Mussolini Notes

8/18/2019 Mussolini Notes

1/21

The Collapse of the Liberal State & the Triumph ofFascism in Italy 1896-194

Political unification complete 1870Constitutional monarchy based on UK model – King could appoint & dismiss PM & other ministers butgo !t could sur i e if commanded a ma" in parlKing concerned #ith mil & foreign affairs and stayed out of domestic affairs$nly % pop could ote – ne# state dominated by middle classes & #ealthy70 of pop #ere illiterate

Lac! of Italian i"entity$nly % of pop spo'e (talian – dialects$nly small proportion had a role in bringing about unification

#ostility of Church

Pope refused to recognise ne# state & instructed Catholics to boycott elections )ban lifted in 18*0+,yllabus of -rror 18./ – condemned iberalism

$conomygr country – .8 dependent on land – most peasants li ed in po erty

Unde eloped industry – lac' of natural resources e2g2 coal & iron oreMountainous geography made communications diffPoor har est of 18*7 – combined #ith high duty on imported #heat pushed up the price of food thisled to street demoes in 18*8 – go !t crushed them #ith army

%olitical System3o clearly defined political parties – fe# differences of opinionUrban & rural poor didn!t ha e the ote – politicians dra#n from the profs4 #ealthy middle classes56 3, $6M(,$ (nstead politicians clustered around prominent politicians and formed factions

number of factions #ould agree to support one another & form a go !t & di ide up ministerial posts,uch alliances #ere fragile – #hen leading politician felt aggrie ed o er something4 he!d #ithdra# hissupport & the go !t #ould fall5his lead to %* PM 18709%%5his ga e the impression that iberal politics #as not about the people or good of nation4 "ust thepursuit of po#er

iolitti's reforms(6esp for passage of leg2 orcing employers to grant 1 rest day per #ee'$utla#ing employment of children under 1%(ncreased go !t e:penditure on public #or's – 1*07 go !t spending ;0 more than it had done in 1*00– impro ing roads4 farming4


2/21

Challen)es to Liberal "ominance12 S*CI+LIS,( rapid ind2 of 3 1880s led to si>eable #?c – attracted to socialist ideas

concerning pay4 #or'ing conditions & o#nership of industry – iberal reform of 1881 allo#ed %mill more to ote – this ga e socialists incenti e to org2 a single socialist party2 t =enoaCongress 18*% it di ided into % groupings – re dedicated to stri'es & more moderate group –had to be in ol ed in local pol first )P,( 18*; – %74000 in 18*7+ 1*00 P,( #on @% seats #ith%004000 otes2 P,( #anted uni ersal suffrage4 8 hr day4 income ta: & #omen!s rights – littlesupport2

%2 C+T#*LICIS, ear of socialism made him remo e ban of Catholics participating inpolitics and in 1*0* they could be candidates – no# impossible to ignore Catholics –


3/21

%olitical 0i.isions(-c di ision – ind n & poor sGi isions bet#een urban #?c and m?c employersCoalition bet#een socialists4 libs & cath ended by ibyan #ar 1*11 – ,ocialists condemned it & the re sof party displaced the moderates in the dom faction of the party – ,ocialist ne#spaper anti)headed by Muss+ called for abolition of pri ate property & ad ocated iolent stri'es to o erthro#the state5he right #as appalled & began to listen to those #ho criticised =iolitti & #hole liberal system –#anted a return to some sort of auth2 ,ystem – had infl amongst industrialists & lando#ners(5 ( 3 P$ (5(C, E , P$ 6(,(3=EE1 – libs remained in po#er but basis of support #as no# shallo# – no# ast ma" had ote4 supportfor nats & socialists #as gro#ingGiff e:acerbated by di isions amongst liberal leaders – thought ictorious #ar #ould reunite (taly

Italy at /ar((nitially neutral despite 5riple lliance – go !t declared it defunct – claimed ustria had bro'en theterms by attac'ing ,erbia #ithout consulting (taly –most (talians #elcomed this decision )as ustriahad resisted unification & still occupied 5rentino & (stria inhabited by (talian spea'ers+

ormer PM =iolitti4 Cath & ,ocialists thought (taly #as not ready for #ar but go !t feared 5riplelliance ictory #ould only strengthen ustrian borders against (taly & if -ntente #on they #ould not

be sympathetic to (talian ambitions in Mediterranean – belie ed they had inter ene on the side #hich#ould offer them the best terms23egot in 1*1; #ith ustria – clear #ouldn!t gi e up 5rentino or 5rieste but -ntente offered these &

ustrian lands – 5yrol4 (stria4 Galmatia to allo# (taly to dominate the driatic Coast – therefore May1*1; entered on side of -ntente2

Mass of pop didn!t #elcome ne#s – Catholic Church made clear Catholics shouldn!t denounce enemy asCatholic country

; mill conscripts – mainly from rural areas – appalling conditions4 poor rations and lo# payEar of attrition on alpine north border – hea y body countGefeat at Dattle of Caporetto 7004000 (talians retreated in disorder o er 100 miles – @004000 ta'enprisoner – Commander in Chief blamed it on the co#ardice of the troops – e:ecuted se eral thousandas retribution & then sac'ed by go !tDattle of Hittoorio Heneto 9 $ct attac'ed ustrians – hea y death count – /04000 'illed or #ounded –

ustrians collapsed & (talians gained ;004000 prisoners of #ar – ustria called for armistice

$conomic le)acy((3 5($3Ear increased anticipation of territorial gains – but ne er materialised.;04000 men died & 1 mill seriously in"ured

inancial cost of 'eeping army had led to borro#ing from U, and printing of more money – prices


4/21

1*1* mill plus #or'ers too' part in stri'es,ocialist trade union membership shot up from I mill in 1*18 to % mill 1*%0U3-MP $JM-35 6eturning soldiers found it diff to find "obs1*1* – % mill unemployedPoor re#ard for their sacrifices

S*CI+LIST T# $+T s ec #orsened increased membership of ,ocialist party )from ;04000 in 1*1/ .0 %004000 in 1*1*

Calling for o erthro# of liberal state – dictatorship of the proletariat – pri ate property confiscated& #ealth distributed1st election #ith manhood suffrage 1*1*9 socialists #on @%2/ ote & 1;. seats – largest single partyin parlMiddle classes fearful – socialist deputies interrupted King!s speech shouting F ong li e the socialistrepublic! & marched out singing socialist anthem4 F6ed lag!=o !t under 3itti #as urging industrialists to ma'e concessions to #or'ers – this angeredconser ati es4 lando#ners4 shop'eepersPeasants had started occupying unculti ated land & farming it for themsel es – "oining socialist tradeunions

,2TILI+T$0 3ICT*3ationalists belie ed go !t failed to defend nations interests at peace conference – they #antedterritories agreed plus the city of iume5reaty of ,t =ermain ceded land in south 5yrol4 5rentino but refused to hand o er iume as ital toec of ne# Jugosla state(taly denied Galmatia as fe# (talians li ed there & #ould not share in di isions of =erman colonies in

fricaer sacrifices had only #on them Fmutilated ictory!Gemobilised soldiers sa# peace treaty as further humiliation – blamed iberal go !t

S$I52 $ *F FI2,$,ept 1*1* =abriele G! nnun>io led %000 armed men to city of iume & occupied it in defiance of (tgo !t3at2 & e:9sold2 ailed him of the embodiment of the (taly they #anted to create – he sho#ed #ay toachie e results #as through action rather than tal'ing=o !t lac'ed courage to end the occupation – G! nnun>io ruled for o er 1 year – he became a publichero4 his dramatic style & eye for publicity copied by Mussolini

I T# *F F+SCIS,Denito Mussolini – @. yr old editor of (l Popolo d!(talia – ne#spaper of combatants & producers –soldiers4 farmers & factory #or'ers2March 1*1* called inaugural meeting of a ne# mo ement – asci di Combattimento )combat groups+ –100 came to Milan – rep #ide range of ie#s – nationalists4 republicans4 anarchists & radical poets &painters4 they had little in common e:cept hatred of liberal state & contempt for class strugglerhetoricProgramme3e# nat assembly set up(talian republic – monarchy abolished,uppression of all ma"or companiesControl & ta:ation of pri ate #ealthEor'ers to ha e sig2 ,hare of profits businesses they #or' in


5/21

F+IL2 $(ac'ed cohesion to form disciplined pol party

=eneral election 1*1*9 Muss failed to become a deputy got only ;000 of %704000 otes cast in Milan2ascism did badly e ery#here – didn!t #in a single seat

$nly /000 declared ascist supporters in the #hole of (taly

LI $ +L % * L$,S I %+ LI+,$ T ibs & allies could only muster 180 of ;08 seats in Parl & still lac'ed cohesion & discipline

Chamber of Geputies contained ,ocialist Party 1;. seats & Catholic Popular Party )PP( – set up 1*1* –cons cath & cath determined to impro e lot of peasantry4 prepared to support liberal go !t in returnfor concessions on policy+ 100 seats3itti sur i ed but relie ed on Catholic deputies to maintain fragile ma"ority3itt!s go !t discredited by iume – Cath support decreased4 so ma" collapsed therefore he resigned=iolitti returned as his replacement4 tried to set up a coalition – socialists hostile & he as an anti9cleric had to rely on cath support

*C2%%+TI* *F T#$ F+CT* I$S,ept 1*%0 engineering #or'ers engaged in #age dispute occupied factory to pre ent employers fromloc'ing them out – #ithin days /004000 #or'ers from n cities in ol ed-mployers demanded go !t crush stri'e by =iolitti #anted to use old techni


6/21

F+SCIST S2%%* T$ S,


7/21

$+SS2 I T#$ C+T#*LIC C#2 C# & C* S$ 3+TI3$S3o 1*%1 direct appeal to Caths – ascists opposed di orce4 peasants deser ed a better deal4prepared to settle 6oman


8/21

iberal failings – =ramsci rise of ascism #as the deliberate attempt of liberals to crush the gro#ingpo#er of #or'ers

,2SS*LI I's IC $+SI %*/$ 19 -4@0th $ct 1*%% Muss appointed PM – blac' shirts permitted to enter city & paraded in triumphComplete fascist go !t not poss yet – no ma"ority & King controlled army1st go !t 1/ senior minister / fascists )ma" A Popolari & ibs+

ibs thought could use ascists to crush socialists and then co9opt them into liberal syst – thoughfascist had no coherent ideology

Muss used threat of iolence to intimidate parl – #or'ing to con ince MPs if ga e him dictatorialpo#ers he #ould act in interests of (taly – played on threat of ,ocialist re )in reality non9e:istent+Gemanded rule by decree for 1% months to restore la# & order – speech to parl 3o 1*%%$nly socialists & communists opposed the notion – prominent libs ga e support – ,alandra4 =iolitti &

actaMPs con inced until 1*%/ that Muss could be transformed into a respectable politician

Trie" to increase po:er o.er partyCreated =6 3G C$U3C( $ ,C(,M )Gec+ – supreme body #ithin the mo ement #hich discussedpolicy proposals & made all 'ey appointments #ithin the partyMuss ga e himself right to ma'e all appointments to the =rand Council of ascism – this meant hecontrolled policyCon erted ascist s


9/21

King could still sac' PM

MU6G-6 $ M 55-$55( Ehen parl reopened opp MPs tried to publicise illegal fascist action at polls,ocialist =iacomo Matteotti #as prominent spo'esman – produced e idence of fascist terrorEithin days of allegation he #as abducted in broad daylight by fascist thugs & stabbed to death, $CK – fascist gone too far – lin's bet#een Muss & crime came out although he denied it

$pposition MPs #al'ed out of parl in protest – communists4 socialists & Popolari – F entine ,ecession!in hope to encourage 'ing to dismiss MussKing refused to dismiss him – feared it #ould strengthen the re left & libs con inced him this #as anopp to control Muss – =iolitti & ,alandra still supported Muss as PM

Muss mo ed to pre ent further oppositionP6-,, C-3,$6, (P – Buly 1*%/ – this lead pre supporting liberals to mo e to the opposition

ugust – he banned meetings by opposition political parties

Gec 1*%/ – ultimatum presented to Muss from party – if he didn!t end Matteotti affair & more todictatorship4 they #ould #ithdra# their supportPM @rd Ban 1*%; told parl he accepted responsibility for all fascist actions up to date & that he #ouldno# ta'e measure to increase his o#n po#er – speech as cheer in chamber

Ban 1*%; established a committee to reform the constitution-==( ,C(,5(,,(M- )Gec+ passed – banned opposition parties & free trade unions

Press censorship tightened3e# secret police set up,pecial court set up to try political crimes

Control of local go !t increased – replaced mayors #ith nominated officials – P$G-,5 ,Ban 1*%. – Muss granted right to issue decrees carrying the full force of la# – he could ma'e la#s#ithout consulting parliament – personal rule enshrined in la#1*%8 – King lost right to select PM – list of potentials to be dra#n up by =rand Council of ascism &King select from the list

%ersonal 0ictatorship1*%. Muss A dictator(ssue decreesParl under his control – not a forum for debate

iberals & Popolari di ided & socialists under constant attac'5echnically could still be dismissed by the 'ing

P6$P = 3G1*%. opposition ne#spapers suppressedBournalists & editors made a#are they could be arrested if published anything derogatory to#ardsthe regimeMuss press office issued Fofficial! ersions of e ents1*%/ radio net#or' #as run by the state – radios gi en to schools & by F@0s party #as trying toensure e en people in rural areas #ere listening to communal radios3e#sreels before films

CU 5 $ 5 - P-6,$3 (5JMedia A 'ey


10/21


11/21

1*%. – stri'es outla#ed

C$356$ $ 5 - P 65J=rand Council of ascism

ascist Militia1*%@ local parties #ere purged of dissidentsBune 1*%; party congress – demanded party should heal internal di isions & listen to their leader –congress lasted a fe# hrs instead of days-nd of 1*%8 – purge of ascists suspected of disloyalty & est2 Principle that all Party posts should beappointments made from 6omeP3 totally subser ient

$nly Muss held party together – not united mo ement – broad4 uneasy coalition of groups #ithdiffering priorities & onionse2g2 ,


12/21

oreign ad entures e:cited public interest6en>o Ge elice argued Muss genuinely popular esp 1*%*[email protected] =rand F ascism managed to de elop a broad4 if only passi e4 consensus after the elimination of anyreal alternati e in 1*%; & the integration of the Catholics into the regime after 1*%*!Martin Clar' – F5he ascist regime seemed tolerable & #as e en popular until 1*@7982 (t #as carefulnot to alienate ested interests222 cti e resistance seemed pointless!

$conomyMuss A no economist(nitially policies to ma'e position secureFCorporate ,tate! 5ransformation of the ec2Mid 1*@0!s priority shifted to byssinian #ar – autar'y

1*%%97Came to po#er at beginning of boom period – e:ports :% 1*%%9; – too' credit

ppointed ec prof as 5reasury Min – lberto de ,tefani – policy #as to reassure industrialists aslimited go !t spending #hich helped to fight inflation6educed state inter ention in industry – telephone net#or' ta'en out of go !t control4 reduced ta:es& abandoned some on companies that had made huge profits in the #ar$utla#ing of Catholic & ,ocialist 5U 1*%;

attle for the Lira1*%. boom ending & e:change rate of lira falling – 1;0 lira to the N

nnounced the Dattle for the ira – notion A a ibrant country should ha e a ibrant currency – setne# rate of e:change of *0 ira to the N Gec 1*%7 )the alue it had been the month he came topo#er+

(ncreased prestige #ith foreign ban'ers & at homeDU5 not beneficial as foreign buyers found (talian goods t#ice as e:pensi e – e:port industries esp25e:tiles #ent into depressionUnemployment :@ 1*%.98- en iat #as e:porting fe#er cars in 1*@0s than it had in 1*%0s(t should ha e helped consumer as foreign goods became cheaper but Guce pre ented this by placingtariffs on them$nly #inners A steel4 armaments4 shipbuilding that needed cheap tariff free imported ra# materials

Corporate State6e method of running the ec2Corporations #ould be set up in each sector of the economy & #ithin in each #ould be employers &fascist 5U to rep the #or'ers2 5he corporations #ould org2 production4 pay & #or'ing conditions ineach industry2 (f they could not agree4 it #ould go to a labour court administered by the Ministry ofCorporations

oo'ed li'e pro ide more rights for #or'ers but reality ri alries #ithin the party ended this26ossoni head of ascist 5U sa# a big role for 5U but he #as opposed by employers org2 =iuseppeDottai headed Min of Corporations – he distrusted 6ossoni2 ll sides loo'ed to Guce for a solution2

e came do#n on side of industry & Dottai2Dottai had to #rite abour Charter – nothing in it to threaten industry6ossoni!s influence reduced further #hen his union #as di ided into . federations & his follo#ersremo edMin of Corp claimed success in 1*%*


13/21

Dy 1*@/ there #ere %% corporations co ering nearly e ery area of the economy – but #or'ers unableto choose their o#n reps in the corporations – fascist candidates foisted on them & they tended torule in fa our of the employers$nly on issues of sic' pay & paid holidays did the corporations further #or'ers! interests2(ndustrialists #ere allo#ed to 'eep their non ascist employers! organisations & largely ignored thecorporations6egulations issued by the corporations #ere only ad isory

Gepressionarge no2 $f companies collapsed

Car production fell by ;01*@@ – % mill unemployed(ntroed public #or' schemes – building of motor#ays & hydroelectric plants to pro ide #or' –increased circulation of money #hich stimulated demanded and "obs

ascist go !t bailed out the ban's #ho had gi en loans to industries #ho could no longer afford therepaymentsCreation of (nstitute for (ndustrial 6econstruction )(6(+ 1*@@ – too' control of shares of the ban'sthey bailed out2 5he go !t in guise of (6( became effecti e o#ner of many of the top companies2 (6(too' o er responsibility of gi ing loans to companies from ban's2(taly #eathered the depression better than her democratic neighbours )but it cost the ta:payer agreat deal of money+

Preparing for EarDelie ed #ar #as ine itable & (taly had to be prepared(taly must become self9sufficient – autar'y – pro ed his point #ith ec sanctions imposed by eague of3ations in byssinian Crisis

Muss encouraged hea y industry4 allo#ed near monopolies to de – Pirelli dom rubber4 iat carmanufacturing2-:panded state control – 80 of ship building & ;0 of steel prod directed by stateDU5 1*/0 still importing oil4 coal4 iron ore(taly unable to match enemies! le els of production & couldn!t replace losses in aircraft & shipping=o !t #as spending huge amount on rearm programmes & fund mil ad entures in byssinia & ,pain butdidn!t #ant to increase ta:es4 therefore e:penditure e:ceeded income by late 1*@0sMuss refused to recognise prob & it remained unsol ed

(mpact on i ing ,tandardsEage cuts in 1*%0s & 1*@0s price rises1*%;9@8 real #ages fell by 10 O

alling consumption of meat4 fruit & eget2Unemploy2 6ose – % mill 1*@@Middle classes less li'ely to suffer unemploy2 =o !t employed 1 millMuss not committed to raising the standard of li ing

+)ricultureattle for rain

1*%; – promote fascist po#er & self sufficiency5raditionally (taly had to import large amount of grain to feed pop A #ea'nessPush to increase grain productionPro ided farmers #ith grants for tractors4 fertilisers – free ad ice on efficient techni


14/21

erage grain har est increased from ;2; mill tonnes per year in early 1*%0s to o er 7 million tonnes1*@0s=rain imports fell – 7; 1*%;9@;,urface A successDU5 much of land in central & southern regions turned to #heat #as unsuitable – more suited tocitrus fruit4 #ine & oli es as a result traditional e:ports decreased

Lan" eclamation )%nd initiati e+Muss e:panded pre go !t schemes of draining & irrigating farmlandPontine Marshes );0'm from 6ome+ sho#piece for media – malaria s#amps drained & small farms setup o#ned by e:9ser icemen(mpro ed public health & pro ided thousands of "obs in depressionDut amount of land reclamation #as limited

Impact on Li.in) Stan"ar"sgr #or'ers suffered e en hea ier #age cuts in 1*@0s

Usual route out #as emigration but U, stopped immigration4 therefore left countryside for to#ns – mill & 1*%19/1 pop of 6ome :%

Muss dropped la# to brea' up large lando#ners estates & distribute to farmers – failure to brea'lando#ners cemented the agr2 Dac'#ardness

ailed to loo' after south – only isited ,icily once in 1*%/ittle ec change4 changes made – communications – motor#ays #ere done for propaganda purposes

Fascism & the Catholic Church6ecognised accommodation #ith church could bring him great support & prestige1*%% – Muss posing as alt2 godless liberals & atheist communists

,ecured confidence of Pope by restoring cath ed to school & increasing go !t payments to priestsPope #ithdre# support of Popolari in 1*%@ – neutralised oppositionLateran +)reements$fficially ended church ? state conflict of .0 yrsPope agreed tor recognise the (talian state & its possession of 6ome,tate recognised Pope!s control o er Hatican City as independent from the (talian state & ga e N@0mill compensation for surrendering claim o 6omeCatholicism est2 as state religionPope could appoint all bishops but state could eto nay politically suspect candidates,tate #ould pay salaries of the clergyClergy could not belong to political groupsCath re led compulsory in schools3o di orce #ithout the consent of the church-nd to compulsory ci il ceremony – church #edding had full legal recognitionClerics could not become the focus for opp but Fmarriage of con enience!Tensions6elations cooled in the F@0!s1*@1 – ro# o er Catholic ction youth groups – go !t tried to suppress it – Cath ction had to berestricted to rel acti itiesCath Church made it ery clear regime shouldn!t try & close rel schoolsChurch declared the creed of ascist Dalilla blasphemous6adio Hatican broadcasted alt ne#s & info – limit to ascists totalitarian claimsDut support #ars in byssinia & ,pain as FChristian Crusades!Under Pope Pius (Q dis


15/21

/omenascist & Cath ie#s coincided

Contraception & abortion unnatural4 #oman!s place #as in the home & role #as a motherDanned contraception & education emphasised traditional gender roles

attle for irths1*%7Gesigned to increase pop from /0 to .0 mill by 1*;01% children per family #as specified as idealMarriage loans – part of repayment cancelled #ith each child bornMarried man #ith at least . children #as e:empt from ta:ation(mpro ed healthcare for mothers & infantsPropaganda suggested all (talians had a duty to produce childrenPri>es gi en to prolific mothersDachelors #ere ta:ed – go !t raised %@0 mill lira in 1*@*

ate 1*@0s "obs & promos in c?s only open to married fertile menPressure for #omen to stay at home – state rail#ay company sac'ed all #omen appointed since 1*1;e:cept #ar #ido#s1*@@ 1*%; pro ide leisure acti ities to influence #or'ers to#ards a ascist ie# of life &compensate for defunct 5U


16/21

Mid 1*@0s controlled all football clubs4 1@;0 theatres4 %000 drama societies4 @000 brass bands48000 librariesHirtually e ery to#n & illage4 e en in south4 had o#n dopla oro club house1*%. membership A @0040004 1*@; %2/ mill4 1*@* / mill(talians


17/21

erman-Italian elations 19 - ?earful of ustro9=erman union as #ould threaten northern bordersustrian chancellor isited 6ome @ times in 1*@@ – reli ed #hen (taly offer protection against

=erman aggressioneb 1*@/ Muss encouraged Gollfuss to set up right #ing anti 3a>i regime but assassinated by 3a>i

sympathisers in Buly – Muss dispatched troops to border to pre ent =ermany from attempting union

Stresa FrontMarch 1*@; 3a>is re ealed de air force in breach of Hersailles & into9ing conscription to createarmy : ; si>e permitted(taly met UK & rance to come up #ith a "oint response – ,tresa ront – collaborate to pre entanymore breaches in treaties that might threaten peace=a e him protection against nschlussCon inced UK & r #ould be more sympathetic to (talian ambitions to a oid a (t9=erman alliance

+byssinia-nhance (taly!s claim to be a great po#erGistract from failing domestic policies – corporate state4 battle for grain & birthsPart of heritage – 6oman -mpire had dom 3 frica

Mil success on cheapbyssinia lac'ed means for modern #ar4 neighbours -ritrea & ,omaliland #ere (talian therefore

made attac' easier – uncertain borders of byssinia could ma'e an border incident an easy "ustification & re enge (taly!s humiliating defeat at do#a in 18*.Gespite sponsoring byssinia!s entry into of3 1*%@ & Pact of riendship 1*%8 by 1*%* (taly #asdra#ing up plans to anne: it

Gec 1*@/ oasis Eal9Eal s'irmish bet#een (talian & byssinian troops – @0 (t soldiers 'illedMuss demanded apology & hefty compensationbyssinia re


18/21

+lliance :ith ermanyome- erlin +@is

Ban 1*@. itler agreed not to carry out nschluss & Muss agreed not to ob"ect to his interference inustrian politicsoreign Min Ciano isited Derlin $ct & 3o Muss announced F6ome9Derlin :is! – public declaration of

friendship,ecret understanding Muss direct e:pansionist ideas to Med & itler -2-uro & DalticSpanish Ci.il /arDoth =ermany & (taly supported conser ati es & ascists against elected 6epublican go !tMuss reluctant to get in ol ed sent transport planes – #hen % crashed o er Morocco & (taly!sin ol ement criticised by the rench4 he #as determined to ensure ascist ictoryEith no real planning he committed /04000 troops – officially they #ere ols25roops #ithdra#n 1*@* #hen 6epublican efforts collapsed19 A-8

o. 19 A +nti-Comintern %act > (taly "oined Bapan & =ermany+nschluss relations cooled as itler didn!t consult Muss first1*@8 UK as'ed Muss to act as mediator at Munich Conference o er ,udetenland Crisis – Mussen"oyed the publicity – hailed as architect of peace – but confirmed his ie# of the #est as #ea'19 8 increase" "eman"s > tal'ing of anne:ing 3ice4 Corsica & 5unis and ma'ing lbania (talian –clear #ar necessary to achie e theseMarch 1*@* – furious itler didn!t tell him about plan to in ade C>echoslo a'ia

In.asion of +lbaniapril 1*@* – ignored fact in had been a irtual satellite for o er 10 yrs

Hictory #ithout any ma"or fighting – put (taly bac' in lime light

%act of Steel ,ay 19 9(n asion of lbania prompted UK & r to gi e guarantees of mil assistance to =reece & 5ur'ey – sa#this as aggressi e as =reece clearly in his sphere of influence – may ha e con inced him of alliance#ith =ermanyPact of ,teel committed each nation to "oin the other in #ar e en if that nation had caused the #arthrough aggression

2$ too' fright con inced Guce at end of May that needed @ years to rearm fully – itler didn!t e enbother to reply

on-belli)erenceGidn!t attempt to delay itler!s preps for attac' on Poland4 end of ug reasserted needed se eral

years to rearm – itler demanded he stand by the pact – Muss attempting to #iggle out of it4 said(taly only "oin if supplied #ith unrealistic


19/21

Pro9 ascist regime ta'en control in ,painUK & r had accorded (taly some respect as a great po#er

byssinia generated a lot of support for the regimeDU5 5oo ambitiousUnrealistic to dom Med4 e:pand colonies & ec dom Dal'ans all at same time – needed a modernisedarmy4 committed populace & industrialised ec geared for #ar – didn!t ha e any of these things

ailed to prise ma"or concessions from UK & rUK & r didn!t fear or respect (taly & =ermany didn!t ta'e it seriously as a military po#er

//Drought destruction of the ascist state & death of mussEar re ealed inefficiency & incompetence of regime-:posed fragility of support for Guce

,ilitary 2nprepare"ness3o preparations for a sustained #ar – e:pected #ar to be o er by ,ept 1*/01*@;98 1128 of national income spent on armed forces – a lot );2;2 in UK+ but spent on inade


20/21

1*/% – =ermany on brin' of defeat in ,talingrad4 full retreat in frica4 ibya abandoned Ban 1*/@4May 1*/@ #hole :is army in frica surrenderedBuly 1*/@ mer forces landed in ,icily4 in asion of (taly loo'ed imminent

Fall of ,ussolini$pinion o er entry into the #ar had been di ided6eturning soldiers told stories of the unpreparedness – e2g2 attac' of =reece in rainy season

ood shortages due to UK bloc'ade – prices rose as no rationing until 1*/1 – bread ration of 1;0g ofbread per person a day(talians sic' of #ar by end of 1*/0 – faith in Guce shattered$pposition groups emerged – Catholics & Communist1*/@ shortages led to #a e of stri'es

ate 1*/% industrialists & e en Guce!s o#n son in la# #as inclined to ma'e peace – belief Guce must goas he #ould not agree to this & allies #ouldn!t negot #ith him – ie#s echoed by conser ati es & 'ing!scourt(n asion of ,icily A last stra#,enior ascists – arinacci & Ge Dono persuaded Muss to call =rand Council of ascism to discuss milsit – sat %/9; th Buly oted 1*97 to as' King to restore po#ers to parl4 ministers & grand council –see'ing a #ay to get rid of Muss – Muss didn!t defend position%;th Buly Guce isited King to as' to name ne# ministers but King told him he #as no# the Fmost hatedman in (taly! & Marshal Dadoglio #ould be PM to ma'e peace2 Guce #as arrested2Gismissal of Muss led to collapse of ascist regime – no public protests – fascists tried to ingratiatethemsel es #ith ne# regime – Poplo d!(talia "ust replaced Muss picture

+rmistice 8 th Sept 1943o peace because =ermany couldn!t afford to let it go – occupied northern & central (taly

itler ordered the rescue of Guce from alpine s'i resort in glider1; th ,ept 1*/@ Muss announced creation of a =erman sponsored ascist state – (talian ,ocial 6epublicControlled small part of 32(taly – lac'ed real support & re"ected by cons & industrialists – lac'ed acapital city4 army4 structure,pa#ned a militiaPartisans )armed anti9fascist groups+ fought the fascist militia – 3orthern (taly fell into a bloodyCi il Ear0eath of ,ussolini1*/@9/ UK & U, forces pushed north#ards1*/; 3a>i forces in full retreat – Muss disguised as =erman soldier but stopped at a'e =arda by(talian Communist PartisansGuce & his mistress Clara Petacci #ere 'illed %8 th pril 1*/;Dodies ta'en to Milan publicly strung up by heels from the roof of petrol station in Pia>>ale oreto+ftermath6e enge 'illings & e:ecutionsBune 1*/; arious anti9 ascist groups set up first free go !t – dominated by a resistance hero –

erruccio Parri but replaced by lcide Ge =asperi of Christian Gemocrats in 3o – party to dom for/0 yrs


21/21

Mussolini Notes

Documents