg (1990) published the findings of his three studies, which explored

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the generality of the five factor structure. College students were asked to described

themselves or their peers using on anywhere from 339 to 1,431 trait adjectives. The

results of Goldberg’s research provided sufficient evidence to confirm that the five-factor

structure was consistently recovered whether self or peer descriptions were used. In

general, the works of both Digman and Goldberg suggest that the five-factor model offers

a valuable set of very broad dimensions that represent individual differences.

In summary, personality theorists have applied both ordinary language adjectives

and personality questionnaires to identify essential factors of personality. Whereas the

lexical approach was limited to an analysis of personality traits, the questionnaires

approach confirmed, enhanced, and qualified the personality structure. The five-factor

model represents five broad dimensions with each dimension consisting of specific traits.

It is important to note that the model does not imply that individual differences can be

reduced to five dimensions, but rather provides a general set of personality traits.

Strengths. The five-factor model offers several positive contributions to the

understanding of personality characteristics. Firstly, the model presents one of the most

important phenomena for personality theorists to explain individual differences (John,

1989; McCrae & Costa, 1989). Secondly, a wide range of studies has supported the

validity and reliability of the model’s basic factors (Digman, 1990; Goldberg, 1990;

McCrae & Costa, 1987; Schmukle, Back, & Egloff, 2008). Finally, the theory can be

used to predict work-related outcomes, such as job satisfaction, that may affect

performance. This aspect will be discussed further in the research related to personality

traits and job satisfaction section of the current study. Overall, the five-factor model

49

provides a structure that identifies predictive validity of personality variables in work and

in relationships.

Weaknesses. In addition to its strengths, the five-factor model has some

drawbacks. The most obvious criticism involves the number of factors in the model.

Some researchers argued that five factors were not sufficient to summarize all existing

individual differences in personality (Kamp & Gough, 1986; Lanning & Gough, 1991;

Mershon & Gorsuch, 1988). In contrast, other researchers felt five factors were too

many, hence, suggesting a reduction to three factors. For example, Zuckerman,

Kuhlman, and Camac (1988) supported the use of the three factors identified earlier by

Eysenck and Eysenck (1964): extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Similarly,

Cloninger (1988), Gough (1987), and Tellegen (1982) proposed several three-factor

theories. However, these proposals did not seem to be mutually consistent; consequently,

the number of factors remains an issue of the five-factor model.

Application. Despite its shortcomings, the five-factor model provides valuable

results indicating that personality traits are predictive job satisfaction (Arvey, Bouchard,

Segal, & Abraham, 1989; Schneider & Dachler, 1978; Staw & Ross, 1985). For

example, information about personality traits of employees can reveal areas where the

employees can be an asset to the organization as well as areas where they may need more

training or assistance. Human resource managers in an organization, therefore, can

assess the job satisfaction and job attitude of their employees. Moreover, managers can

ask prospective employees to take personality tests so that they can find out whether

these potential employees have certain traits that are related to potential outcomes that

may affect their performance. Essentially, managers and leaders can use data on

50

personality traits in their hiring process to determine whether the personality of the

prospective employees will fit into the organization. The information on personality

traits could also help enrich the understanding of current employees and maintaining a

quality workforce.

Personality Traits Measurement

Over the years, researchers have developed a number of instruments to measure

the five components of personality across studies. Costa and McCrae (1992) introduced

the most comprehensive instrument, which consists of 240 items. However, this

instrument was considered too lengthy. In response to the need for shorter instruments,

several instruments have been designed. The three frequently used instruments were the

44-item Big Five Inventory (John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991), the 60-item NEO Five-

Factor Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1992), and the 40-item instrument (Goldberg, 1990).

Due to the limited time of respondents, Gosling, Rentfrow, and Swan (2003) developed

the Ten Item Personality Inventory to meet the demand for super-short measures.

Conducting two studies, Gosling et al. (2003) explored the reliability and patterns

of external correlates between the two new instruments of personality traits – Five Item

Personality Inventory and Ten Item Personality Inventory. In the first study, the

researchers collected data from 1,704 undergraduates from University of Texas, Austin,

using both the Five Item Personality Inventory and the Big Five Inventory instruments.

The purposes of the first study were to compare the patterns of predicted external

correlates of both instruments, assess the test-retest reliability, examine the performance

of the instrument when used in observer-report format, and evaluate the measure when

51

applied in a peer-report format. The results of this study suggested that the Five Item

Personality Inventory could reasonably replace a longer instrument. However, Gosling et

al. pointed out a few important weaknesses that may affect the instrument’s reliability,

which led to the test of the 10-item measure in the second study.

The second study performed similar procedures as described in the first study

with a sample of 1,813 undergraduate students. Like the Five Item Personality Inventory,

the Ten Item Personality Inventory demonstrated substantial levels in all criteria

evaluated. However, the Ten Item Personality Inventory was found less reliable and

correlated less significantly with other variables than the standard multi-item measures of

the Big Five Inventory. Similar to other measures of the Big Five mentioned above, the

Ten Item Personality Inventory does not measure individual facets of multi-faceted

constructs. Gosling et al. (2003) prefer the Ten Item Personality Inventory to the Five

Item Personality Inventory because this instrument offers researchers the ability to check

for errors. Moreover, the time to complete both instruments is very similar. In

conclusion, Gosling et al. recommend the Ten Item Personality Inventory in appropriate

situations, for example, when brevity is a high priority, or when time and space are

limited. For these reasons, the current study employed this instrument in measuring the

five personality traits.

Research Related to Personality Traits and Job Satisfaction

One of the first studies that investigated the extent to which genetic attributes may

possibly influence job attitude was conducted by Arvey, Bouchard, Segal, and Abraham

(1989). Using the short form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss et al.,

52

1967), the researchers collected data from 34 monozygotic twin pairs, who had been

separated from an early age, with 25 female and 9 male twin pairs. The results reported a

very strong relationship between genetic components with intrinsic satisfaction and

overall job satisfaction while a very weak relationship between these components with

extrinsic job satisfaction was found. This finding was consistent with Staw and Ross’s

(1985) conclusion that some personal characteristics might help explain job attitudes.

Further, a correlation between genetic components with the search for job and the length

of staying on the job by these individuals was evident in Arvey et al.’s study.

Accordingly, Arvey et al. suggested that genetic elements might have been part of job

satisfaction’s determinants.

The study of Arvey et al. (1989) also explained that job satisfaction, particularly

the intrinsic satisfaction, might be difficult to be influenced due to the certain key

predispositions that the individuals bring to the workplace. Due to a wide range of jobs

included in the sample, the results may be generalized to other occupations. On the other

hand, the small sample size of the twins did not allow generalizability in other

populations. Arvey et al. also emphasized the need for more research to enhance the job

satisfaction literature, such as longitudinal research across different job environments to

show causality or research that considered specific traits. More importantly, the

researchers noted that the value of job enrichment or other methods used to increase the

levels of job satisfaction should not be dismissed.

A decade later, Connolly and Viswesvaran (2000) investigated the relationship of

job satisfaction and affectivity as well as the potential moderators of the job satisfaction-

affectivity relationship. Connolly and Viwesvaran conducted a meta-analysis of 27

53

articles and considered five potential moderators: job satisfaction measures, job tenure,

organization sector, organization size, and age in their study. The results reported the

correlations of -.33 for negative affectivity, 0.49 for positive affectivity, and 0.36 for

affective disposition. This indicated positive affectivity had the strongest correlation with

job satisfaction as compared to negative affectivity and affective disposition. According

to Moyle (1995), individuals who score high on negative affectivity tend to perceive

work as negative, which may lead to low job satisfaction. A similar explanation could be

applied to positive affectivity. This finding was inconsistent with Stone-Romero’s

(1996), which suggested a stronger negative affectivity-job satisfaction relationship than

a positive affectivity-job satisfaction relationship. However, Connolly and Viswesvaran

acknowledged that the small sample size might have influenced the moderator analyses.

Overall, the Connolly and Viswesvaran’s (2000) study contributes to the literature

of personality and organizational constructs. According to the researchers, the results

could be interpreted within the Big Five model, which “has established a unifying

framework to organize the research on the role of personality at work” (p. 267).

Moreover, their study supported Staw and Ross’s (1985) theory, which proposes that job

satisfaction is stable over time, and Arvey et al.’s (1989) findings, which suggest that job

satisfaction reflects a genetic source. Similar to Arvey et al., Connolly and Viswesvaran

also asserted that organizations may not have much control on influencing employee

satisfaction, or individual affective dispositions must be taken into consideration to

improve employee satisfaction effectively.

In their meta-analysis, Judge et al. (2002) observed that researchers had started to

apply the comprehensive taxonomy of the five-factor model to arrange the traits that are

54

relevant to job satisfaction. Judge et al. reported that four of the Big Five traits were

linked to job satisfaction. Particularly, neuroticism was discovered to be the strongest

and most consistent predictor of job satisfaction (r = -.29). Conscientiousness was found

as the second strongest predictor (r = .26), followed by extraversion as the third strongest

predictor (r = .25). The relationship between agreeableness with job satisfaction came

into fourth although did not fully generalize across studies (r = .17). The fifth trait,

openness to experiences, showed the weakest link with job satisfaction (r = .02). In

general, Judge et al.’s analysis confirmed that individual differences and personal

predispositions accounted for a significant proportion of employee satisfaction.

In contrast with previous studies, Furnham et al.’s (2002) study revealed a modest

effect of personality traits on job satisfaction facets. In his research, Furnham et al.

(2002) conducted two separate studies to investigate the relationship of basic personality

traits on job satisfaction aspects. The first study was a replication and the second study

was the extent of Furnham, Forder, and Ferrari’s (1999) research. In the first study,

Furnham et al. (2002) considered three dimensions of personality traits based on Eysenck

and Eysenck’s (1964) work – psychoticism, extraversion, and neuroticism. The results of

this study showed a significant correlation between personality traits and variance of job

satisfaction, which was contradicting with Furnham et al.’s (1999) findings. In the

second study, Furnham et al. (2002) examined the relationship between the Big Five

personality traits, age and gender with job satisfaction. Whereas the conscientiousness

trait was found related to both intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction factors, other traits

were found insignificantly correlated with job satisfaction. In conclusion, the findings of

Furnham et al.’s (2002) both studies were inconsistent with previous research (Furnham

55

et al., 1999; Judge et al., 2002). The conflicting results suggested further research to this

direction. In fact, recent researchers have pursued this recommendation.

Matzler and Renzl (2007) examined the relationship between overall job

satisfaction and three personality traits: neuroticism, agreeableness, and

conscientiousness. Analyzing the data from a sample of 199 employees of a company in

the utilities sector in Austria, the researchers concluded that neuroticism was negatively

related to job satisfaction (r = -.24), which was in line with Judge et al.’s (2002) and

Wayne, Musica, and Fleeson’s (2004) studies. Moreover, agreeableness trait is found

positively related to employee satisfaction (r = 0.27). These results can be interpreted

that the more negative attitudes the employees foster (high neuroticism), the less satisfied

they would be in the workplace. On the other hand, employees who get along well with

others (high agreeableness) would experience greater levels of satisfaction. In contrast

with Judge et al.’s findings, Matzler and Renzl found no significant impact of

conscientiousness on job satisfaction (r = 0.04). The different results indicate the need

for additional studies to clarify the effects of personality on job satisfaction.

Besides the overall satisfaction, Franek and Vecera (2008) also studied the

relationship between the five-factor model and different facets of job satisfaction among

employees from various companies in North-Eastern regions of Czech Republic. Their

results revealed that agreeableness, stability, and openness were positively related to

overall job satisfaction. Moreover, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness were

found positively correlated to the nature of work, a certain facet of job satisfaction.

Whereas agreeableness displayed the strongest linkage to both overall satisfaction and

across the job satisfaction facets, extraversion and conscientiousness correlated only to

56

some aspects of job satisfaction. In general, the results of Franek and Vecera’s study are

consistent with previous findings (Judge et al., 2002; Matzler & Renzl, 2007). The

random sample of 659 participants working in various occupations and types of

organizations signifies the possibility of generalizing the results to other organizational

settings. In other words, the large size and characteristics of the sample are the strength

of this study.

In a recent study, Burnett, Williamson, and Bartol (2009) studied how

conscientiousness and extraversion traits moderate the mutual effect of procedural

fairness and outcome favorability on employee attitudes. Using the term “employee

attitudes”, Burnett et al. referred to employee satisfaction and their decision to stay with

the organization. The outcome favorability perceptions referred to the social rewards,

such as co-worker support, and the extrinsic rewards, such as salary and job

advancement. The findings of Burnett et al.’s study revealed that in the working

environments where organizations provide fair and transparent policies, employees with

high level of conscientiousness tend to stay happy even when less preferred extrinsic

rewards were offered. On the other hand, when procedural fairness is perceived low and

social support is considered high, Burnett et al. concluded that the extraverts are more

likely to stay with their organizations as compared with the introverts. These

observations imply that in this type of environment, individuals that score high on

extraversion would make better employees.

The study of Burnett and colleagues (2009) is significant for several reasons.

First, these outcomes opposed the findings of previous studies, which suggested

procedural fairness and outcome favorability have an equally important role on employee

57

attitudes (Gardner, Dyne, & Pierce, 2004; Jone & Schaubroeck, 2004; Mossholder,

Settoon, & Henagan, 2005; Tekleab, Bartol, & Liu, 2005). The study contributes to the

current literature and also paves the way for future research to look further into different

areas as the researchers have suggested. Second, their longitudinal research, which

collected data from 1,581 seniors at a mid-Atlantic University before their graduation and

after beginning their full-time jobs, has allowed the researchers to assess the cause-effect

relationship between the personality traits and employees’ reaction to their work

environments. Third, the results provide insight into which type of individuals –

extravert or conscientious, that organizations should hire based on the characteristics of

the organizations. Overall, Burnett et al.’s study is valuable for providing new and

insightful data to the job satisfaction literature.

Researching the impact of personality traits on the turnover decision of an

individual, Zimmerman (2008) has observed two important outcomes. First, extraversion

and neuroticism appeared to have a larger impact on job satisfaction as compared to the

effect of job complexity on satisfaction. This observation challenges the previous

findings that job complexity/characteristics have a great influence on job satisfaction

(Fried & Ferris, 1987; Morgenson & Campion, 2003). Second, a negative relationship

between openness and job satisfaction surfaced when controlling for other traits. This

finding means individuals with high openness tend to be less satisfied with their job.

According to Zimmerman, this outcome can be explained by Maertz and Griffeth’s

(2004) theory, which suggests that individuals with high openness might lose interest in

their current job and start looking for new positions.

58

With regard to the current study, Zimmerman’s (2008) study identified several

implications that relevant to the study topic. Because certain personality traits were

found to correlate with job satisfaction that would affect turnover decision, personality

tests could be used in the selection process. Organizations should also emphasize the

importance of individual differences rather than job complexity/characteristics to increase

employee satisfaction. Moreover, information on desired traits would enable the

management to develop effective interventions to reduce employee turnover. Table 4

provides a summary of research related to personality traits and job satisfaction.

Summary. Overall, studies that examined relationships between personality

traits and job satisfaction produced mixed results. Individual differences and personal

predisposition, however, were found to account for job satisfaction. Among the five

personality traits, openness to experience had the negative and weakest relationship with

job satisfaction. Despite the inconsistent outcomes, the findings of the existing job

satisfaction research extend the knowledge of personality traits and provide useful

implications for managers in employee selection process.

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Table 4. Summary of Job Satisfaction Research Related to Personality Traits


Arvey, Bouchard, Segal, 1989 Correlations between extrinsic job satisfaction and

& Abraham genetic components are weak among monozygotic

twin pairs. Correlations between intrinsic job

satisfaction and overall job satisfaction with genetic

components are significant.

.

Connolly & Viswesvaran 2000 Relationship between positive affectivity and job

satisfaction is stronger than relationship between

negative affectivity and job satisfaction.

Furnham, Petrides, 2002 Effects of other personality traits on job satisfaction

Jackson, & Cotter facets are insignificant, except conscientiousness.

Judge, Heller, & 2002 Individual differences (Big Five traits) and personal

Mount predispositions accounted for employee satisfaction.

Matzler & Renzl 2007 Neuroticism is negatively related to job

satisfaction. Conscientiousness has no effect on job

satisfaction.

Franek & Vecera 2008 Agreeableness, neuroticism, and openness are

positively related to overall job satisfaction.

Agreeableness, openness, and conscientiousness are

positively related to job characteristics.

Zimmerman 2008 Extraversion and neuroticism significantly influence

job satisfaction. Openness is negatively related to

job satisfaction.

Burnett, William, & 2009 Conscientiousness and extraversion are related to

Bartol employee attitudes.

60


“Job satisfaction means different things to different people depending upon their

age, gender or other demographic differences” (Schramm, 2003, p. 2). A review of

literature has revealed that research related to personal characteristics and job satisfaction

yields mixed results. In order to demonstrate the ongoing inconclusive results of the

relationship between job satisfaction and demographic characteristics, this section

presents seminal studies first and follows with recent research.

Seminal Studies

The seminal works focused on verifying the results of Herzberg, Mausner,

Peterson, and Capwell’s (1957) study, which advocated a U-shaped relationship between

age/tenure and job satisfaction. According to Herzberg et al., job satisfaction would be

generally high when people started their first job or were with the organization within the

first year, and then the satisfaction would subsequently decrease and remain low for a

period of time before it would begin to rise again. In an attempt to verify Herzberg et

al.’s assertion, Hulin and Smith (1965) surveyed 185 male and 75 female workers in two

plants of an electronics manufacturing firm in New England. The results of Hulin and

Smith’s study showed no indication for significant U-shaped relationships, but rather a

positive relationship among the three variables: age, tenure, and job satisfaction facets.

Hulin and Smith explained that as employees grow older and have been with their

organization for a period of time, they tend to adjust their expectations from the job,

which leads to an increase in job satisfaction levels. Moreover, these relationships were

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found different for male and female workers. In essence, Hulin and Smith questioned the

validity of Herzberg et al.’s conclusions.

Examining issues pertaining to job satisfaction, Fournet, Distefano Jr., and Pryer

(1966) identified factors that associated with job satisfaction. Different from Hulin and

Smith (1965), Fournet et al. focused on a wider range of factors such as individual

differences, age, education and intelligence, gender, and occupational level. The results

of their study supported Hulin and Smith’s observation that disagreed with Herzberg et

al.’s (1957) assumption that the curvilinear relationships existed between age/tenure and

satisfaction. To explain the unclear relationship between job satisfaction and the

remaining personal variables, Fournet et al. suggested that individual differences

increased the complexity of job satisfaction studies because it would be difficult to isolate

clearly defined relationships. In addition, age seemed to be the cause of the modest

relationship between educational level and job satisfaction. Fournet et al., however,

acknowledged that the contradictions found in intelligence and job satisfaction were more

difficult to explain. Likewise, job classification might have affected the correlates of

occupational level and job satisfaction. Overall, Fournet et al.’s explanation provided

better insights into the inconsistent results of the relationship between personal

characteristics and job satisfaction.

Unlike Hunlin and Smith (1965) and Fournet et al. (1966), Gibson and Klein

(1970) reported different results. With the assumptions that either age or tenure would be

positively related to job satisfaction, Gibson and Klein conducted the research in two

separate firms. The first firm consisted of 385 blue-collar employees, mostly women,

working for a relatively new plant in a Southern rural community in the United States.

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The second firm consisted of 1,682 blue-collar employees, with all men, working for 18

plants in different Southern regions. The participants answered the anonymous attitude

questionnaires, which included more than 100 Likert-type items. The six items used in

the analysis were job, overall satisfaction, pay, supervisor, co-worker motivation, and

equity of treatment. Their findings indicated a positive relationship, although not linear,

between age with overall satisfaction and other satisfaction facets such as pay, job,

supervisor, and the motivation of co-workers. Contradicting with their assumption, job

tenure was found negatively related with overall satisfaction and two satisfaction facets –

satisfaction with supervisor and perceptions of equity treatment in both firms.

By investigating two separate firms, Gibson and Klein (1970) intended to reduce

the influence of potentially different managerial principles and practices, which enhanced

the possibility of generalizations across organization cultures. In addition, considering

the gender difference in the two samples, Gibson and Klein partially dismissed the

possible gender difference as indicated in Hulin and Smith’s (1965) study. More

importantly, Gibson and Klein proposed that a U-shaped relationship between

satisfaction and the age/tenure variable could happen by combining these positive and

negative linear trends. The findings of Gibson and Klein’s study help explain Herzberg

et al.’s (1957) observation.

To clarify the effects of age, tenure, and job satisfaction and to verify prior

findings on differences based on gender, Hunt and Saul (1975) surveyed a sample of

5,800 managers, professionals, administrative clericals, and process workers of a large

Australian government organization. Including 16 job satisfaction criteria, Hunt and Saul

were able to elucidate the results in terms of overall job satisfaction and job satisfaction

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facets. Particularly, overall job satisfaction was found to have a stronger relationship

with age than with tenure for male employees, and no relationship existed between age

and overall job satisfaction for the females. Similarly, the correlation between overall job

satisfaction and age was found to be greatest among male employees with less than 12

months tenure. On the other hand, the correlation between tenure and overall job

satisfaction was found to be strongest among female employees under 25 years old.

Whereas age and tenure were found positively related to other job satisfaction facets,

satisfaction with promotion opportunities was found negatively related with age and job

tenure for both male and female employees. In essence, the findings of Hunt and Saul

contradict with those of Herzberg et al. (1957) and Gibson and Klein (1970).

Summary of seminal research. The results of the seminal research revealed that

the relationship between age and job satisfaction was not significant, and this relationship

might be impacted by gender in some degree (Spector, 1997). In contrast with Herzberg

et al.’s (1957) findings, a linear relationship between age/tenure and job satisfaction was

found (Fournet, Distefano, & Pryer, 1966; Hulin & Smith, 1965; Hunt & Saul, 1975). By

including the gender variable in their study, Fournet et al. (1966) and Hunt and Saul

(1975) provided a better understanding for the relationship between age/tenure and job

satisfaction in the presence of gender. Gibson and Klein (1970), on the other hand,

reported that age was positively related to job satisfaction whereas tenure was negatively

related to job satisfaction. Further, Gibson and Klein supported Herzberg et al.’s findings

by proposing that a combination of the positive and negative linear trends of satisfaction

and an age/tenure variable could result in a U-shaped relationship. In summary, the

seminal studies portrayed inconsistent results, which led to further research in the future.

64

Recent Studies

After decades of studying the relationship between personal characteristics and

job satisfaction, researchers have been unable to attain conclusive results. Oshagbemi

(2003) investigated the correlation of demographic characteristics and overall job

satisfaction among employees in higher education sector in the United Kingdom (UK).

Data obtained from a random sample of 554 participants, working for 23 institutions in

the UK. The results revealed that age was not related to the satisfaction or dissatisfaction

of university teachers and the job tenure was negatively related to their job satisfaction.

On the other hand, the rank of the academic staff was found to have a positive

relationship with job satisfaction. According Oshagbemi, the effect resulting from the

interaction between the rank and gender significantly influenced the academic staff’s

satisfaction. For example, female senior lecturers, readers and professors, and teachers

were more satisfied with their job than their male counterparts were. However,

Oshagbemi noted that gender did not influence job satisfaction of university teachers

when the gender variable stayed independent.

In general, the findings of Oshagbemi’s study provided empirical evidence to

identify the main demographical variables that correlated with job satisfaction. This

knowledge would help the management of universities to enhance satisfaction among the

teachers. Moreover, Oshagbemi recognized that the large, random, and high response

rate sample of his study increased the reliability and validity of the results; therefore, the

findings can be generalized to individuals in other universities.

With the purpose to investigate the factors of job satisfaction levels among

Hispanic accounting professionals in the U.S., Moyes, Owusu-Ansah, and Ganguli

65

(2006) surveyed a random sample of 149 alumni from the business college of a South

Texas university. The participants responded to a survey questionnaire, which consisted

of 77 questions rated on a six-point Likert scales ranging from strongly disagree to

strongly agree. This questionnaire is a modified version of the previous one designed by

Moyes, Williams, and Quigley (2000), which examined the correlation between the job

satisfaction level of African-American accounting professionals and their perception of

treatment discrimination. The results revealed that none of the three demographic

characteristics (age, gender, and job tenure) was significantly related to job satisfaction.

Although insignificant, the correlation existed between gender and job satisfaction.

This finding was in line with prior research, which indicated that women

experienced higher turnover than men did as a result of low job satisfaction (Cotton &

Tuttle, 1986; Pillsbury, Capozzoli, & Ciampa, 1989). Moreover, age was found

negatively related to job satisfaction, where the older respondents reported lower job

satisfaction levels compared to the younger respondents. Conversely, job tenure was

found positively related to job satisfaction, contradicting with seminal studies (Fournet et

al., 1966; Gibson & Klein, 1970; Hulin & Smith, 1965). Besides the mixed results,

Moyes et al. (2006) noted that the results of their study might not be generalized to all

Hispanic population, but rather to other Hispanic sub-groups in the country because the

participants were mostly Mexican-Americans.

In addition to the variables described above, Franek and Vecera (2008) examined

the effects of gender, age, education, and job level on job satisfaction among 659

employees from various companies in the North-Eastern regions of the Czech Republic.

Like most studies, the results reported no significant relationship between gender

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differences and job satisfaction although age was found negatively related to job

satisfaction. According to the researchers, the culture of the post-Communist transient

society of the Czech Republic may have influenced this result; hence, further research

into this phenomenon is recommended. Age was found to play some role on the

relationship between education and job satisfaction. Specifically, employees with higher

education levels were found to be slightly less satisfied compared to employees with

lower education levels. Franek and Vecera argued that the younger employees with

higher education levels would have higher expectations compared to the older employees.

Consequently, disappointment might occur when these younger employees perceived that

their education did not lead to appropriate extrinsic rewards.

Regarding the association of job level and job satisfaction, Franek and Vecera

(2008) reported that employees with managerial positions had higher job satisfaction than

employees without supervisory positions. Organization size and type of ownership also

seemed to influence the employee satisfaction. For example, employees working for

large companies with more than 500 employees reported higher satisfaction than

organizations with a smaller number of employees. Similarly, employees working for

international companies were likely happier than the employees working for private and

public/government companies. Despite the mixed results, Franek and Vecera’s study

enhanced the job satisfaction research in the Central-European, especially the Czech

Republic, where job satisfaction did not receive enough attention. By considering the

organization size and type of ownership variables, Franek and Vecera offered deeper

insight into the association between job satisfaction and these variables. Although drawn

from a wide range of age and occupations from the North-Eastern regions of the country,

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most of the participants usually worked at the same companies with the recruiters of the

study, which reflected a convenience sample. Therefore, the results of their study may

not be generalized to other regions or countries.

Aiming to advance the literature on the gender of information technology (IT)

professionals, Ghazzawi (2010) examined the effects of gender on job satisfaction among

IT personnel in the U.S. Using the short-form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, the

researcher surveyed 132 IT employees (99 men and 33 women) in various Southern

California companies. The survey disclosed that gender did not influence the intrinsic,

extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction of the IT professionals. The findings of Ghazzawi’s

study reinforced the results of Franek and Vecera’s (2008) study. On the other hand,

these findings were contradicting with those of Moyes et al.’s (2006) study, which found

women experienced higher turnover than men did due to low job satisfaction.

Apparently, the findings of Ghazzawi’s (2010) study contributed to the scarce

literature of job satisfaction among IT professionals. However, the convenience sample

of IT professionals in one region (Southern California) does not allow generalizing the

results to the general population of IT professionals or to other professions. Therefore, a

larger and random sample should be considered in future research to ensure the external

validity of the findings. On the practical side, Ghazzawi’s research presented

implications that managers could implement to improve satisfaction and reduce

dissatisfaction among the IT professionals. For instance, managers can offer promotion

opportunities for both genders by providing employees with more tasks and autonomy as

well as policies that promote from within the organization to enhance employee

satisfaction. Alternatively, managers can lessen job dissatisfaction by providing

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competitive salaries and policies that are transparent and consistent to ensure equitable

treatment regardless of gender.

In a study of financial advisors in South Florida, Fichter (2011) verified the

relationships among demographic variables (age, gender, experience, marital status,

education, and race), role stressors (role conflict and role ambiguity), job satisfaction, and

burnout. The sample consisted of 122 participants in whom the majority was white,

married males, over 40 years old, with at least a bachelor’s degree, and 10 or more years

of experience. In this research, Fichter adopted the two-factor theory (Herzberg et al.,

1959), the role theory (Katz & Kahn, 1996), and the burnout theory (Maslach & Jackson,

1981) as theoretical frameworks. Job satisfaction was measured using the Job

Descriptive Index (Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1985). Role stressor was measured by

Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman’s (1970) instrument. The burnout variable was measured by

Maslach’s General Survey (1981). Overall, the results showed no significant relationship

between demographic variables with job burnout and job stress. Although modest,

education was found to have the highest correlation to job satisfaction with a negative

relationship. According to Fichter, this finding is helpful for hiring managers in the

financial industry. To illustrate this point, Fichter stated that among the candidates that

possess similar demographic quality, the ones with the lower education level should be

selected because they would have higher potential for job satisfaction.

Similar to Franek and Vecera’s (2008) study, the results of Fichter’s (2011)

research may not be generalized due to the issues with the sample. Although large and

diverse, Fichter’s sample was conveniently collected from multiple firms, banks, and

credit union and limited to two counties in Florida. In addition, Fichter noted that the

69

economy situation of Florida, which reflected unpredictable changes and fluctuations,

might have influenced the results. For these reasons, Fichter recommended that

comparative studies should be conducted in both domestically and internationally to

verify the results. Moreover, different dimensions of job satisfaction and other variables,

such as organizational commitment, job characteristics, work load, and emotional

intelligence, should be considered. Fichter believed that these factors might play an

important role in leading to satisfaction and burnout of the financial advisors.

Summary of recent studies. Despite the mixed results, recent studies indicated a

pattern of weak or none relationship between gender and job satisfaction. Age was found

negatively related with job satisfaction (Franek & Vecera, 2008; Moyes, Owusu-Ansah,

& Ganguli, 2006), contradicting with seminal studies. Additional important demographic

variables, for example, education, organization size, and type of ownership were

considered in the recent studies (Fichter, 2011; Franek & Vecera, 2008). Interestingly,

quantitative method seemed to be a common factor among the recent studies. Except for

Oshagbemi’s (2003) study, most studies drew on convenience sample which hindrances

the generalizability of the results. Overall, these studies advanced the body of literature

by including more demographic variables and being conducted in other countries besides

the U.S. The inconsistent findings could be resulted of the specific occupational group or

different cultures being examined. Therefore, future studies should consider personal

variables that are relevant, such as nationality or a large and random sample to ensure the

reliability and validity of the results. Table 5 summarizes the job satisfaction studies

related to personal characteristics.

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Table 5. Summary of Job Satisfaction Research Related to Personal Characteristics


Hulin & Smith 1965 Positive relationship, rather than U-shaped

relationships, is found among age, tenure, and job

satisfaction facets.

Fournet, Distefano Jr., 1966 Age and tenure , and job satisfaction facets are

& Pryer positively related. Age moderates relationship

between education level and job satisfaction.

Gibson & Klein 1970 Age is positively related with overall job

satisfaction and job satisfaction facets among blue-

collar employees. Tenure is negatively related with

overall job satisfaction and job satisfaction facets.

Hunt & Saul 1975 Different levels of linear relationships between age,

tenure, overall job satisfaction, and job satisfaction

facets exists among male and female government

professionals and blue-collar employees.

Oshagbemi 2003 Age is unrelated to job satisfaction of university

teachers. Whereas tenure and job status are

predictive of job satisfaction, gender is not.

Moyes, Owusu-Ansah, 2006 Age, gender, and job tenure are not significantly

& Ganguli related to job satisfaction among accounting

professionals.

Franek & Vecera 2008 Age is negatively related to employee satisfaction.

Age influences the interactive relationship of

education and job satisfaction.

Ghazzawi 2010 Gender is not predictive of intrinsic, extrinsic, and

overall job satisfaction of IT professionals.

Fichter 2011 Education modestly influences job satisfaction.

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Summary of Demographic Characteristic Research

For more than five decades, researchers have sought to examine the relationship

between personal characteristics and job satisfaction. Despite the efforts, their studies

found mixed results. The seminal works focused on verifying the findings of Herzberg et

al.’s (1957) study, which suggested the U-shaped relationship between age/tenure and job

satisfaction. The results of number seminal studies revealed age as a weak predictor of

job satisfaction (Spector, 1997). The relationship between age/tenure and job satisfaction

was found linear instead of U-shape (Fournet et al., 1966; Hulin & Smith, 1965; Hunt &

Saul, 1975). Conversely, Gibson and Klein’s (1970) study reported a positive

relationship between age and job satisfaction and a negative relationship between tenure

and job satisfaction. Gibson and Klein also suggested that a combination of the positive

and negative linear trends of the satisfaction variable and the age/tenure variable could

result in a U-shaped relationship. In essence, seminal studies focused on providing

theoretical implications.

Similar to the seminal studies, the recent studies remain inconclusive in their

findings. Most of the recent studies indicated a weak or no relationship between gender

and job satisfaction. In contrast with seminal studies, recent studies found age negatively

correlated with job satisfaction (Franek & Vecera, 2008; Moyes et al., 2006). In addition,

the recent studies have included demographic variables that are more important, such as

education or organization size and type of ownership (Fichter, 2011; Franek & Vecera,

2008). By including more demographic variables and conducting studies in other

countries besides the U.S., the researchers provide both theoretical and practical

implications. Since the mixed results could be resulted of the specific occupational group

72

or different cultures being examined, it is suggested that future studies should include

other relevant personal variables or consider a multicultural workplace.

Cross-cultural Studies on Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction is a significant topic in an international context because the

relationship between job satisfaction and other factors, such as commitment, absenteeism,

turnover, and life satisfaction, has been found to be important to both individuals and

organizations (Judge et al., 2002). Given the fact that countries around the world become

more globalized and are more receptive to foreign culture, a review of cross-cultural

studies will explain the variations in job satisfaction among employees (local and

expatriates) in a multicultural workplace. The analysis of the following research

illustrates this point further.

In their comparative study, Ready and Dinh (2008) evaluated the expectations of

job satisfaction factors contributing to overall job satisfaction among Vietnamese and

Americans. The participants were the junior and senior business students from a

Midwestern university in the U.S. and a national university in Vietnam. The American

sample was contained 456 students with most of them having work experience. The

Vietnamese sample consisted of 390 students with less than half of them having work

experience. The researchers designed a questionnaire based on the Minnesota

Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967) . The results revealed some similarities

and differences in the perception of job satisfaction between the Vietnamese and

American participants. In general, both American and Vietnamese students agreed that

the job satisfaction facets identified in the survey were important measures. Particularly,

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salary was rated as the most important factor leading to job satisfaction although more

significant to American students than to Vietnamese students. Other factors such as

relationships with co-workers, a sense of accomplishment, and promotion opportunities

were also perceived more significant for American students. On the other hand,

Vietnamese students ranked the receiving recognition and job security factors higher than

American students did. The results portrayed the similarities between the two groups in

rating the most salient job satisfaction factors and the differences between them in

evaluating the importance of these factors.

As one of a few studies that examined job satisfaction in Vietnam, Ready and

Dinh’s (2008) study is important to both theoretical and practical aspects. To the

literature, the study demonstrates that cultural differences contribute to the variation in

job satisfaction perception among the respondents. In addition, the levels of working

experience may explain the different scores on many job aspects between the American

and Vietnamese participants. The knowledge of similar and different factors that lead to

job satisfaction of both American and Vietnamese would assist the American managers

working in Vietnam to retain their competent employees. More importantly, Ready and

Dinh suggested that American managers could benefit from the fact that Vietnamese

employees are more likely to stay on the job than American employees are because they

may feel that they had less options available to them. Nevertheless, these findings may

not be generalized to a working population because the sample consisted mainly of

business students.

Using a quantitative, comparative, correlational, and snowballing sampling

research design, Liu and Norcio (2008) investigated the mediating effects of job

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characteristics on job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The researchers

collected data from 389 Taiwanese expatriates working in mainland China via an online

survey. The three instruments used in the study were the Job Characteristic Inventory

(Sims, Szilagyi, & Keller, 1976), the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss et al.,

1967), and the Three-Component Model Employee Survey (Meyer & Allen, 1991),

which included three components: affective commitment, normative commitment, and

continuance commitment. Whereas affirmative commitment refers to a feeling of

belonging to the organization, nominative commitment implies a feeling of obligation,

and continuance commitment means a perception of costs associated with leaving the

organization (Liu & Norcio, 2008). The results revealed that job characteristics mediated

the positive impact of intrinsic job satisfaction and the negative impact of extrinsic job

satisfaction on affective commitment of the Taiwanese expatriates. Furthermore, the

results indicated that job characteristics mediated the negative impact of extrinsic job

satisfaction on normative commitment.

The construct validity of the existing instruments, which has been established by

their developers and other researchers in various studies, and the consistency reliability of

all variables with the coefficients ranging from .73 and .93 enhanced the external validity

of Liu and Norcio’s (2008) study. In addition, the study provided a comprehensive view

of the correlations among personal variables, job characteristics, job satisfaction, and

organizational commitment of Taiwanese expatriates working in mainland China.

Acknowledged that their study did not offer an extensive knowledge of these

relationships, Liu and Norcio recommended that future studies should perform an in-

depth investigation with different target populations and consider different aspects of job

75

satisfaction to obtain a better understanding of these relationships. Moreover, Liu and

Norcio believed that a mixed methodology, which combines interviews and surveys,

would also improve the value of the findings. The researchers also discussed the

limitations of the study, including the biased selection of the sample, the target

population limited to Taiwanese expatriates, or the long questionnaire of 80 questions.

These issues may affect the generalizability of the results to other national settings or

Taiwanese expatriates working in other countries besides mainland China. However,

organizations in a similar situation with Taiwanese companies might find the results

meaningful. Essentially, Liu and Norcio’s study is significant to both the management

literature and practice.

Adopting the theoretical framework of Herzberg et al.’s (1959) theory,

Rothausen, Gonzaler, and Griffin (2009) examined the effects of nationality on the

relationship of satisfaction aspects to overall job satisfaction and turnover intention in

addition to several other factors that previous studies have not often considered. Data

were collected from two random samples of 327 American and 117 Filipino professionals

working for international accounting and consulting firms in the U.S. and the Philippines.

The researchers developed their own survey questionnaires, which used a five-point

Likert-type scale, to measure the overall job satisfaction, intrinsic and extrinsic facets of

job satisfaction, and intention to quit of the participants. The coefficient alphas of these

questionnaires, which ranged from .73 to .97, were regarded as acceptable reliabilities.

The results revealed the differences between the U.S. and the Philippines samples in

relation to the relationships of job satisfaction facets and overall job satisfaction. In

particular, extrinsic facets were found unrelated to intention to quit, but more

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significantly linked to overall job satisfaction among the Filipino participants than among

the Americans. On the other hand, intrinsic facets were found more significantly

correlated to both overall job satisfaction and turnover intention among the financial

professionals in the U.S. than those in the Philippines.

The results from Rothausen et al.’s (2009) study offered important insights to the

literature and implications for management practices. The researchers discovered

interesting results pertaining to overall satisfaction and turnover intention of financial

professionals in the U.S. and the Philippines. For example, although the American

employees emphasized the satisfaction with advancement opportunities, compensation,

and job security in relation to overall job satisfaction, they only considered advancement

and compensation satisfactions in their decision to quit. On the other hand, the Filipino

employees stressed the importance of achievement, benefits, and flexibility on the overall

job satisfaction, but regarded the satisfaction with compensation as a major factor for

turnover decision. Moreover, nationality was found strongly influenced the relationship

between overall job satisfaction and turnover intention. This finding complemented

Huang and van de Vliert’s (2004) observations, which suggested that intrinsic

satisfactions were more important in more individualistic and lower power distance

cultures. Therefore, Rothausen et al. recommended that future studies should explore the

facets that may matter more for individuals in less individualistic and higher power

distance societies. The results of Rothausen et al.’s study may also help leaders in

foreign-owned companies improve their relationship with employees in the host country.

In general, Rothausen et al.’s (2009) study has several limitations. First, the self-

reported data and cross-sectional sample did not allow the researchers to actually measure

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turnover, which might have affected the relationship of satisfaction facets to both overall

job satisfaction and turnover intention. Next, including only two countries in the sample,

the researchers may not be able to generalize the results. Consequently, the researchers

suggested considering a larger number of cultures and nations in future studies. Despite

these limitations, Rothausen et al. encourage replication to verify further the effects of

existing intrinsic and extrinsic facets, in addition to other job satisfaction facets to

organizational behavior across nations.

Elamin (2011) investigated the effects of nationality of both domestic and

expatriate managers on job satisfaction in the banking industry in the United Arab

Emirates. A modified questionnaire based on the Job Descriptive Index (Smith et al.,

1985) was used to gather data from a random sample of 82 bank managers. This survey

questionnaire measured five job satisfaction dimensions: pay, promotion opportunities,

job characteristics, relationship with the supervisor, and relationships with co-workers.

The findings indicated that nationality did account for the differences in level of

satisfaction among the managers. Specifically, domestic managers were more satisfied

with their jobs in all five components compared to the expatriate managers. However,

Elamin noted that the influence of nationality on satisfaction with pay is only true among

male managers, whereas its effect on satisfaction with supervision is only true among

female managers. Elamin attributed the differences in job satisfaction among local and

expatriate employees to both public policy and local cultural factors. The public policy

in the United Arab Emirates clearly favors the local employees over the expatriates. In

addition, the cultural tradition in the United Arab Emirates tends to give privileges to

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those with recognized identity and family name. Consequently, the unfair treatment

caused job dissatisfaction among expatriates.

The findings of Elamin’s (2011) study contributed to the dearth of job satisfaction

literature regarding the effects of nationality on job satisfaction in developing countries.

However, the small sample size and single economic sector hindered the benefits that the

results provided. Therefore, Elamin suggested that future research should obtain a larger

sample and include more economic sectors as well as other possible job satisfaction

factors. Elamin also pointed out that the distinctive economic, political, and socio-

cultural context of the United Arab Emirates offered a different view into the relationship

of nationality and local culture on one side and job satisfaction on the other. In fact, the

unique background of each country may influence the results. This significant

observation encourages future studies to look into other national settings to enhance the

external validity and the ability to generalize the research findings. On the practical side,

the results of Elamin’s study inform the practitioners the concern for the potential of

labor shortages arise from the differential treatment to expatriate employees in the United

Arab Emirates. As a result, business leaders may need to make appropriate decisions in

order to retain their expatriates. Table 6 summarizes the cross-cultural studies related to

job satisfaction.

In short, the above research reveals several important aspects. First, national and

cultural differences influence the behavior and perceived job satisfaction of individuals in

a multicultural workplace. Due to the unique background of each country, it is suggested

that future studies should be replicated in other cultures and nations. Second, by

considering intrinsic job satisfaction and extrinsic job satisfaction in addition to the

79

overall job satisfaction, the studies provide a more comprehensive view and different

results related to job satisfaction. Finally, the knowledge of the perceived job satisfaction

among the expatriates and domestic employees in the host country will assist business

leaders and managers of multinational corporations in improving the recruitment and

retention policies.

Table 6. Summary of Job Satisfaction Research in the International Contexts


Liu & Norcio 2008 Job characteristics mediate the positive impact of

intrinsic job satisfaction and the negative impact of

extrinsic job satisfaction on affective commitment

of Taiwanese expatriates.

Ready & Dinh 2008 Pay is the most important factor leading to job

satisfaction for both Vietnamese and American.

Rothausen, Gonzalez, & 2009 Extrinsic facets are significantly related to overall

Griffin job satisfaction of Filipino more than of American

financial professionals. Intrinsic facets are

significantly related to both overall job satisfaction

and turnover intention of the American more than of

the Filipino professionals.

Elamin 2011 Nationality influences the level of job satisfaction

among the local and expatriate managers in the

United Arab Emirates controlling with gender.

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Summary of the Literature Review

In addition to providing a review of theoretical foundations on job satisfaction and

personality traits, this chapter discussed seminal and recent studies that were related to

job satisfaction, personality traits, and demographic characteristics. Scholars have

consistently identified significant correlations between job satisfaction and turnover

intention as well as organizational commitment among professionals in various

industries. With respect to personality traits, studies confirmed that the Big Five traits

correlated to different levels of employee satisfaction although inconclusive. For

example, extraversion and neuroticism significantly influenced job satisfaction

(Zimmerman, 2008), whereas openness to experiences modestly influenced job

satisfaction (Judge et al., 2002). Similarly, empirical evidences demonstrated mixed

results of job satisfaction related to demographic characteristics. The majority of studies

indicated a linear relationship rather than a U-shaped relationship among personal

variables and job satisfaction (Fournet et al., 1966; Franek & Vecera, 2008; Hulin &

Smith, 1965). Furthermore, data obtained from research on the international context

indicated correlations among intrinsic, extrinsic facets with overall job satisfaction and

turnover intention.

The results of these studies advanced the job satisfaction literature by identifying

factors that influenced job satisfaction as well as the implications of job satisfaction.

These findings provided practical implications for managers to improve the organization

policies and procedures that help enhance employee satisfaction. A study that examined

the correlations of personality trait, demographic variables, and job satisfaction among

professionals in Vietnam would serve similar purposes. The current study contributed to

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the dearth of research in this topic in Vietnam and provided the business leaders of

MNCs in Vietnam as well as in developing countries useful insights so that they could

improve the recruitment and retention process of competent employees to address the

labor shortage.

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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The focus of the current study was to examine the relationships between the

personality traits and job satisfaction as well as between demographic characteristic

variables and job satisfaction among information technology (IT) professionals working

for multinational corporations (MNCs) in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. The discussion in

this chapter involves the choice of research design, data collection and analysis, and

ethical considerations in conducting the study in the following order. In particular, the

selection of the quantitative correlational methodology to address the research questions

explained and justified. Next, information on the population, sample, and the sampling

strategy is presented. Then, a description of the data collection process, instrumentation,

and statistical techniques to accept or reject the null hypotheses is provided. Finally, the

validity and reliability of the chosen instruments are addressed, and the ethical practices

that ensure the privacy and confidentiality of the participants are discussed.

Research Design

The current study utilized a quantitative correlational survey design. The research

design was used in similar studies addressed in the literature review and was selected

based on the nature of the research questions, which aim to determine the relationships

among variables without inferring causality. The two research questions guided the

current study are:

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(1) What is the relationship between job satisfaction (overall, extrinsic, and

intrinsic) and demographic characteristics such as age, gender, job status, education level,

and nationality of IT professionals working for MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam?


intrinsic) and personality trait variables such as extraversion, agreeableness,

conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience of IT professionals working

for MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam?

The two main hypotheses of the current study are:

Ho1: Demographic characteristic variables (age, gender, job status, education

level, and nationality) are not related to job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic).

H1: Demographic characteristic variables (age, gender, job status, education level,

and nationality) are related to job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic).

Ho2: Personality trait variables (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,

neuroticism, and openness) are not related to job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and

extrinsic).

H2: Personality trait variables (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,

neuroticism, and openness) are related to job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and

extrinsic).

There are six sub-hypotheses related to each component of job satisfaction:

Ho1.1: Demographic characteristics are not related to overall satisfaction.

H1.1: Demographic characteristics are related to overall satisfaction.

Ho1.2: Demographic characteristics are not related to intrinsic satisfaction.

H1.2: Demographic characteristics are related to intrinsic satisfaction.

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Ho1.3: Demographic characteristics are not related to extrinsic satisfaction.

H1.3: Demographic characteristic variables are related to extrinsic satisfaction.

Ho2.1: Personality traits are not related to overall satisfaction.

H2.1: Personality traits are related to overall satisfaction.

Ho2.2: Personality traits are not related to extrinsic satisfaction.

H2.2: Personality traits are related to extrinsic satisfaction.

Ho2.3: Personality traits are not related to intrinsic satisfaction. H2.3: Personality traits are related to intrinsic satisfaction.

This study collected data on job satisfaction and personality traits using two

existing instruments: the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss, Davis, England,

& Lofquist, 1967) and the Ten Item Personality Inventory (Gosling, Rentfrow, & Swann

2003). The data were then statistically analyzed to address the research questions. The

correlational design was employed to test the relationships between the personality traits

and demographic characteristics with job satisfaction and establish the directions and

magnitudes of the relationships.

A review of the literature indicated that quantitative method and correlational

analysis have been used in numerous studies to assess the relationships between job

satisfaction and different factors such as personality, personal variables, and turnover

intention. For example, Randolph (2005) used regression analysis to determine factors

that contributed to job satisfaction and decision to stay on the job of rehabilitation

professionals. Moyes, Owusu-Ansah, and Ganguli (2006) employed a multiple

regression analysis to determine the level of association between seven job satisfaction

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factor groups (supervision, work, recognition, benefits, promotion, organizational

environment, and peer relations) and three demographic characteristics (gender, age, and

position tenure) with the perceived overall job satisfaction of Hispanic accounting

professionals. Similarly, Furnham, Eracleous, and Chamorro-Premuzic (2009) performed

correlational analyses to determine the relationships of the personality and demographic

variables and job satisfaction scores of employees in the retail, manufacturing, and

healthcare. In addition, Furnham et al. conducted regression analyses to evaluate the

extent to which the Big Five personality traits and demographic variables influenced job

satisfaction scores (intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction). These studies are

among the numerous quantitative studies that guide the selection of the research design

for the current study.

According to Creswell (2009), quantitative research, which reflects a post-

positivist viewpoint, relies on methods based on the test of theories, reduction to specific

variables to study, use of measurement and observation, as well as statistical procedures.

The current study sought to determine whether demographic characteristics and

personality trait were correlated with job satisfaction. Therefore, it followed the post-

positivist viewpoint.

Furthermore, the assumptions addressed in this study included the ontological and

epistemological views. The ontological view of the post-positivists suggests that

knowledge about reality is abstract, and it is impossible for precise, accurate

measurement and observations (Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006). Adopting this point of view,

the current study utilized survey instruments to measure the level of job satisfaction and

to quantify personality traits of the participants. The study then analyzed the collected

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data in order to support or refute the null hypotheses, which propose that demographic

characteristics and personality variables are not correlated to job satisfaction, rather than

to prove them. In epistemological terms, the post-positivists believe that objectivity is

crucial and can be achieved by observing from a relatively distant and impartial

standpoint (Mertens, 2008). Since the current study collected data online using a survey

questionnaire completed by the participants, the researcher had a minimum role in

collecting the data to maintain a neutral viewpoint. Essentially, the current study follows

assumptions that reflect the post-positivist foundations.

Population/Sample

Population

The population of the study consisted of information technology (IT) personnel

working for MNCs located in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. These companies are listed

under the IT sector from the European Chamber of Commerce and American Chamber of

Commerce directories. The criteria for selecting the participants included: (1) full-time

employees who have been with the companies for at least one year, and (2) employees

who are working as analysts/technicians, engineers, salespeople, or in managerial

positions. There were several reasons for using the data collected from a sample of IT

professionals of the firms listed under these two directories. First, the shortage of certain

skilled professionals in the services industry, specifically in the two job categories –

computer experts and management, has been an issue for MNCs conducting business in

Vietnam (“Building a High-skilled Economy,” 2011; Truong, et al., 2010). Second, Ho

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Chi Minh City has continuously received the highest number of foreign direct investment

inflow into Vietnam (“Ministry of Planning”, 2011). Third, the management of European

and American companies shares an interest in the issue of job satisfaction and retaining

skilled employees. The population included a total of 32 foreign-owned companies

identified under the IT sector of the European Chamber of Commerce and American

Chamber of Commerce directories.

Sample Size

From the target population, a sample size of the current study was estimated using

a-priori power analyses, the G* Power 3.1 program provided by Faul, Erdfelder, Lang,

and Buchner (2009) on their website. These analyses compute a sample size considering

the population effect size, the required power level, the predetermined significant level,

and the number of independent variables (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2009). In

fact, Bates (2005) suggested that in addition to the number of independent variables, the

expected effect size, power requirements, and level of accuracy should also be considered

in determining a desired sample. Therefore, it was appropriate for the current study to

utilize a-priori power analyses in calculating the sample size.

The effect size used to calculate the sample size of the current study was based on

Cohen’s (1988) tests. Cohen divided the effect size for different tests into small effect,

medium effect, and large effect with the magnitude of the effect 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35,

respectively. For the purpose of this study, a medium effect size (0.15) was selected

because this effect size was used in similar studies (Furnham, Eracleous, & Chamorro-

Premuzic, 2009; Moyes, Owusu-Ansah, & Ganguli, 2006; Randolph, 2005). Moreover, a

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medium effect size would provide evidence of a relationship between the independent

and dependent variables without being too strict or too lenient (Cohen, 1988). The level

of confidence was set at 95%. In order to achieve a power level of .80 for a medium

effect size with 10 independent variables, a sample size of 118 participants was required.

Table 7 shows the data for the sample size calculation.

Table 7. Input and Output Parameters for A- priori Power Analysis

Input Parameters Output Parameters

Effect Size (f2) = .15

Noncentrality parameters (λ) = 17.70

α error probability = 0.05 Critical F = 1.92

Power ( 1 – B error probability) = .80 Numerator df = 10

Number of independent variables = 10 Denominator df = 107

Total Sample Size = 118

Actual Power = .801

Sampling Strategy

The current study employed a cluster sampling method, and the sample was

obtained in two steps. First, the companies identified under the IT sector listed on the

directories of European Chamber of Commerce and American Chamber of Commerce

were considered. Among the 32 IT companies that have offices in Ho Chi Minh City, six

companies granted permissions to survey their employees. Second, all employees within

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these firms, who met the criteria mentioned in the population section, were invited to

participate in the survey. A total of 646 participants were recruited to participate.

Cluster sampling was appropriate because it sufficiently represented the population of the

current study.

Instruments/Measurers

The current study used the self-report survey questionnaire, which consisted of

three parts (see Appendix A). The first part asked demographic information including

age, gender, education level, job status, job tenure, or nationality. The second part

measured personality traits using the Ten Item Personality Inventory (Gosling et al.,

2003). This instrument uses a seven-point Likert scale, which ranges from disagree

strongly to agree strongly. The third part assessed job satisfaction using the short-form

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967). This instrument uses a five-

point Likert scale, which ranges from very dissatisfied to very satisfied. The survey

questionnaire took about 10 to 15 minutes to finish.

Operational Definitions of Variables

Age was defined as the actual age in terms of the year the participants were born.

Education level was defined as the choice selected by the participant given the

following options: high school, vocational degree, associate’s degree, bachelor’s degree,

master’s degree, and others.

Gender was defined as the choice selected by the participant given the following

options: male or female.

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Job satisfaction facets (extrinsic, intrinsic, and overall satisfaction) were assessed

by the participant’s response to a five-point Likert format scale answering questions that

defined them.

Extrinsic satisfaction was defined as the sum of six items 5, 6, 12, 13, 14,

and 19.

Intrinsic satisfaction was defined as the sum of 12 items 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9,

10, 11, 15, 16, and 20.

Overall satisfaction was defined as the sum of 18 items from extrinsic and

intrinsic subscales plus items 17 and 18.

Job status was defined as the choice selected by the participant given the

following options: supervisor or non-supervisor.

Nationality was defined as the choice selected by the participant given the

following options: Vietnamese, Vietnamese overseas, American, European, others.

Personality trait dimensions (Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion,

Neuroticism, and Openness) were assessed by the participant’s response to a seven-point

Likert format scale answering questions that defined them.

Agreeableness was defined as the average of two items 2R and 7.

Extraversion was defined as the average of two items 1 and 6R.

Conscientiousness was defined as the average of two items 3 and 8R.

Neuroticism was defined as the average of two items 4R and 9.

Openness to experiences was defined as the average of two items 5 and

10R.

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“R” denoted reverse-scored items, which require recoding prior to calculating the

score.

The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire

The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) was utilized in the current study

for the advantages this instrument offers in comparison with other instruments, such as

the Job Descriptive Index. According to Rothausen, Gonzaler, and Griffin (2009), the

Job Descriptive Index and the MSQ are the most widely used instruments to measure job

satisfaction. The Job Descriptive Index measures five factors of satisfaction, and the

participants are asked to answer “yes”, “no”, or “cannot decide” based on the information

provided in the questionnaire. The MSQ, on the other hand, covers 20 factors of

satisfaction. The MSQ instrument uses five-point Likert scale ranging from very

dissatisfied to very satisfied.

In comparison with the Job Descriptive Index, the MSQ has more advantages.

For example, the three-point scale of the Job Descriptive Index versus the five-point scale

of the MSQ reveals the different levels of reliability between the two instruments. Then,

the MSQ addresses a larger number of job facets than the Job Descriptive Index. In fact,

it is recommended that when an overall measure of job satisfaction is necessary and

reported additional validation of the item content of the Job Descriptive Index is needed,

the Job Descriptive Index instrument should not be used (Kinicki, McKee-Ryan,

Schriesheim, & Carson, 2002). Moreover, the reliability for internal consistency of the

MSQ is considered high, ranging from 0.84 – 0.91, 0.77 – 0.82, and 0.87 – 0.92 for

intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction, respectively (Weiss et al., 1967). For

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these reasons, the current study chose the MSQ to measure job satisfaction. The

University of Minnesota has granted a permission to use the MSQ instrument.

Previous research and the MSQ. As mentioned above, the short-from MSQ has

been frequently used in job satisfaction research. For example, Arvey, Bouchard, Segal,

and Abraham (1989) investigated the factors influencing job attitudes among

monozygotic twin pairs. A sample of 25 female and 9 male twin pairs who had been

separated from an early age was asked to answer the short-form MSQ. The findings

showed that genetic components significantly related to intrinsic job satisfaction and

overall job satisfaction among these individuals although modestly related to their

extrinsic job satisfaction. Despite the results, Arvey et al. noted that the value of job

enrichment or other intervention procedures used to increase job satisfaction should not

be overlooked.

Examining the effects of job satisfaction on employee attendance and

performance, Zeffane, Ibrahim, and Mehairi (2008) conducted a study at a utility

company in the United Arab Emirates. Data were obtained from 125 administrative

employees who are both supervisors and non-supervisors and are fluent in English. In

justifying the use of the short-form MSQ, Zeffane et al. stated that the short form served a

similar purpose and carried the same degree of validity and reliability as the long-form

MSQ. The study revealed interesting results that gender did play a role in job satisfaction

aspects. Particularly, women valued the intrinsic aspects of their jobs, such as

supervision, and they had lower overall job satisfaction as compared with men. The

correlations between attendance, performance, and job satisfaction of the female

employees with the “perceived competence” of the supervisor were also significant (p.

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247). On the other hand, men seemed to value the extrinsic aspects related to working

conditions. The relationships between job satisfaction with working conditions and

attendance of the male employees were considerable. Drawn from these findings, the

researchers suggest that future studies should aim at generalizing the results to the

population of the United Arab Emirates and explaining the different results from those of

studies on gender differences conducted in Western countries.

Gunlu, Aksarayli, and Percin (2010) sought to verify the influence of job

satisfaction on organizational commitment for managers in large-scale hotels in the

Aegean region of Turkey and the relationships between job satisfaction with the

characteristics of the managers and their organizational commitment. Using the short-

form MSQ, Gunlu et al. assessed job satisfaction of 123 hotel managers in the four- and

five-star hotels in Turkey. The findings indicated a higher intrinsic satisfaction level of

the managers than their extrinsic and overall satisfaction levels. A potential explanation

for these findings is that the dynamic working environment in the tourism industry, where

employees may utilize their abilities and achieve their career plans, might have

contributed to the high level of intrinsic satisfaction (Gunlu, Aksarayli, & Percin, 2010).

Conversely, Gunlu et al. believed that factors such as low wages, long working hours,

and inconsistent company policies of the tourism industry correlated to the low levels of

extrinsic and overall job satisfaction. The results also revealed a positive relationship

between the educational level, age, and income level of the hotel managers with their

extrinsic job satisfaction.

Ghazzawi (2011) studied the influence of age on job satisfaction facets of

information technology (IT) professionals. A sample of 132 IT professionals in various

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Southern California organizations was surveyed using the short-form MSQ. The study

revealed mixed results in which no significant and consistent linkage existed between

intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction with age. Similar with previous research

(Brush, Moch, & Pooyan, 1987), Ghazzawi suggested that future research should

examine other demographic differences and organizational factors to determine their

influence on job satisfaction. Further, Ghazzawi provided several practical implications

for managers in general as well as in the IT sector. For example, to reduce job

dissatisfaction, managers need to provide consistent and transparent policies, or to

discuss with employees their performance goals. Due to the small sample size,

generalization was impossible; however, the study contributed to job satisfaction

literature by providing empirical findings regarding the correlation of age and job

satisfaction facets.

Yin-Fah, Foon, Chee-Long, and Osman (2010) examined the organizational

commitment, job stress, jobs satisfaction, and turnover intention among the private sector

employee in Petaling District, Malaysia. A snowball sampling was used, resulting in a

sample of 120 participants with an equal number of male (30) and female (30) in each

group of Malay and Non-Malay. The short-form MSQ was used to measure the job

satisfaction levels among the participants. The results provided a useful reminder that

when employees are satisfied with their jobs, they tend to be committed to their

organizations and are less likely to think of quitting as indicated in previous studies

(Karatepe, Uludag, Menevis, Hadzimehmedagic, & Baddar, 2006; Lacity, Iyer, &

Rudramuniyaiah, 2008; Tett & Meyer, 1993). Moreover, Yin-Fah et al. found that salary

was predictive of job satisfaction and decision to stay with the organization, which was in

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line with Randolph’s (2005) study. Similar to prior studies (Franek & Vecera, 2008;

Gibson & Klein, 1970; Moyes et al. 2006; Oshagbemi, 2003), Yin-Fah et al. suggested

that demographic characteristics such as age, job tenure, and job experience were

correlated with job satisfaction and turnover intention.

In summary, the short-form MSQ has been continuously utilized to measure job

satisfaction of high-skilled employees in the services industry because of its validity and

reliability. Since the current study sought to verify the relationships between personality

traits as well as demographic characteristics and job satisfaction of the IT professionals in

MNCs, Vietnam, this MSQ instrument was appropriated.

The Ten Item Personality Inventory

Similar to job satisfaction measurements, several rating instruments have been

introduced to measure personality. Costa and McCrae (1985) designed the most

comprehensive instrument, which comprised of 240 items. However, instrument was

considered too lengthy, hence, the need for shorter instruments. In response to this need,

three shorter instruments were created, including (1) the 44-item Big Five Inventory

(John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991), (2) the 60-item NEO Five Factor Inventory (Costa &

McCrae, 1992), and (3) the 40-item instrument (Goldberg, 1992). Nevertheless, these

short instruments were still not appropriate for situations where time was limited and

personality was not the primary topic. As a result, the super-short instrument, the Ten

Item Personality Inventory (Gosling et al., 2003), was developed.

In comparison to the longer instruments, the Ten Item Personality Inventory

(TIPI) may be inferior for not capturing all of the facets and achieving the similar levels

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of accuracy. According to Gosling et al. (2003), the TIPI demonstrates substantial levels

in all criteria evaluated, for example, convergence with the Big-Five measures in self-

observer, in peer-reports, test-retest reliability, patterns of predicted external correlates,

and convergence between self and observer ratings. Specifically, the TIPI has

demonstrated high levels of convergence with the frequently used Big Five Inventory

with convergent correlations of .87, .75, .70, .81, and .65 for extraversion, neuroticism,

agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness, respectively. Therefore, the TIPI was

the best choice for the current study. The TIPI is available on public domain; therefore,

no permission is required.

Previous research and the TIPI. Since its introduction in 2003, the TIPI has

been widely used in a number of studies (Ehrhart et al., 2009); nevertheless, it has not

been frequently used in job satisfaction research. Because it is a fairly new developed

instrument, the TIPI has been considerably tested to verify its validity and reliability.

Therefore, this section focuses on the assessment of the TIPI to justify the reason for

selecting this instrument in the current study.

Muck, Hell, and Gosling (2007) evaluated the construct validity of two

instruments, the TIPI in German version (TIPI-G) and the German modification of the

NEO-Personality Inventory (Ostendorf & Angleitner, 2004), original from Costa and

McCrae (1992). A snowball recruitment procedure was used starting with 20 economics

students, resulting in the responses of 180 self- and 359 peer-reports. The findings

revealed that the TIPI-G successfully captured the basis of the broader aspects, and the

TIPI-G assessed constructs very similar to the ones evaluated by the NEO- Personality

Inventory. As a result, Muck et al. (2007) recommended the TIPI for circumstances,

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“where time is limited, where the primary theoretical focus is on other constructs, or

where it is desirable to reduce the testing burden on participants” (p. 166). This

suggestion suits the situation of the current study.

Similarly, Hofmans, Kuppens, and Alik (2008) created a Dutch version of the

TIPI (TIPI-D) testing to what degree the TIPI covers the essential part of the five-factor

model dimensions (Costa & McCrae, 1985). Conducting the first study, which consisted

of 345 college students, the researchers reported that in order to conform with the

psychometric standards of a sound five-factor model instrument, the three dimensions:

agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness of the TIPI-D items needed adjustment.

Consequently, the second study was conducted six months later to address the limitation

of the prior study. In general, the convergent and divergent validity for all five-factor

model dimensions were considered reasonable in the second study. The findings were

similar to the original TIPI instrument (Gosling et al., 2003) in which not all different

facets were covered. Particularly, the core of the other four dimensions was adequately

to highly covered although it was not the case of the openness dimension. As a result,

Hofmans et al. suggested that researchers should consider these issues when interpreting

the results obtained with the TIPI. In short, Hofmans et al. concluded that when time is

restricted, the TIPI could be used instead of other existing five-factor model instruments.

Ehrhart et al. (2009) conducted a study to compare the factor structure and

convergent validity between the TIPI (Gosling et al., 2003) and the 50-item International

Personality Item Pool measure (Goldberg et al., 2006). Instead of openness as included

in the TIPI, the International Personality Item Pool instrument considered intellect. Data

were collected from a sample of 902 respondents with a relatively even number of male

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and female as well as ethnically diverse college students. In relation to the factor

structure and convergent validity of the instrument, the TIPI produced better results as

compared with the International Personality Item Pool instrument. Overall, Ehrhart et

al.’s study supported the five-factor model fit and convergent validity of the TIPI.

However, they also suggest more studies of the psychometric properties of short measure

should be conducted.

Furnharm et al. (2009) are among the few researchers that employed the TIPI in

their study. Furnham et al. explored the correlation of personality and demographic

variables to work motivation and job satisfaction as defined by Herzberg, Mausner, and

Snyderman’s (1959) theory. A total of 202 fulltime employees of different companies in

retail, manufacturing, and healthcare participated in the study. The results revealed

significant relationships between conscientiousness and all three categories of job

satisfaction: overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic. These findings were in line with the Judge,

Heller, and Mount’s (2002) findings, which indicated an average correlation of 0.26

between job satisfaction and conscientiousness. To explain these results, Furnham et al.

suggested that individuals who scored high on conscientiousness were more likely to be

rewarded both extrinsically and intrinsically. Accordingly, this would fulfill both the

hygiene and motivator factors indicated in the Herzberg et al.’s theory.

In summary, the research by Muck et al. (2007), Hofmans et al. (2008), and

Ehrhart et al. (2009) indicated the acceptable validity and reliability of the TIPI in

measuring the Big Five personality traits. These studies also pointed out that this

instrument would be appropriate for situations where time and/or space were limited.

Similar to the MSQ, testing for Cronbach’s alpha was conducted to determine the

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reliability of this survey instrument. With regard to job satisfaction research, the study of

Furnham et al. (2009) demonstrated that this instrument could effectively measure the

personality where the personality is not the primary construct of the study. The current

study adopted the TIPI for the advantages this instrument offered.

Data Collection

The target population of this study were Vietnamese and expatriate IT personnel

from MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Therefore, all correspondences such as

cover letters, consent forms, and questionnaires were in both Vietnamese and English.

The original documents were translated into Vietnamese, and the issue of language

translation was considered. To ensure the equivalence of the meanings in both

languages, these documents were translated forward and backward using different

translators as suggested by Brislin (1980). First, these correspondences were translated

into Vietnamese by a native Vietnamese translator. During this process, the researcher

who is fluent in both Vietnamese and English discussed with the translator to resolve any

discrepancies between the two versions. Second, the Vietnamese version of the informed

consent form and the questionnaire was translated back into English by a linguistic

teacher at a university in Vietnam. In comparison to the original English version, the

back-translated version contained no substantial differences in the meaning. Hence, no

necessary change was made.

To establish contacts with the potential participants, the researcher made an initial

introduction to the management of selected organizations and asked their permission to

survey their employees via telephone. Per their requests, cover letters were emailed to

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the management explaining the objective of the study, the description of how the

participants were selected, and the guarantee of confidentiality to the participants.

During the period of April 12 – 22, 2012, the researcher met with the management of the

companies in Ho Chi Minh City to discuss the process of data collection. Since most of

these companies did not allow external email to their employees, the management agreed

to distribute the letters of invitation and consent forms to their employees, who met the

requirements to participate in the survey. It is important to note that the management

neither oversaw the survey nor had access to the participant’s responses.

After receiving the email from their human resource managers, the potential

participants took part in the study by clicking on the link provided in the consent form.

This link then led them to the survey questionnaire hosted on the website Survey

Monkey. The advantages of using this secure server for a survey include reasonable cost,

quick turnaround time for data collection, and protection of confidentiality. In addition,

with intent to encourage employees to participate, no identifiable information was

indicated on the survey questionnaire. The purpose of this process, which follows

Cooper and Schindler’s (2008) suggestion, was to ensure the participants that their

confidentiality, privacy, and anonymity were protected.

The questionnaire included three parts. The first part collected the demographic

information of the participants including age, gender, job status, education levels, and

nationality. The second part consisted of 10 questions from the TIPI to measure the five

personality traits. The third part was comprised of 20 questions from the MSQ

instrument that measures the intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction of the

participants. Table 8 provides a chart of data collection planning.

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Table 8. Data Collection Planning Chart

Research Questions Subsidiary Questions Online Survey

Questions

Research Question #1:

What is the relationship

between job satisfaction

(overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic

factors) and demographic

characteristics (age, gender, job

status, education level, and

nationality) among IT

personnel of MNCs in Ho Chi

Minh City, Vietnam?

Online Survey

Part 3, Question

#s: 1-20 and Part

1, Question #s: 3,

4, 5, 6, 8

RQ #1, Subsidiary Q #1: What is

the relationship between overall

job satisfaction and demographic

characteristics among IT


Minh City, Vietnam?

Online Survey

Part 3, Question

#s: 1-20 and Part

1, Question #s – 3,

4, 5, 6, 8


the relationship between

extrinsic factors and

demographic characteristics

among IT personnel of MNCs in


Online Survey

Part 3, Question

#s: 5, 6, 12, 13,

14, 19 and Part 1,

Question #s: 3, 4,

5, 6, 8


the relationship between intrinsic

factors and demographic

characteristics among IT


Minh City, Vietnam?

Online Survey

Part 3, Question

#s: 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8,

9, 10, 11, 15, 16,

20 and Part 1,

Question #s: 3, 4,

5, 6, 8

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Table 8. Data Collection Planning Chart (continued)

Research Questions Subsidiary Questions Online Survey

Questions

Research Question #2:

What is the relationship

between job satisfaction

(overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic

factors) and personality trait

variables (extraversion,

agreeableness, neuroticism,

conscientiousness, and

openness to experience) among

IT personnel of MNCs in Ho

Chi Minh City, Vietnam?

Online Survey Part

3, Question #s: 1-

20 and Part 2,

Question #s: 1-10


the relationship between overall

job satisfaction and personality

trait variables among IT


Minh City, Vietnam?

Online Survey Part

3, Question #s: 1-

20 and Part 2,

Question #s: 1 - 10


the relationship between extrinsic

factors and personality trait

variables among IT personnel of

MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City,

Vietnam?

Online Survey Part

3, Question #s: 5,

6, 12, 13, 14, 19

and Part 2,

Question #s: 1 - 10


the relationship between intrinsic

factors and personality trait

variables among IT personnel of

MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City,

Vietnam?

Online Survey Part

3, Question #s: 1,

2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10,

11, 15, 16, 20 and

Part 2, Question

#s: 1 - 10

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The data collection was administered in a five-week period starting on April 16,

2012. First, the human resource managers of the participated companies sent out an

email to inform their employees of the survey and encouraged them to participate. This

email included the cover letter to employees and consent form. About one-half of the

responses were first received by the end of April. After several reminders to the

management, the final responses were received by the fifth week ending on May 18,

2012. The collected data were coded on an Excel spreadsheet, and then transferred to the

Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS; Norusis, 2009) version 17.0 for

statistical tests. The data were saved on a separate flash drive and stored in a filing

cabinet at the researcher’s home, which can only be accessed by the researcher. In

addition, the data will be kept for a period of seven years and will then be destroyed.

Data Analysis

The current study employed the analytical software SPSS (Norusis, 2009) version

17.0 to analyze the correlation between the dependent and independent variables as well

as to explain their relationships. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the basic

features of the data obtained in the study. Frequency distributions, measure of central

tendency, and variability were utilized to describe the variables in this study.

As mentioned above, the two statistical techniques: correlation and regression

analyses were utilized to answer the research questions. In general, statistical tests

depend on a number of assumptions about the variables used in the analysis, and some

assumptions are more robust to violation than the others are (Osborne & Waters, 2002).

Specifically, three major assumptions underlying regression and correlation analyses

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(normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity) and steps used for testing these assumptions

are discussed in detail. According to Pedhazur (1997), the violation of any of these

assumptions could lead to serious biases (at worst) or inefficient data analysis (at best);

therefore, testing the assumptions was necessary. In addition to the assumptions, the

following section presents alternative analyses (non-parametric), if the assumptions are

violated, and includes a description of correlation and regression analyses.

Assumptions of Multiple Regression Analysis

First, the normality assumption implies that the data collected are normally

distributed. Non-normality exists if the error distribution is skewed by the presence of a

few large outliers. In the current study, the normal probability plot was used to test for

normality. The normal probability plot is a graphical technique for assessing whether the

data are normally distributed and evaluating the nature of the departure from normality

(Chambers, 1983). For the distribution to be normal, the points on this plot should stay

close to a diagonal line that starts from lower left to upper right. Deviations from this

straight line suggest deviations from normality.

Second, the assumption of linearity refers to a straight-line relationship between

dependent and independent variables (Pedhazur, 1997). Nonlinearity of data can be

evident in a scatter plot produced with the standard regression output. The data points

should be symmetrically distributed around a diagonal line of the observed versus

predicted values plot or around a horizontal line of the residuals versus predicted values

plot. These plots are developed using the SPSS tool. If the results follow a curvilinear

pattern, the linearity assumption is violated (Cohen & Cohen, 1975). If nonlinearity

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occurs, application of a nonlinear transformation to the dependent and/or independent

variables could be used.

Finally, homoscedasticity assumption means that the variance around the

regression line is equal for all values of the independent variables (Hair, Anderson,

Tatham, & Black, 1998). Development of the same plots mentioned above could be used

to detect any violations in this assumption. When residuals are more spread-out either as

a function of time or as a function of the predicted value, the assumption of

homoscedasticity is violated (Cohen & Cohen, 1975). In this case, it is difficult to

measure the true standard deviation of the forecast errors, in which the confidence

intervals are either too wide or too narrow. In addition, to test the equality of variance

further, Levene’s test would be conducted. For the Levene’s F test, a p-value that is

greater than the critical value of 0.05 would mean that the data has equal variances

between groups.

Correlation Analysis

The research questions were explored with bi-variate correlations between the

variables of interest. The parametric Pearson Product Moment correlation analysis (r)

was employed to measure the strength of a linear association between two variables, such

as the personality traits and the job satisfaction variables. Besides the above three

assumptions, two important assumptions were made with respect to Pearson’s correlation.

One assumption was the variables must be either interval or ratio measurements. The

other assumption was the outliers either are kept to a minimum or are completely

removed. In the current study, the responses on job satisfaction and personality trait

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variables were collected based on the Likert-type scale. For the purposes of this study,

the ordinal data collected using the Likert-type scale was treated as interval level data.

Empirical evidence from numerous psychometric studies revealed that treating an

ordinal-level scale as interval-level did not create serious errors (Glass & Hopkins, 1996).

If the collected data proved to violate the assumptions of a parametric analysis, the non-

parametric counterpart of correlation analysis, Spearman’s Rank (Rho), would be

employed. Moreover, the Spearman’s Rank was utilized for the correlation analysis that

involved an ordinal data type (e.g. educational level).

Multiple Regression Analysis

As suggested by Bates (2005), the multiple regression estimates “the extent to

which the proportion of variance in a specific dependent variable is associated with

variation in multiple independent variables” (p. 118). Therefore, multiple regression

analysis was used to determine how the variables of demographic characteristics and

personality traits explain the variation in job satisfaction. In the current study, the

dependent variable had three dimensions; thus, three linear regression analyses were

performed. Table 9 provides a summary of the variables, three scales of measurement,

and their classification as independent or dependent variables.

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Table 9. Variables of Interest

Variable Scale of Measurement Type of

Variable

Overall Job Satisfaction Interval Dependent

Extrinsic Job Satisfaction Interval Dependent

Intrinsic Job Satisfaction Interval Dependent

Demographic Variables

Age Interval Independent

Gender Nominal (Male, Female) Independent

Job Status Nominal (Supervisor, Non-Supervisor) Independent

Education Level Ordinal (high school, some college,

associate’s degree, bachelor’s degree,

master’s degree or higher)

Independent

Nationality Nominal (Vietnamese, Vietnamese

overseas, European, American, others)

Independent

Personality Variables

Extraversion Interval Independent

Agreeableness Interval Independent

Conscientiousness Interval Independent

Neuroticism Interval Independent

Openness Interval Independent

Validity and Reliability

Using the existing instruments for the quantitative survey, the current study took

advantage of which the validity and reliability testing of these instruments have been

conducted (Bourque & Fielder, 2003). Moreover, the use of the Likert-type scale in the

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and Ten Item Personality Inventory reduced the

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vagueness of the survey responses, hence, increasing the criterion validity (Groves et al.,

2009). In addition, the current study conducted the Cronbach’s alpha to test the

reliability of the selected survey instruments.

Discussing the internal validity of as study, Trochim (2006) suggested that a

random sample helps prevent biased results, which then enhances the internal validity of

the study. The current study collected data from a random sample that covered various

positions of IT personnel working for foreign-owned companies in Ho Chi Minh City,

Vietnam. A wide range of this random sample may allow generalizing the results to

different populations. According to Creswell (2009), generalizability increases the

external validity of the study, which is the focus of the current study. Moreover,

administering the data collection online, the researcher had minimum contact with the

participants. As a result, the researcher’s neutrality was preserved.

Ethical Considerations

Clearly, trustworthy scholars and practitioners value ethics. Discussing ethics in

research, Dr. David Resnik (2011) emphasized that protection of human subjects is one

of the most important ethical principles. In his article What Is Ethics in Research & Why

Is It Important?, Dr. Resnik presented a concise yet effective argument regarding this

topic. Understanding the significance of ethics, the researcher of the current study

carefully considered the issues of ethics in conducting the study. First, the researcher

sought to obtain permission from the management of the selected companies to survey

their employees. After gaining permission, the researcher provided the potential

participants with a consent form and a link to the survey questionnaire via email. The

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purposes of this email were to introduce the researcher and the purpose of the research

study, describe the criteria of selecting the participants, and explain the protection of the

participant’s confidentiality. After the data collected and analyzed, the researcher saved

them in a secure place (her own home office) for at least seven years. Essentially, the

researcher exercised the specific principles of “Respect, Beneficence, and Justice"

entailed in the Belmont Report (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1979).

Summary

The current study sought to verify the relationships among the demographic

characteristics, personality traits, and job satisfaction of the information technology

personnel working in foreign-owned companies in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. The

study reflects the post-positivistic viewpoint. Therefore, the quantitative correlational

research design was employed. Specifically, the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire

and the Ten Item Personality Inventory were used to measure the participants’ job

satisfaction and personality traits. To analyze the data collected, correlation analysis and

multiple regression analysis were utilized. Similar to other existing research approaches,

the quantitative approach possesses both advantages and limitations involving the

sampling, researcher’s role, data collection, and data analysis. Nevertheless, as Miller et

al. (2011) suggested, organizational researchers should increasingly apply quantitative

methods in future studies for the significant developments of this method. Therefore, the

quantitative correlational method was most suitable for the current study.

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CHAPTER 4. RESULTS

Introduction

The objective of this quantitative correlational study was to examine the

relationship between personality traits and job satisfaction as well as between

demographic variables and job satisfaction among information technology (IT)

professionals working for multinational corporations (MNCs) in Ho Chi Minh City,

Vietnam. The personality traits included five components: (a) extraversion, (b)

agreeableness, (c) conscientiousness, (d) neuroticism, and (e) openness to experience,

which are also known as the Big Five. The demographic characteristics consisted of five

dimensions: (a) age, (b) gender, (c) job status, (d) education level, and (e) nationality.

Three categories of job satisfaction: overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic were considered. As

entailed in chapter 3, correlation and regression analyses were utilized to address the

following research questions:

(1) What is the relationship between job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and

extrinsic) and demographic characteristics such as age, gender, job status, education

level, and nationality of IT personnel in MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam?

(2) What is the relationship between the job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and

extrinsic) and the personality trait variables such as extraversion, agreeableness,

conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience of IT personnel in MNCs in


Chapter 4 presents the findings and analysis of the data collected for the current

study. This chapter begins with a complete description of the participant sample. The

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next two sections provide the results of the data analysis for each of the hypotheses in

summary as well as in detail. The chapter concludes with a summary of the findings that

answer to the original research questions.

Description of the Sample

The general population for the study were Vietnamese and expatriate personnel in

the information technology MNCs located in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; however,

respondents were predominately Vietnamese (99%). The participants were asked to

respond to the surveys published in Survey Monkey. Two versions of surveys with one

being in Vietnamese and the other in English language were provided.

Out of 646 invitations, 166 respondents completed the questionnaire, resulting in

a response rate of 25.7%. For the Vietnamese survey, 142 respondents of 251 invitations

completed the survey. For the English survey, 24 participants of 37 invitations

completed the survey. The number of completed surveys in total (166) exceeded the

number required for the sample size (118). Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that

further analyses will provide sufficient power and significance.

Table 10 details the frequency counts and percentages for the sample’s

demographics. The data revealed that a majority of the participants (74.1%) have been

with their company between 1 to 5 years, whereas a small number of the participants

(4.2%) have been with their company between 11 to 20 years. The remaining

participants (21.7%) have been with their company between 6 to 10 years. The sample

displays a large disparity between genders, in which the number of males (70.5%)

exceeded the number of females (29.5%).

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The age range of the participants is between 22 and 55. The participant ages were

grouped into seven categories: 21-25, 26-30, 31-35, 36-40, 41-45, 46-50, and older than

50. More than half of the respondents belonged to the 26-30 age group (53.6%),

followed by the 31-35 age group (24.1%) and the 21-25 age group (15.7%). There were

only 3.6% of the participants in the 36-40 age group and 1.8% in the 41-45 age group,

whereas only 0.6% of them belonged to each of the remaining category. In other words,

the majority of participants (93,4%) were 35 years old or younger.

Among the 166 participants, three-fourths of the participants held a bachelor’s

degree, followed by 10.2 % with an associate’s degree and 7.8% with a master’s degree.

Participants who had a high school’s degree and vocational degree were equal at 3%.

With regard to the number of employees at the current location, participants from

the companies that have 101 to 500 employees dominated the sample (36.7%). There

were 28.9% of the participants from companies with more than 500 employees, followed

by 23.5% participants from companies with 11 to 50 employees. There were only 6.6%

and 4.2% of participants from companies with 51 to 100 employees and 1 to 10

employees, respectively.

Table 10 also shows that many participants did not hold managerial position

(72.3%). Among the participants who were supervisors, 25.3% of them supervised

between 1 to 10 employees, followed by 7.2% supervised over 20 employees and 5.4%

supervised between 11 to 20 employees. About half of the respondents, 52.4%, were

engineers, followed by 25.9% analysts/technicians and 16.9% in managerial positions.

There were only 1.2% in sales positions and 3.6% in other positions.

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Table 10. Descriptive Statistics for Demographic Variables

Frequency Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Job Tenure

1 - 5 years 123 74.1% 74.1%

6 - 10 years 36 21.7% 95.8%

11 – 20 years 7 4.2% 100.0%

Gender

Male 117 70.5% 70.5%

Female 49 29.5% 100.0%

Age

21-25 26 15.7% 15.7%

26-30 89 53.6% 69.3%

31-35 40 24.1% 93.4%

36-40 6 3.6% 97.0%

41-45 3 1.8% 98.8%

46-50 1 0.6% 99.4%

above 50 years old 1 0.6% 100.0%

Highest Educational

Attainment

High school’s degree 5 3.0% 3.0%

Vocational degree 5 3.0% 6.0%

Associate’s degree 17 10.2% 16.3%

Bachelor’s degree 125 75.3% 91.6%

Master’s degree 13 7.8% 99.4%

Others 1 0.6% 100.0%

Number of Employees

1-10 7 4.2% 4.2%

11-50 39 23.5% 27.7%

51-100 11 6.6% 34.3%

101-500 61 36.7% 71.1%

more than 500 48 28.9% 100.0%

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Table 10. Descriptive Statistics for Demographic Variables (continued)

Frequency Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Supervisory Position

Supervisor 46 27.7% 27.7%

Non-supervisor 120 72.3% 100.0%

Employees Under

Supervision

0 103 62.0% 62.0%

1-10 42 25.3% 87.3%

11-20 9 5.4% 92.8%

over 20 12 7.2% 100.0%

Job Title

Analyst/Technician 43 25.9% 25.9%

Engineer 87 52.4% 78.3%

Management 28 16.9% 95.2%

Salesperson 2 1.2% 96.4%

Others 6 3.6% 100.0%

Note. Total sample size N = 166.

Summary of Results

The results of the data analysis for each of the hypotheses are briefly described in

this section, as the details will be discussed in the next section. Correlations and multiple

regressions were conducted to test the two main hypotheses of the study:

Hypothesis 1

Ho1: Demographic characteristic variables (age, gender, job status, education

level, and nationality) are not related to job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic).

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H1: Demographic characteristic variables (age, gender, job status, education level,

and nationality) are related to job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic).

The results of the correlation analysis revealed that both overall and extrinsic job

satisfaction were not related to demographic characteristic variables (age, gender, job

status, education level, and nationality). However, a significant relationship was

observed between job status and intrinsic satisfaction. In addition, the regression analysis

showed that none of the demographic variables significantly accounted for the variation

in the three subscales of satisfaction: overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic. Therefore, there is

insufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis Ho1.

Hypothesis 2.

Ho2: Personality trait variables (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,

neuroticism, and openness) are not related to job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and

extrinsic).

H2: Personality trait variables (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,

neuroticism, and openness) are related to job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and

extrinsic).

The findings of the correlation analysis suggested no evidence indicating a

significant relationship between the independent variables of personality traits and

dependent variables of job satisfaction. Moreover, the data from the regression analysis

showed that these independent variables did not significantly explain the variation of

satisfaction variables. As a result, there is insufficient evidence to reject the null

hypothesis Ho2.

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Details of Analysis and Results

The data analysis process was performed in two steps. First, the assumptions of

normal distribution, linearity and, homoscedasticity were examined in order to ensure the

correct tests were selected. Second, the proper analyses such as correlations and multiple

regressions were conducted to test the hypotheses of the study. The results of the

assumption tests and the analysis for each of the hypotheses are discussed in depth.

Results of Assumption Tests

Normality assumption. In order to determine whether the interval data of

personality trait variables followed normal distribution, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test

(K-S test) was conducted. As mentioned in Norusis’s (2009) book, the K-S test is a

statistical analysis used to test whether data distribution is normal. If data followed

normal distribution, parametric tests such as Pearson’s correlation analysis would be

conducted to test the hypotheses posed for this research study. Alternatively, non-

parametric tests such as the Spearman’s correlation analysis should be conducted if the

data were not normally distributed.

The current study utilized the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI) to measure

personality traits of participants. Since the TIPI included a seven-point Likert scale, the

range of scores was from 1 to 7. The responses of participants in each of the subscales of

personality traits were averaged to calculate the overall score for each of the five

personality traits.

Table 11 illustrates the summary statistics for the personality trait variables. The

highest personality trait score was observed for the conscientiousness trait (M = 5.443,

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SD = 1.095), whereas the lowest personality trait score was observed for the neuroticism

trait (M = 4.702, SD = 1.202). Moreover, the results of the K-S test revealed that the

traits of extraversion (K-S = 1.590, p-value = .013), conscientiousness (K-S = 1.887, p-

value = .002), and openness (K-S = 1.735, p-value = .005) were not normally distributed.

As a result, a non-parametric test of Spearman’s correlation analysis on these three

variables was conducted. On the other hand, the K-S test results showed that the

personality trait variables of agreeableness (K-S = 1.341, p-value = .055) and emotional

stability (K-S = 1.247, p-value = .089) were normally distributed; therefore, a parametric

test of Pearson’s correlation analysis was conducted.

Table 11. Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of Normality for Personality Trait Variables

Mean SD Kolmogorov-

Smirnov Z p-value

Extraversion

4.843

1.324

1.590

.013

Agreeableness 5.081 1.069 1.341 .055

Conscientiousness 5.443 1.095 1.887 .002

Neuroticism 4.702 1.202 1.247 .089

Openness

5.178 1.127 1.735 .005

Note. Significance level at p-value < 0.05. N = 166.

The short-form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) was

employed to measure the job satisfaction of participants in three subscales: extrinsic

satisfaction, intrinsic satisfaction, and overall satisfaction. The satisfaction scores were

summed up to capture the scores for each of the three satisfaction components. Table 12

shows the mean score for extrinsic satisfaction was 20.620 (SD = 3.592), whereas the

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mean score for the intrinsic satisfaction was 43.349 (SD = 5.974). Since the extrinsic

score was the sum of only six items in the questionnaire, it was expected that this score

had a lower range of values as opposed to the intrinsic satisfaction score, which

considered 12 items. The overall satisfaction score, which was calculated through the

sum of all 20 items in the MSQ, had a mean of 71.669 (SD = 9.621).

Similar to the personality trait scores, K-S tests were conducted to assess whether

the satisfaction scores followed a normal distribution. The data in Table 12 indicate that

each of the three subscales was normally distributed. Therefore, Pearson’s correlation

analysis was conducted to test the research hypotheses posed for the current study.

Table 12. Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test on Satisfaction Variables

Mean SD Kolmogorov-

Smirnov Z p-value

Extrinsic Satisfaction

20.620

3.592

1.225

.099

Intrinsic Satisfaction 43.349 5.974 1.252 .087

Overall Satisfaction

71.669 9.621 1.309 .065


Linearity and homoscedascticity assumptions. In order to test the dependent

variables for linearity and homoscedascticity, the observed versus predicted values plots

were analyzed. Figures 4 to 6 present the plots for the satisfaction variables. In addition,

the X-Y plots for the five personality trait variables and the satisfaction variables were

performed (see Appendix B).

119

These figures display the data points in each of the three satisfaction variables,

which were symmetrically distributed around the diagonal line. Thus, it could be

concluded that data for extrinsic satisfaction, intrinsic satisfaction, and overall

satisfaction were aligned with the assumption of linearity and homoscedasticity. These

findings implied that regression analyses were appropriate to analyze relationships

considering these dependent variables.

Figure 4. Observed versus Predicted Plot for Extrinsic Satisfaction

120

Figure 5. Observed versus Predicted Plot for Intrinsic Satisfaction

Figure 6. Observed versus Predicted Plot for Overall Satisfaction

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Reliability Analysis

Reliability analyses were conducted to assess whether the items in the

questionnaires were good measures of the constructs considered in this study. Table 13

presents the results of the reliability analyses. As observed, the items for job satisfaction

for IT professionals in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam were reliable in measuring the

constructs of extrinsic satisfaction (Cronbach’s alpha = .786), intrinsic satisfaction

(Cronbach’s alpha = .849), and overall satisfaction (Cronbach’s alpha = .894). For the

personality trait variables, the analyses determined that the responses of participants were

inconsistent for measures of extraversion (Cronbach’s alpha = .446), agreeableness

(Cronbach’s alpha = .114), conscientiousness (Cronbach’s alpha = .255), neuroticism

(Cronbach’s alpha = .433), and openness (Cronbach’s alpha = .399). However, the

responses of these participants were still considered in this study because the TIPI

questionnaire was established to measure these constructs in previous studies (Goldberg

et al., 2006; Gosling et al., 2003).

Table 13. Reliability Analysis of Constructs

Cronbach's Alpha

Extrinsic Satisfaction

.786

Intrinsic Satisfaction .849

General Satisfaction .894

Extraversion .446

Agreeableness .114

Conscientiousness .255

Neuroticism .433

Openness

.399

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Correlation Analysis

Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlation analyses were utilized to examine the

relationship between the independent variables (demographic characteristics and

personality traits) and the dependent variable of job satisfaction. To test each of the

hypotheses, the correlation analyses were performed on the independent variables and

each subscale of dependent variable in this particular order: overall, extrinsic, and

intrinsic satisfaction. A significant relationship existed if the p-value was less than the

significance level of .05.

Hypothesis 1. The null hypothesis (Ho1) proposes that demographic

characteristic variables (age, gender, job status, education level, and nationality) are not

related to job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic factors). In contrast, the

alternative hypothesis (H1) proposes that demographic characteristic variables (age,

gender, job status, education level, and nationality) are related to job satisfaction (overall,

intrinsic, and extrinsic factors).

Overall satisfaction variable. A Spearman’s correlation analysis was performed

on demographic characteristics and overall job satisfaction. As displayed in Table 14, the

correlation analysis indicates no significant relationship existed between the overall

satisfaction and demographic characteristics. The data included age (Rho = -.008, p =

.919), gender (Rho = .010, p = .902), nationality (Rho = -.035, p = .655), education level

(Rho = -.033, p = .674), and job status (Rho = -.073, p = .349). Considering a 95%

confidence level, there was insufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis, which

suggests that demographic characteristic variables (age, gender, job status, education

level, and nationality) are not related to overall job satisfaction.

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Table 14. Spearman’s Correlation Analysis on Overall Satisfaction and Demographic

Variables

Overall

Satisfaction

Age Correlation Coefficient, Rho -.008

p-value .919

Gender Correlation Coefficient, Rho .010

p-value .902

Nationality Correlation Coefficient, Rho -.035

p-value .655

Education Level Correlation Coefficient, Rho -.033

p-value .674

Job Status Correlation Coefficient, Rho -.073

p-value .349


Extrinsic satisfaction variable. Similar to the overall satisfaction, the data in

Table 15 indicates no significant relationship existed between extrinsic satisfaction and

demographic characteristics of age (Rho = .005, p = .954), gender (Rho = .027, p = .730),

nationality (Rho = -.047, p = .547), education level (Rho = .043, p = .585), and job status

(Rho = .025, p = .748). These findings demonstrate that the extrinsic satisfaction of

participants could not be identified based on their classification to each demographic

group. Consequently, there was insufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis, which

proposes that demographic variables are not related to extrinsic job satisfaction.

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Table 15. Spearman’s Correlation Analysis on Extrinsic Satisfaction and Demographic

Variables

Extrinsic

Satisfaction

Age

Correlation Coefficient, Rho

.005

p-value .954

Gender Correlation Coefficient, Rho .027

p-value .730


p-value .547

Education

Level

Correlation Coefficient, Rho .043

p-value .585

Job Status Correlation Coefficient, Rho .025

p-value .748


Intrinsic satisfaction variable. Table 16 shows no significant relationship existed

between intrinsic satisfaction and demographic variables of age, gender, nationality, and

education level. However, intrinsic satisfaction was found significantly related to job

status (Rho = -.169, p = .029). The negative relationship implied that participants with a

supervisory position had higher intrinsic satisfaction than those in non-supervisory

positions. As a result, there was sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis, which

states that demographic characteristic variables are not related to intrinsic job satisfaction.

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Table 16. Spearman’s Correlation Analysis on Intrinsic Satisfaction and Demographic

Variables

Intrinsic

Satisfaction

Age Correlation Coefficient, Rho .014

p-value .861

Gender Correlation Coefficient, Rho -.007

p-value .927


p-value .383

Education Level Correlation Coefficient, Rho -.071

p-value .367

Job Status Correlation Coefficient, Rho -.169*

p-value .029

Note. * Significance level, p < 0.05. N = 166

Summary. Spearman’s correlation analyses were conducted to determine whether

the relationship existed between the demographic characteristics (age, gender, education

level, nationality, and job status) and job satisfaction (overall, extrinsic, and intrinsic

factor). The results revealed that no significant relationship was found between the

demographic characteristics and the overall as well as extrinsic satisfaction although a

negative relationship existed between the job status and intrinsic satisfaction.

Consequently, there is insufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis Ho1.

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Hypothesis 2. The null hypothesis (Ho2) proposes that personality trait variables

(extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to

experience) are not related to job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic factors). In

contrast, the alternative hypothesis (H1) proposes that personality trait variables


experience) are related to job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic factors).

As indicated in Table 11, the personality trait variables of agreeableness and

neuroticism were normally distributed, whereas the variables of extraversion,

conscientiousness, and openness were non-normally distributed. Therefore, two sets of

correlation analyses were conducted to address this hypothesis. First, the Pearson’s

correlation analysis was conducted to determine whether the normally distributed

variables of agreeableness and neuroticism related to the job satisfaction variable.

Second, the Spearman’s correlation analysis was conducted to determine whether the

non-normally distributed variables of extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness

related to the job satisfaction variable. These two sets of correlation analyses were

performed continuously considering the three categories of dependent variable: overall,

extrinsic, and intrinsic satisfaction.

Overall satisfaction variable. A Pearson’s correlation was conducted to assess

the relationship between overall satisfaction and the normally distributed personality trait

variables, agreeableness and neuroticism. Table 17 indicates no significant relationship

existed between the trait of agreeableness and the overall satisfaction (r = .056, p = .474).

Likewise, no significant relationship was found between the trait of neuroticism and the

overall satisfaction (r = .166, p = .124).

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Table 17. Pearson’s Correlation Analysis on Overall Satisfaction and Normally-

Distributed Personality Trait Variables

Overall Satisfaction

Agreeableness

Pearson Correlation, r

.056

p-value .474

Neuroticism Pearson Correlation, r .124

p-value .112


A Spearman’s correlation was conducted to determine the relationship between

the overall satisfaction and the non-normally distributed variables: conscientiousness,

extraversion, and openness. Table 18 reveals no significant relationship existed between

overall satisfaction score and the personality trait of extraversion (Rho = .145, p = .062).

Similarly, no relationship was found between overall satisfaction and the personality

traits of conscientiousness (Rho = .093, p = .231) and openness (Rho = .040, p = .606).

Table 18. Spearman’s Correlation Analysis on Overall Satisfaction and Non-normally-


Overall

Satisfaction

Extraversion


p-value .062

Conscientiousness Correlation Coefficient, Rho .093

p-value .231

Openness


p-value .606


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Through the results of the series of correlation analyses considering overall

satisfaction as the dependent variable, personality trait variables were found not

significantly related to overall satisfaction. As a result, there was insufficient evidence to

reject the null hypothesis, which states that personality trait variables (extraversion,

agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness) are not related to overall

job satisfaction.

Extrinsic satisfaction variable. Similarly, Pearson’s correlation analysis was

conducted for extrinsic variable and the normally distributed independent variables of

agreeableness and neuroticism. As observed in table 19, no significant relationship was

found between extrinsic satisfaction and agreeableness (r = .067, p = .389) as well as

between extrinsic satisfaction and neuroticism (r = .096, p = .216). These observations

implied that an increase or a decrease in personality traits of agreeableness and

neuroticism did not necessarily involve an increase or a decrease in the extrinsic

satisfaction score.

Table 19. Pearson’s Correlation Analysis on Extrinsic Satisfaction and Normally-


Extrinsic

Satisfaction

Agreeableness


.067

p-value .389


p-value .216


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Table 20 portrays the results of the Spearman’s correlation analysis for extrinsic

satisfaction and the personality trait variables of extraversion, conscientiousness, and

openness. There was no significant relationship was found between extraversion and

extrinsic satisfaction (Rho = .083, p = .290). Similarly, linear relationships did not exist

between conscientiousness and extrinsic satisfaction (Rho = .104, p = .184) as well as

between openness and extrinsic satisfaction (Rho = -.022, p = .781). Therefore, there was

insufficient evidence to conclude that personality trait variables (extraversion,

agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness) are not related with

extrinsic job satisfaction.

Table 20. Spearman’s Correlation Analysis on Extrinsic Satisfaction and Non-normally-


Extrinsic

Satisfaction

Extraversion


.083

p-value .290


p-value .184

Openness Correlation Coefficient, Rho -.022

p-value .781


Intrinsic satisfaction variable. Table 21 presents the results of the Pearson’s

correlation analysis for normally-distributed personality trait variables and intrinsic

satisfaction. No significant relationship with the intrinsic satisfaction score was observed

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for agreeableness, (r = .035, p = .655) as well as for neuroticism personality trait (r =

.141, p = .070).

Table 21. Pearson’s Correlation Analysis on Intrinsic Satisfaction and Normally-


Intrinsic Satisfaction

Agreeableness


.035

p-value .655


p-value .070


With respect to the non-normally distributed variables: conscientiousness,

extraversion, and openness, the results of the Spearman’s correlation analyses in table 22

indicated no significant relationship existed between intrinsic satisfaction and these

variables. Therefore, there was insufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis, which

states that personality trait variables (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,

neuroticism, and openness) are not related with intrinsic job satisfaction.

Summary. Correlation analyses were conducted to assess whether a relationship

existed between personality trait variables and job satisfaction variables. Specifically,

Pearson’s correlation analyses were performed for the normally distributed personality

trait variables – agreeableness and neuroticism. The Spearman’s correlation analyses

were conducted for the non-normally distributed personality trait variables –

extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness. The results of both correlation analyses

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suggested no significant relationship existed between personality traits and the three

aspects of job satisfaction. As a result, there was insufficient evidence to reject the null

hypothesis Ho2.

Table 22. Spearman’s Correlation Analysis on Intrinsic Satisfaction and Non-normally-


Intrinsic

Satisfaction

Extraversion


.106

p-value .173


p-value .157

Openness Correlation Coefficient, Rho .077

p-value .325


Multiple Regression Analysis

While correlation analyses were performed to verify the relationship between two

variables, multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess the degree to which the

independent variables explain the variation in the dependent variable. Three regression

analyses were run in the current study because the dependent variable job satisfaction had

three subscales (overall, extrinsic, and intrinsic satisfaction). The first regression analysis

determined how the variables of demographic characteristics and personality traits

explained the variation in the dependent variable of overall satisfaction. As observed in

Table 23, none of the independent variables significantly accounted for the variation in

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the overall satisfaction scores (p > .05). The regression model developed was observed to

explain 6.6% of the variability of overall satisfaction. Since the R2 value (.066) was

smaller than .70, these independent variables did not significantly explain the variation of

overall satisfaction.

Table 23. Linear Regression Analysis for Overall Satisfaction

Overall Satisfaction Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

T Sig. B

Std.

Error Beta

1

(Constant)

66.731

8.093

8.245

.000

Age .261 .861 .026 .303 .763

Gender .655 1.723 .031 .380 .704

Nationality -4.697 3.169 -.120 -1.482 .140

Education Level -.199 .875 -.019 -.227 .821

Job Status -1.601 1.762 -.075 -.909 .365

Extraversion .955 .629 .132 1.519 .131

Agreeableness -.262 .797 -.029 -.328 .743

Conscientiousness .801 .765 .091 1.048 .296

Neuroticism .747 .732 .093 1.019 .310

Openness .131 .749 .015 .175 .862

Note: R2 = .066

The second regression analysis verified whether the independent variables of this

study could explain the variation in the dependent variable of extrinsic satisfaction. The

results in Table 24 reveal that only the variability of nationality was significantly related

to the extrinsic satisfaction (p = .047). However, the regression model derived only

explains 5.5% of the variance in extrinsic satisfaction scores (R2

= .055). It is concluded

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that these independent variables do not significantly explain the variation of extrinsic

satisfaction.

Table 24. Linear Regression Analysis for Extrinsic Satisfaction

Extrinsic Satisfaction Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

T Sig. B

Std.

Error Beta

1

(Constant)

17.819

3.040

5.862

.000

Age .105 .323 .028 .325 .746

Gender .139 .647 .018 .215 .830

Nationality -2.387 1.190 -.163 -2.005 .047

Education Level .295 .329 .075 .897 .371

Job Status .260 .662 .032 .392 .695

Extraversion .293 .236 .108 1.242 .216

Agreeableness -.041 .299 -.012 -.137 .892


Neuroticism .160 .275 .054 .581 .562

Openness

-.184 .281 -.058 -.655 .513

Note: R2 = .055

The final regression analysis assessed whether the independent variables could

significantly explain the variation in the dependent variable of intrinsic satisfaction.

Table 25 reports no significant relationship existed between the independent variables

and the dependent variable of intrinsic satisfaction. Moreover, the regression model

generated only explains 9.5% of the variance in the intrinsic satisfaction scores. The R2

value is less than .70; therefore, these independent variables did not significantly explain

the variable of intrinsic satisfaction.

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Table 25. Linear Regression Analysis for Intrinsic Satisfaction

Intrinsic Satisfaction Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

T Sig. B

Std.

Error Beta

1

(Constant)

41.648

4.948

8.418

.000

Age .286 .526 .045 .543 .588

Gender .319 1.053 .024 .303 .763

Nationality -2.063 1.937 -.085 -1.065 .289

Education Level -.437 .535 -.067 -.816 .416

Job Status -2.032 1.077 -.153 -1.887 .061

Extraversion .561 .384 .124 1.460 .146

Agreeableness -.296 .487 -.053 -.608 .544


Neuroticism .589 .448 .119 1.315 .190

Openness .272 .458 .051 .594 .553

Note: R2 = .095

Summary of the Results

The correlation analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between the

independent variables (demographic characteristics and personality traits) and the three

aspects of the dependent variable job satisfaction. The results of the correlation analyses

suggested that both overall and extrinsic job satisfaction were not significantly related to

demographic characteristic variables (age, gender, job status, education level, and

nationality). Nevertheless, a significant relationship was observed between job status and

intrinsic satisfaction. No significant relationship existed between personality traits


experience) and all three job satisfaction aspects. Overall, no significant relationship was

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found suggesting a relationship between the demographic characteristic and personality

trait variables with the job satisfaction variable.

Multiple regression analyses were also performed to assess the degree to which

the Big Five traits and demographic variables explain the variation in the participants’ job

satisfaction. The results of these regression analyses revealed that none of the

independent variables was significant contributors to the variation in the dependent

variable of job satisfaction. This means that these independent variables did not

significantly explain the variation of the three job satisfaction aspects (overall, extrinsic,

and intrinsic).

Conclusion

This chapter reported the findings of the current study that provided the answer to

the research questions and hypotheses of the study. Data analyses were conducted to

determine whether significant relationship existed between demographic characteristic

variables and job satisfaction as well as between personality traits and job satisfaction

among the information technology (IT) professionals working for multinational

corporations (MNCs) in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. A random sample of 166 full-time

IT professionals participated in the current study.

The descriptive statistics in Table 10 have shown that the sample was large and

diverse enough to be a good representative sample for testing. The age of the participants

ranged from 22 to 55 years old, with almost 70% of them are 30 years of age or younger.

This characteristic fits with the reported young labor force in Vietnam. In addition, the

sample contained more males (70.5%) than females (29.5%), with at least three-fourths

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held a bachelor’s degree. Similarly, three quarters of the sample did not hold managerial

positions, and more than half of the respondents worked as engineers.

Regarding the data analysis, the assumptions of normal distribution and linearity

as well as homoscedasticity were examined to ensure the proper tests were selected, and

the correlation and multiple regression analyses were conducted to test the hypotheses of

the study. First, the Kolmogorov-Smirnor (K-S) test was conducted for the normality

assumption, and the observed versus predicted values plots were analyzed to verify the

linearity and homoscedasticity assumptions. The results of the K-S tests revealed that the

three traits: extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness were not normally distributed;

therefore, the Spearman’s correlation analysis was applied. On the other hand, the

agreeableness and neuroticism traits were found normally distributed, hence, the use of

the Pearson’s correlation analysis. Similarly, the Pearson’s correlation was conducted on

the overall, extrinsic, and intrinsic job satisfaction due to the normal distribution of these

three subscales. In addition, the reliability analyses were utilized to assess whether the

items in the two instruments were good measures of the constructs considered in this

study. As reported, the responses of participants for job satisfaction were reliable in

measuring the constructs of the job satisfactions variables with the Cronbach’s alpha in

the range from 0.786 to 0.849. In contrast, the items for personality traits were

inconsistent with the Cronbach’s alpha between 0.114 and 0.433.

Second, correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis were applied to test

the hypotheses of the current study. The results of the correlation analyses revealed no

significant relationship existed between the independent variables of demographic

characteristics (age, gender, education level, nationality, and job status) and personality

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traits (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to

experience) with all three aspects of job satisfaction. The results of the regression

analyses also showed that none of the independent variables significant explained the

variation of the three job satisfaction aspects. Overall, the hypotheses of the current

study were not supported. In Chapter 5, the focus will be on the interpretation of the

results, the discussion of the implications of the results, and the recommendations for

future studies.

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CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction

With intent to attract foreign investments, Vietnam has revised the investment

policies conforming to international standards. The reforms of these investment laws

have led to the increase in foreign investments, resulting in the growing demand for both

skilled and unskilled labor in Vietnam. As reported, the demand for unskilled labor is

relatively easy to fulfill, whereas the demand for skilled labor is more difficult to achieve,

especially in the services industry (“Building a High-skilled Economy,” 2011). The

imbalance between the unskilled and skilled labor sources has caused a shortage of talent

in the identified industry. This skilled labor shortage has also become a challenge for

multinational corporations (MNCs) conducting business in Vietnam. Therefore, these

companies have searched for effective ways to hire the right candidates as well as to

encourage key employees to stay with the companies.

Existing research has suggested that job satisfaction is an important factor that

influences the employee’s turnover decision. Although inconclusive, prior research has

found that personality traits and personal characteristics are linked to job satisfaction. It

also means that recognizing factors that have an effect on employee satisfaction may help

reducing employee turnover rate. For this reason, the current study investigated the

relationships between demographic characteristics and personality traits with three levels

of employee satisfaction: overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic satisfaction. The results of this

study would provide the managers of MNCs in Vietnam with useful information to

improve their recruiting and retaining policies.

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Chapter 5 seeks to interpret the results reported in chapter 4 considering existing

findings in the field. The research results and implications of these results are discussed

in depth. Moreover, the limitations of the studies are addressed in order to suggest

recommendations for future research.

Summary of the Results

This section provides an overview of the results obtained in chapter 4. The

current study focused on the relationship between demographic characteristics,

personality traits, and job satisfaction of information technology (IT) personnel in order

to provide the management of multinational corporations (MNCs) in Ho Chi Minh City,

Vietnam practical information, which could be applied to address the skilled labor

shortage. The two research questions that guided the current study are:


intrinsic) and demographic characteristics such as age, gender, job status, education level,

and nationality of IT professionals working for MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam?

(2) What is the relationship between the job satisfaction (overall, extrinsic, and

intrinsic) and the personality trait variables such as extraversion, agreeableness,

neuroticism, conscientiousness, and openness to experience of IT professionals working

for MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam?

In order to answer the research questions, hypotheses were developed, and they

are presented in the subsequent section.

With regard to the continued shortage of high-skilled labor in an emerging

economy, such as Vietnam, the findings of the current study contributed to both theory

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and practice. On the theoretical level, the study offered a better understanding of job

satisfaction among professionals working for MNCs in developing countries. The results

of this study brought a balance to the understudied aspects mentioned in chapter 1, such

as the lack of research that examines the relationship of personality traits on different

model of satisfaction. On the practical level, the findings are beneficial to decision

makers of MNCs in determining which factors are most valuable to employee

satisfaction. Consequently, business leaders should be able to improve company policies

leaning towards an increase in job satisfaction and reduction in turnover for high-skilled

personnel. In other words, this research provides useful insights for the management of

foreign companies that are and will be conducting business in Vietnam. They could

apply this knowledge to hire and retain their quality employees, resulting in cost

reduction and productivity improvement. In essence, this study has both theoretical and

practical implications for providing a greater knowledge of high-skilled employees in

emerging markets.

The literature review revealed that existing research has consistently identified

significant relationships between job satisfaction and turnover intention as well as

organizational commitment among professionals in various industries. Regarding

personality traits, empirical evidences have confirmed that the Big Five traits

(extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and openness to

experience) correlated to different levels of employee satisfaction to some extent. For

instance, extraversion and neuroticism were found significantly influenced job

satisfaction (Zimmerman, 2008), whereas openness to experiences was found modestly

affected job satisfaction (Judge, Heller, & Mount, 2002). In relation to the relationship of

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job satisfaction and various demographic characteristics, previous studies showed mixed

results. A majority of these studies indicated a linear relationship rather than a U-shaped

relationship among personal variables and job satisfaction (Fournet, Distefano, & Pryer,

1966; Franek & Vecera, 2008; Hulin & Smith, 1965). Furthermore, data obtained from

research on the international context revealed correlations among intrinsic, extrinsic

facets with overall job satisfaction and turnover intention (Elamin, 2011; Ready & Dinh,

2008; Rothausen, Gonzaler, & Griffin, 2009). These studies have advanced job

satisfaction literature by identifying factors that affect job satisfaction and elucidating the

implications of job satisfaction. Taking a similar direction, the current study sought to

provide recommendations for managers to improve employee satisfaction. The focus on

IT professionals in Vietnam also offered specific conclusions for this population.

This study concentrated on the factors related to job satisfaction among high-

skilled personnel working for MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. The MNCs

participated in the survey are listed under the IT sector from the European Chamber of

Commerce and American Chamber of Commerce directories. Participants were required

to be full-time employees working in positions such as analyst/technician, engineer, sales,

or management, and they must have been with the companies for at least one year.

A total of 166 respondents completed the questionnaire disseminated online via

Survey Monkey. Since Survey Monkey is merely employed as the tool to distribute the

survey and has been widely used in both academic and industry, it does not require

validation. Moreover, the Survey Monkey was used in the current study for the

advantages this tool offers, including a secure server for a survey, reasonable cost, quick

turnaround time for data collection, and protection of confidentiality. The survey

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questionnaire contained three parts and offered both Vietnamese and English versions.

The first part collected demographic information of the participants. The second part

measured personality trait variables using the short version of the Ten Item Personality

Inventory (Gosling, Rentfrow, & Swann 2003). The third part evaluated job satisfaction

variables using the short-form Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss, Davis,

England, & Lofquist, 1967). The theoretical framework applied in this current research

was the two-factor theory developed by Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959). The

current study conducted correlation analysis and regression analysis to address the

hypotheses posed in the study. A significance level of .05 was utilized across all

statistical analyses.

The results of this study reported no evidence indicating a significant relationship

existed between demographic characteristics and all three aspects of job satisfaction.

Similarly, no evidence was found that suggested a significant relationship between

personality traits and the job satisfaction variables.

Discussion of the Results

The implications demonstrate the relevance of the study results and underline the

type of relationship that exists between personality traits or demographic characteristic

variables and job satisfaction. Specifically, this discussion focuses on interpreting the

discoveries of the current study to the hypotheses of the study and elucidating both

practical and theoretical implications of the study. This section briefly presents the issues

and limitations of the study as the detail will be described in a separate section.

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Hypotheses and Results

To answer the research questions, two main hypotheses were developed and

analyzed.

Hypothesis 1. The null hypothesis (Ho1) states that no relationship exists between

demographic characteristic variables (age, gender, job status, education level, and

nationality) and job satisfaction (overall, extrinsic, and intrinsic). In contrast, the

alternative hypothesis (H1) states that demographic characteristic variables (age, gender,

job status, education level, and nationality) are related to job satisfaction (overall,

extrinsic, and intrinsic).

The first set of hypotheses corresponds to the research question, which

investigates whether a relationship exists between the mentioned demographic

characteristics and job satisfaction aspects of IT professionals working for MNCs in Ho

Chi Minh City, Vietnam. A series of Spearman’s correlation analyses was performed to

test the first hypothesis. The results indicated no significant relationship existed between

demographic characteristics and overall satisfaction as well as extrinsic satisfaction.

However, a significant negative relationship was found between job status and intrinsic

satisfaction (Rho = -.169, p < .05). The supervisors in the sample reported higher

intrinsic satisfaction than the non-supervisor participants did. Based on these results,

there was insufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis Ho1.

Hypothesis 2. The null hypothesis (Ho2) states that no relationship exists

between personality traits variables (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness,

neuroticism, and openness) and job satisfaction (overall, extrinsic, and intrinsic). The

alternate hypothesis (H2) states that personality traits variables (extraversion,

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agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness) are related with job

satisfaction (overall, extrinsic, and intrinsic).

The second set of hypotheses corresponds to the research question, which

focused on examining the relationship between the Big Five and job satisfaction of IT

professionals working for MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Both Pearson’s and

Spearman’s correlation analyses were conducted to test the second hypothesis. The

results of these analyses concluded that no significant relationship was present between

personality traits and job satisfaction levels of the study sample. As a result, there was

insufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis Ho2.

In addition to the Pearson’s and Spearman’s correlation analyses, multiple

regression analysis was utilized to verify the degree to which the personality traits

variables and demographic characteristic variables explain the variation in the three

aspects of job satisfaction (overall, extrinsic, and intrinsic). These regression analyses

found that none of the independent variables was significant contributors to the variation

in the dependent variable of job satisfaction. In other words, these independent variables

did not significantly explain the variation of the three job satisfaction aspects.

Implication

The current study comments on the limited job satisfaction in an international

context, especially in the emerging market countries. Moreover, the focus on IT

professionals in Vietnam provides particular conclusions for this population. The

following part addresses both theoretical and practical implications of the study.

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Theoretical implication. This study filled two gaps in the job satisfaction

literature. The first gap related to the lack of research that examines the relationships of

the Big Five personality traits on different models of motivation or satisfaction as

indicated in chapter 1. In their meta-analysis research, Judge, Heller, and Mount (2002)

recognized that although many job satisfaction studies were conducted on personality

traits and personal characteristics, very few focused on the contribution of these factors to

different aspects of job satisfaction such as intrinsic and extrinsic factors as defined in the

two-factor theory designed by Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959). The current

study provided a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between job

satisfaction and these variables of IT professionals by considering all three aspects of job

satisfaction. In essence, the current study brings a balance to the understudied aspect.

The second gap involves the mixed results of the limited research in this area. For

example, Furnham, Eracleous, and Chamorro-Premuzic (2009) discovered a positive

relationship between job status and conscientiousness with all three job satisfaction

categories: overall, intrinsic, and extrinsic satisfaction. Ahmed et al. (2010), on the other

hand, found no significant relationship between extrinsic factors and job satisfaction

although a significant relationship was discovered between intrinsic factors and job

satisfaction. Developed from these two studies, the current study sought to verify the

relationship between the variables of personality traits and demographic characteristics

considering all three components of job satisfaction. The findings of the current study

identified no significant relationships existed among the study variables, except for a

relationship between job status and intrinsic satisfaction. These different observations

reveal new information that may suggest further research.

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Practical implication. The findings of the present study provide useful insights

for the management of foreign-owned companies, especially in the IT sector, that are and

will be conducting business in Vietnam. Because of the continued shortage of high-

skilled labor in this emerging economy country, it is critical for human resource

managers to determine the factors that influence employee satisfaction in order to attract

new talent and retain competent employees. Since the current study recognized no

significant relationships, managers may disregard the personality traits and demographic

characteristics in their practices. In fact, practitioners should concentrate less on these

factors when developing company policies and programs to improve employee growth.

For example, managers could design a generalized program or appropriate interventions

that cater across all personality types as well as demographic groups. In other words,

managers should look at different dimensions of IT professionals rather than focusing on

the aspects included in the current study.

Moreover, the significant relationship between job status and intrinsic satisfaction

may offer important implications. As defined in chapter 3, intrinsic job satisfaction refers

to the emotional reaction of individuals toward the context of the job, for example,

recognition, achievement, or characteristic of the job itself. Because employees without a

managerial position reported lower intrinsic satisfaction as compared with those in a

supervisory position, managers can offer more intrinsic rewards to this group of

employees, which may lead to long-term satisfaction. For example, companies can offer

transparent policies or role clarification to ensure equal treatment to all employees. It is

essential that managers are aware of these intrinsic values in order to provide employees

this aspect of satisfaction.

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Summary. The current study provided a certain important implications to

scholars in the job satisfaction field as well as to decision-makers of foreign-owned firms

in Vietnam. Besides enhancing the understudied aspect, this study offered different

observations of the relationship between personality traits and demographic

characteristics with job satisfaction of IT professionals in a developing country. Practical

suggestions were also provided to the management in order to address the shortage labor

issue. Overall, this study presented both theoretical and practical implications for

developing a better understanding of highly-skilled employees in emerging markets.

Summary of Limitations

Generally, the current study had several limitations. As a result of the small size

and characteristics of the study sample, the findings may not be generalized to another

setting, company, or broader populations. The research design does not allow for a

causal conclusion whether the demographic characteristics or personality traits created

job satisfaction. Furthermore, it is possible that the current study may have missed out

relevant factors that might directly influence job satisfaction. The Limitations of the

Study section will elaborate these limitations further.

Discussion of the Conclusions

This section continues with a comprehensive discussion of the study results

considering the literature reviewed in chapter 2. The discussion focuses on interpreting

the results of the current study in order to determine whether the theoretical concept

applied in this study is supported or disconfirmed. Then, similarities and differences

148

between the results of the current study with those of the existing studies are identified.

Moreover, this discussion provides useful information to address the problems described

in chapter 1. These problems include the need for more research on the contribution of

personality traits and personal characteristics to different aspects of job satisfaction and

the labor shortage issue for companies conducting business overseas.

Results Related to the Two-Factor Theory

The current study was based on the theoretical perspective developed by Herzberg

et al. (1959), also known as the two-factor theory. In this theory, Herzberg and

colleagues seek to explain the job satisfaction and dissatisfaction using two factors:

intrinsic/motivator and extrinsic/hygiene. Considering the intrinsic and extrinsic

satisfaction together with the overall satisfaction, the current study attempted to

investigate the relationship between personality traits and personal characteristics with

job satisfaction. A significant relationship existed between these variables and job

satisfaction would mean a support for Herzberg’s theory. Since the current study found

no association between job satisfaction and personality trait or demographic variables, it

did not support the two-factor theory.

The survey method or different satisfaction factors being used in the survey may

have played a role in the study results. Herzberg et al. (1959) utilized the critical incident

method, which allowed the participants to answer open-ended questions with autonomy.

In contrast, this quantitative study employed a survey that offered only close-ended

questions. Furthermore, the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss, et al., 1967) in

the current study contained 12 intrinsic items and six extrinsic items, whereas Herzberg et

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al. considered only six intrinsic factors and ten extrinsic factors. The current study added

to the list of existing studies that disagree with Herzberg et al.’s theory, for example,

Ewen (1964) or Vroom (1964, 1966). Therefore, it suggests a possibility for future

research to look further into this observation.

Results Related to Demographic Characteristic Variable

The demographic characteristic variable included in the current study had five

components: age, gender, education level, job status, and nationality. The study results

revealed no relationship existed between these dimensions and all three aspects of job

satisfaction with the exception of a significant relationship between job status and

intrinsic satisfaction. These findings were compared with the previous research’s results

to identify any pattern among the studies.

Age. The age range in the present study was relatively narrow, between 22 to 55

years of age. Only 7% of the participants were older than 35 years of age, reflecting the

young workforce in Vietnam (PriceWaterhouseCooper, 2008). Previous research

focusing on the IT profession also shared similar statistics (Ghazzawi, 2010, 2011;

Lacity, Iyer, & Rudramuniyaiah, 2008). Therefore, the age in the current study is

reasonable for this population.

Literature review has indicated a fairly consensus result regarding the relationship

between the age demographic and job satisfaction except for the study by Franek and

Vecera (2008). The results of the current study are aligned with the findings of prior

studies, which reported that age was not significantly related to overall or different facets

of job satisfaction (Fournet, Distefano, & Pryer, 1966; Ghazzawi, 2010; Gibson & Klein,

150

1970; Hulin & Smith, 1965; Hunt & Saul, 1975; Moyes, Owusu-Ansah, & Ganguli,

2006; Oshagbemi, 2003). In contrast, the current study did not support the conclusion of

Franek and Vecera, which suggested that age was negatively related to job satisfaction.

The inconsistent results between the current study and Frank and Vecera’s study suggest

further research to verify the relationship between these two variables.

Gender. Recently, researchers have given the demographic variable gender more

attention. The results of their studies have revealed that gender has no relationship with

job satisfaction (Ahmed et al., 2010; Franek &Vecera, 2008; Ghazzawi, 2010; Moyes et

al., 2006; Oshagbemi, 2003). The current study also found a synonymous result. Similar

to this research, the populations of prior studies were high-skilled professionals working

in industries such as finance, information technology, or healthcare. Therefore, this study

strengthens the conclusion of previous research, dismissing the notion that gender may

play a role on employee satisfaction.

Education level. Education provides individuals with necessary knowledge and

skills, which then enable them fit better into their jobs. Higher education can also mean

better job positions, salaries, or promotions, which could influence job satisfaction.

Existing studies discovered that education was negatively related to job satisfaction

(Fichter, 2011; Franek & Vecera, 2008). This implies that the higher education a person

possesses, the more likely she/he is unsatisfied with her/his job. However, the current

study reported no significant relationship existed between education and job satisfaction;

this outcome does not uphold the findings of prior research.

The contradicting finding that non-significant relationship existed between

education and job satisfaction, in fact, is significant and logical in the context of Vietnam.

151

As noted, the labor force of Vietnam consists of mainly young people, and the study

sample contained about 74% participants with a bachelor’s degree. Young individuals

with high education tend to have high expectations, and disappointment might occur if

they perceive that their education does not lead to appropriate rewards (Fichter, 2011;

Franek & Vecera, 2008). However, young employees in Vietnam might find working for

an international company prestigious as it offers them opportunities to gain experience

that will help them more marketable in the future. In other words, the characteristics of

the labor force in Vietnam might have influenced this finding.

Job status. Among the five demographic variables included in the current study,

job status is the only variable that has a significant relationship with intrinsic satisfaction.

This finding indicated that individuals with managerial positions had higher intrinsic

satisfaction. According to Randolph (2005), intrinsic satisfaction was concerned with

professional growth and recognition; therefore, the observation in the current study was

anticipated. Moreover, previous studies demonstrated a significant correlation between

job status and all three job satisfaction categories: overall, extrinsic, and intrinsic (Franek

& Vecera, 2008; Furnham et al. 2009). Therefore, the current study is partially

supportive of these studies considering the intrinsic satisfaction.

A potential explanation for this outcome relates to the problem outlined in the

current study. As indicated in chapter 1, when conducting business in developing

countries, international companies experience one common problem – the continued

shortage of high-skilled labor. For that reason, companies extensively search for quality

employees and compensate them well with appropriate rewards in order to retain them.

Perhaps, those in supervisory roles are more oriented towards intrinsic factors detailed in

152

the survey, for example, the autonomy to perform their jobs or the feeling of

accomplishment from their job. In addition, Vietnamese employees have become more

aware of their rights and marketability of their skills; hence, their job attitude and

expectations may have changed. In essence, this finding is interesting and reflects the

current situation of Vietnam or emerging economy countries as a whole.

Nationality. The current study did not find a significant relationship between the

nationality variable with any job satisfaction facets. This finding is inconsistent with

previous studies, which found nationality related to different aspects of job satisfaction

(Elamin, 2011; Ready & Dinh, 2008; Rothausen, Gonzaler, & Griffin, 2009). This

variation seems reasonable because most of the participants in the current study were

local Vietnamese (99%), whereas previous studies included a mixture of participants

from different countries. For example, Ready and Dinh (2008) studied a sample of

Vietnamese and Americans; Rothausen, Gonzaler, and Griffin (2009) included Filipino

and American professionals; Elamin (2011) considered both local and expatriate

employees in his study. The lack of responses from other nationalities in the current

study might have been the cause of the different result.

Summary of results related to demographic characteristic research. Among

the five demographic characteristics (age, gender, education, job status, and nationality)

examined, the current study only found job status was significantly related to intrinsic job

satisfaction. The study results complemented the findings of previous studies in which

gender was not significantly related to job satisfaction. On the contrary, the results of the

current study were inconsistent with the findings of prior research that age, education

level, and nationality were significantly related to job satisfaction.

153

Results Related to Personality Trait Research

In addition to the demographic variables, the current study included the Big Five

personality traits: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and

openness. The literature review has also revealed that researchers have recently started

to apply the Big Five traits in job satisfaction research (Burnett, William, & Bartol, 2009;

Franek & Vecera, 2008; Furnham, Petrides, Jackson & Cotter, 2002; Judge et al., 2002;

Matzler & Renzl, 2007; Zimmerman, 2008), and mixed results have been reported. The

current study did not find significant relationships between these traits and job

satisfaction levels (overall, extrinsic, and intrinsic).

Extraversion. In the context of this study, the personality trait extraversion was

defined as the interpersonal engagement of an individual, including traits such as

sociability and agency (Depue & Collins, 1999). Empirical evidence revealed that

extraverts focus on the importance of both extrinsic and intrinsic factors. For instance,

extraversion was found correlated with positive affectivity, such as rewards (Costa &

McCrae, 1980; Tellegen, 1982), or with intrinsic factors, such as working environment

(Furnham, Forde, & Ferrari, 1999). Whereas numerous researchers supported these

findings (Burnett et al., 2009; Judge et al., 2002; Zimmerman, 2008), others found a

contradicting result in which extraversion was not related to job satisfaction (Furnham,

Petrides, Jackson, & Cotter, 2002). Through its findings, the current study confirmed the

results of Furnham et al.’s (2002) research. This means the extraversion trait in IT

professionals does not necessarily influence their job satisfaction levels.

154

Neuroticism. Opposite with extraversion, neuroticism is associated with negative

affectivity, which reflects negative emotionality (Costa & McCrae, 1992). The current

study determined that no significant relationship existed between neuroticism and all

three aspects of job satisfaction. Similar to the extraversion trait, Furnham et al.’s (2002)

study found no significant association between neuroticism and job satisfaction.

However, a negative relationship between these two variables has emerged in other

studies (Judge et al., 2002; Metzler & Renzl, 2007; Zimmerman, 2008). This means

individuals who score high on negative affectivity tend to perceive work as negative,

resulting in lower job satisfaction. The finding of the current study has demonstrated that

this scenario does not always occur, and is in supportive of Furnham et al.’s conclusion.

Conscientiousness. This personality trait variable refers to the tendency of an

individual to be achievement-oriented and responsible. According to Costa, McCrae, and

Dye (1991), conscientiousness includes traits such as competence, self-discipline,

deliberation, and following rules. Therefore, individuals with high conscientiousness

tend to set goals and are committed to their goals. Previous research has indicated a

strong connection between conscientiousness and job satisfaction (Burnett et al., 2009;

Franek & Vecera, 2008; Furnham et al., 2002; Furnham et al., 2009; Judge et al., 2002).

Especially, the study of Furnharm et al. (2009) evidenced a positive relationship between

the conscientiousness trait variable with all three job satisfaction categories. A study by

Matzler and Renzl (2008), however, suggested no significant relationship existed

between these two variables. While the results of the current study complement the

findings of Matzler and Renzl’s study, they are inconsistent with those of other studies

regarding the conscientiousness variable.

155

Agreeableness. Different from extraversion, which reflects social influence,

agreeableness focuses on maintaining positive interpersonal relationships with others. In

other words, agreeableness describes how individuals are different in their orientations

toward interpersonal relationships. The results of Furnham et al.’s (2002) study showed

no evidence linking agreeableness with job satisfaction, whereas other studies have found

a significant relationship between these two variables (Franek & Vecera, 2008; Judge et

al., 2002). Particularly, Judge et al. (2002) stated that the relationship between the

agreeableness trait and job satisfaction came in fourth among the Big Five traits. Further,

Franek and Vecera (2008) discovered that agreeableness is strongly connected to not only

overall job satisfaction but also across the job satisfaction facets. As suggested by Costa

et al. (1991), individuals with agreeableness trait tend to be cooperative, unselfish,

straightforward, and modest. Therefore, the findings of Judge et al.’s (2002) and Franek

and Vecera’s research implied that individuals with high agreeableness scores are more

likely to experience greater levels of satisfaction for getting along well with others.

However, the insight gained from the current study that agreeableness was not

significantly related with job satisfaction facets has disproved this claim.

Openness to experiences. The last personality trait variable in the Big Five

considered in the current study describes the willingness of individuals to adjust their

attitudes and behaviors as they have been introduced to new ideas of situations (Digman,

1990). In contrast with Furnham et al. (2002), researchers concluded that openness

significantly related to job satisfaction (Franek & Vecera, 2008; Judge et al., 2002;

Zimmerman, 2008). Moreover, Zimmerman (2008) found that openness was found

negatively correlated with job satisfaction when controlling for other traits. This finding

156

means individuals who score low in openness tend to be more satisfied with their job. In

fact, this observation can be explained by Maertz and Griffeth’s theory (2004) in which

they advocated that individuals with high openness might lose interest in their current job

and start looking for new positions. Clearly, the openness variable is not related to job

satisfaction of IT professionals in the current study.

Summary of results related to personality trait research. The current study

found no evidence indicating the relationships between the Big Five traits and all three

aspects of job satisfaction. In general, this study disagreed with the findings of Judge et

al.’s (2002) study, which revealed that all five personality traits were related to job

satisfaction although at different levels. Similarly, the results of the current study

contradicted with the findings of previous studies in which various personality traits were

found significantly related to job satisfaction (Burnett et al., 2009; Franek & Vecera,

2008; Matzler & Renzl, 2007; Zimmerman, 2008). On the other hand, the current study

partially supported the findings of Furnham et al. (2002), which found no significant

relationship between job satisfaction and all four personality traits, except for the

conscientiousness trait. Overall, the current study provided mixed results as compared to

the existing research.

Summary of the Conclusions

The results of the current study provided insights into how the demographic

characteristics and personality traits were not associated with the job satisfaction of IT

professionals working for MNCs in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Among the five

demographic characteristics (age, gender, education, job status, and nationality), only job

157

status was found significantly related to intrinsic job satisfaction. The current study

complemented the findings of previous studies in that gender was not significantly related

to job satisfaction. In contrast, the study results were inconsistent with the previous

findings that age, education level, and nationality were significantly related to job

satisfaction. Regarding personality traits, no significant evidence was found supporting

the relationships between the Big Five and job satisfaction. The discussion above

highlighted the similarities and differences in the findings of the current study and the

existing research.

Limitations of the Study

The current study has several limitations, which may serve as a source for future

research. The first limitation relates to the generalizability of the results. As indicated in

chapter 1, foreign companies tend to recruit talent from Vietnamese overseas or

expatriates to fulfill the demand for high-skilled labor. For that reason, the current study

targeted both Vietnamese and expatriates; however, the participants were mainly

Vietnamese. The lack of data from the expatriate employees limited the understanding of

the job satisfaction from different nationalities. Moreover, the participants are IT

professionals from foreign-owned companies in Ho Chi Minh City, a regional level;

therefore, the current study could not examine professionals from other sectors or at

national as well as international level. In addition, the small size of the study sample

(166) may not infer the validity of these findings to the general population of IT

professionals. Given the composition of the sample, the location where the sample was

158

gathered, and the sample size, the results of the current study may not be generalized to

other types of companies, broader populations, or other professions.

The research design might also contribute to some of the shortcomings of the

current study. Because this study was quantitative correlational, an evaluation of impact

or cause and effect was not possible. Since the study was cross-sectional in which

participants were asked to complete the survey at one point in time, the likelihood of

drawing conclusions about causal relationships was restricted. As a result, it was

impossible to test whether the demographic characteristics or personality traits of the IT

professionals caused their job satisfaction. Furthermore, the close-ended questionnaire

used in the current study did not allow clarification of responses. In essence, the

quantitative research design has been part of the study limitations.

The last important limitation associates with the reliability and the validity of the

instruments utilized in the study. First, to address the translation issue, both the

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire and the Ten Item Personality Inventory were

translated into Vietnamese and then back-translated by different individuals as

recommended by Brislin (1980). Despite the fact that no necessary changes were made

after the back-translated version was reviewed, some misinterpretations of the

questionnaires from the respondents might have occurred. Since the survey was

administered online, the researcher’s ability to clarify the questions or to verify the

accuracy of the responses was limited. Second, while the Cronbach’s tests showed high

scores for Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, they revealed very low scores for Ten

Item Personality Inventory. For these reasons, the validity of the Ten Item Personality

Inventory instrument in this study was questionable.

159

In summary, the limitations of the current study involved the generalizability of

the results, the research design of the study, and the reliability and validity of the Ten

Item Personality Inventory instrument. Taking these limitations into considerations,

future studies may produce valid and meaningful results that will contribute to the body

knowledge of the job satisfaction field, especially in developing countries.

Recommendations for Further Study

Recommendations for future studies are based on the limitations of the current

study. First, future studies should involve a more diverse sample of participants

regarding nationality and geographical location. For instance, future research could

include IT professionals working in MNCs of different countries or different sectors in

the services industry. These elements should enhance the researcher’s ability to compare

and investigate across sectors on the national level as well as in the international context.

Moreover, future studies should obtain a larger sample size, so that conclusions regarding

the variables considered in the study might be generalized. Considering these factors, the

generalizability of the study results would be possible.

Second, researchers might want to use a longitudinal design in order to predict

causal relationships among variables. Since the level of satisfaction of individuals may

change over time depending on the situation they are in, collecting data at different points

in time might increase the chance to examine whether demographic characteristics or

personality traits influence job satisfaction. Being able to clarify any misunderstanding is

also an advantage of qualitative research that future researchers should consider. For

example, conducting a phenomenological study using interviews with IT professionals

160

may also offer deeper insight into their experiences and satisfaction with their work.

Future research, therefore, should replicate this study using a qualitative research.

Third, future studies might consider a different instrument to measure personality

traits. The reliability test of the current study revealed the internal inconsistency of the

Ten Item Personality Inventory, possibly due to the short answers of this instrument.

Therefore, when time is not an issue, other instruments that offer more details in the

answers of personality traits should be used. Although the Minnesota Satisfaction

Questionnaire has proven to be reliable and valid in measuring the constructs considered

in the current study, researchers might also want to consider other job satisfaction aspects

that have not been included in this instrument.

Lastly, it might be more constructive if future studies collect data on the

perception of job satisfaction from different types of respondents. For example,

researchers should survey both employers and employees to gain their perceived job

satisfaction as well as their opinions regarding company policies and practices to lower

turnover rate of high- skilled employees. Because the labor shortage is severe at the

management level, a comparative analysis of Vietnamese managers and expatriate

managers may provide useful information that would contribute to the variation in job

satisfaction perception among different cultures. This knowledge would also assist the

human resource managers of organizations to retain their key personnel.

Summary

In the last two decades, Vietnam has appeared as one of the emerging countries in

Asia that consistently attracts foreign investments because of its competitive advantages.

161

Simultaneously, Vietnam faces a dilemma of skilled-labor shortage for not providing

enough quality labor to meet the increasing demand. This ongoing issue poses a great

challenge for multinational corporations (MNCs) conducting business in Vietnam. These

MNCs have to compete with the private as well as state-owned companies in Vietnam for

talented employees. Therefore, it is crucial for the management of MNCs to understand

which factors could help attract quality candidates and encourage them to stay with the

companies for long-term. Previous research has consistently identified significant

correlations between job satisfaction and turnover intention as well as in addition to

organizational commitment among professionals in various industries. Therefore, the

current study examined the relationship between job satisfaction with demographic

characteristics and personality traits and job satisfaction in an attempt to provide

managers of foreign-owned companies in Vietnam with practical information to improve

their hiring and retaining policies.

The current study was conducted using the quantitative correlational design. The

series of correlation analyses revealed no relationships existed between personality traits

and demographic characteristics with job satisfaction variables of information technology

professionals for MNCs located in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. However, a significant

relationship was found between intrinsic job satisfaction and job status. This discovery

implied that participants with a supervisory position had higher intrinsic satisfaction than

those in non-supervisory positions. These findings were in contrast with the results

Ahmed et al.’s (2010) and Furnham et al.’s (2009) studies, which validated the existence

of correlation between demographic characteristics and personality traits with job

satisfaction. The results of the current study suggest further research should be

162

conducted, especially in emerging market countries, to gain a better understanding

regarding this subject.

163

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3514.54.1.96



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APPENDIX A. QUESTIONNAIRE

The purpose of this survey is to give you a chance to tell about yourself and how you feel

about your present job, what things you are satisfied with and what things you are not

satisfied with. Please answer every item. Your answers are confidential. Be open and

honest.

PART 1: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

Directions: For each of the following questions, please choose only one (1) choice to

indicate your best answer. If your choice is “Other”, please explain your answer.

1. How long have you been on your present job?

a. less than 1 year

b. 1 - 5 years

c. 6 - 10 years

d. 11 – 20 years

e. more than 20 years

If your answer is “less than 1 year”, please do not complete this questionnaire.

2. You work:

a. Full-time b. Part-time.

If your answer is “part-time”, please do not complete this questionnaire.

3. What is your gender?

a. Male b. Female

4. What year were you born?

5. How would you identify yourself?

a. Vietnamese

b. Vietnamese overseas

c. American

d. European

e. Other ______________________ (Please specify)

6. What is your highest level of education?

a. High school

b. Vocational degree

c. Associate’s degree

c. Bachelor’s degree

d. Master’s degree

e. Doctorate’s degree

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182

f. Other _______________________ (Please specify)

7. How many employees are there in your company at your location?

a. 1 – 10

b. 11 – 50

c. 51 – 100

d. 101 – 500

c. more than 500

8. What does best describe your position at your company?

a. Supervisor

b. Non-supervisor

9. How many employees do you supervise?

a. 0

b. 1-10

c. 11-20

d. over 20

10. What is your job title?

a. Analyst/Technician

b. Engineer

c. Management

d. Salesperson

e. Other ______________ (Please specify)

PART 2: TEN-ITEM PERSONALITY INVENTORY

Directions: Here are a number of personality traits that may or may not apply to you.

Please click on a button to indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with that

statement. You should rate the extent to which the pair of traits applies to you, even if

one characteristic applies more strongly than the other.

Answer choices: 1. Disagree strongly

2. Disagree moderately

3. Disagree a little

4. Neither agree nor disagree

5. Agree a little

6. Agree moderately

7. Agree strongly

183

I see myself as:

1. Extraverted, enthusiastic.

2. Critical, quarrelsome.

3. Dependable, self-disciplined.

4. Anxious, easily upset.

5. Open to new experiences, complex.

6. Reserved, quiet.

7. Sympathetic, warm.

8. Disorganized, careless.

9. Calm, emotionally stable.

10. Conventional, uncreative.

PART 3: JOB SATISFACTION

This part includes 20 statements about your present job. Please decide how satisfied you

feel about the aspect of your job described by the statements.

Directions:

If you feel that your job gives you more than you expected, check the box under very

satisfied.

If you feel that your job gives you what you expected, check the box under satisfied.

If you cannot make up your mind whether or not the job gives you what you expected,

check the box under neither satisfied nor dissatisfied.

If you feel that your job gives you less than you expected, check the box under

dissatisfied.

If you feel that your job gives you much less than you expected, check the box under

very dissatisfied.

184

On my present job, this is how I feel about …….

1. Being able to keep busy all the time.

2. The chance to work alone on the job.

3. The chance to do different things from time to time.

4. The chance to be “somebody” in the community.

5. The way my boss handles his/her workers.

6. The competence of my supervisor in making decisions.

7. Being able to do things that do not go against my conscience.

8. The way my job provides for steady employment.

9. The chance to do things for other people.

10. The chance to tell people what to do.

11. The chance to do something that makes use of my abilities.

12. The way company policies are put into practice.

13. My pay and the amount of work I do.

14. The chances for advancement on this job.

15. The freedom to use my own judgment.

16. The chance to try my own methods of doing the job.

17. The working conditions.

18. The way my co-workers get along with each other.

19. The praise I get for doing a good job.

20. The feeling of accomplishment I get from the job.

185

APPENDIX B. X-Y PLOTS

Extraversion vs Extrinsic Satisfaction

Extraversion vs Intrinsic Satisfaction

186

Extraversion vs Overall Satisfaction

Agreeableness vs Extrinsic Satisfaction

187

Agreeableness vs Intrinsic Satisfaction

Agreeableness vs Overall Satisfaction

188

Conscientiousness vs Extrinsic Satisfaction

Conscientiousness vs Intrinsic Satisfaction

189

Conscientiousness vs Overall Satisfaction

Emotional Stability vs Extrinsic Satisfaction

190

Emotional Stability vs Intrinsic Satisfaction

Emotional Stability vs Overall Satisfaction

191

Openness vs Extrinsic Satisfaction

Openness vs Intrinsic Satisfaction

192

Openness vs Overall Satisfaction

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