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MUHAMMAD BIN QASIM

Who Conquest ofSindhandMultanfor theUmayyadswas Born on 31

December 695 atTa'if,Arabia and passed way on 18 July 715 (aged 20) at theage of less than 20 years.

Muhammad ibn Qasim leading his troops in battle

Imd ad-Dn Muammad ibn Qsim ath-Thaqaf(Arabic:

; c. 31 December 695 18 July 715[citation needed]) was

anUmayyadgeneral who conquered theSindhandMultanregions along

theIndus River(now a part ofPakistan) for theUmayyad Caliphate. He was

born and raised in the city ofTaif(in modern-daySaudi Arabia). Qasim's

conquest of Sindh and southern-most parts of Multan enabled furtherIslamic

expansion into India.

A member of the Thaqeef tribe of theTa'ifregion, Muhammad bin Qasim's

father wasQasim bin Yusuf[citation needed]who died when Muhammad bin Qasim

was young, leaving his mother in charge of his

education.UmayyadgovernorAl-Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf Al-Thaqafi, Muhammad bin

Qasim's paternal uncle (Tau), was instrumental in teaching Muhammad bin

Qasim about warfare and governance. Muhammad bin Qasim married his

cousin Zubaidah, Hajjaj's daughter, shortly before going toSindh. Another

paternal uncle of Muhammad bin Qasim wasMuhammad bin Yusuf,governor

ofYemen.[citation needed]Under Hajjaj's patronage, Muhammad bin Qasim was

made governor ofPersia,where he succeeded in putting down a rebellion.[citation

needed]

Due to his close relationship with Hajjaj, Bin Qasim was executed after the

accession of CaliphSulayman ibn Abd al-Malik.

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Contents

1.

Umayyad interest in Sindh

2.

The campaign

3.

Military and political strategy

4.

Reasons for success

5.

Administration by Muhammad bin Qasim

6.

Incorporation of ruling elite into administration

7.

Jat clashes with Muhammad bin Qasim

8.

Treatment of Jats

9. Religion

10.

Death

11.

Controversy

12.

Legacy

13.

See also

14.

Footnotes

15.References

16.

External links

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UMAYYAD INTERST IN SINDH

According to Berzin,Umayyadinterest in the region occurred because of

attacks from SindhRaja Dahiron ships ofMuslimsand their imprisonment of

Muslim men and women.[1]

They had earlier unsuccessfully sought to gain

control of the route, via theKhyber Pass, from the Turki-

ShahisofGandhara.[1]But by taking Sindh, Gandhara's southern neighbor,

they were able to open a second front against Gandhara; a feat they had, on

occasion, attempted before.[1]

According to Wink,Umayyadinterest in the region was galvanized by the

operation of theMedsand others.[2]Meds (a tribe of Scythians living in Sindh)

hadpirateduponSassanidshipping in the past, from the mouth of

theTigristo theSri Lankancoast, in theirbawarijand now were able to prey

onArabshipping from their bases atKutch,DebalandKathiawar.[2]At the

time,Sindhwas the wildfrontierregion of al-Hind, inhabited mostly by semi-

nomadic tribes whose activities disturbed much of the WesternIndian

Ocean.[2]Muslim sources insist that it was these persistent activities along

increasingly important Indian trade routes by Debal pirates and others which

forced theArabsto subjugate the area, in order to control the seaports and

maritime routes of whichSindhwas the nucleus, as well as, the overland

passage.[3]DuringHajjaj's governorship, the MidsofDebalin one of their raids

had kidnapped Muslim women travelling fromSri LankatoArabia, thus

providing acasus bellito the rising power of the Umayyad Caliphate that

enabled them to gain a foothold in

theMakran,BalochistanandSindhregions.[2][4]

Insert pic

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Also cited as a reason for this campaign was the policy of providing refuge to

Sassanids fleeing theArab advanceand toArabrebels from theUmayyad

consolidationof their rule

Umayyad caliphate in 710 : The Umayyad Caliphate on the eve of the invasions

of Spain and Sindh in 710.

All the above reason have their own importance for a first attack on Sindh. but

immediate causes for the conquest of Sindh was the plunder of the gifts of

Ceylon's ruler to Hijjaj and attack on ships of Arab that were carrying the

orphans and widows of Muslim soldiers who died in Jihaad against Africa.

These Arab were imprisoned later on by the Governor Deebal Partaab Raye. A

letter written by the an escaped girl from the Arab that are put in the prison of

the Partab Raye. She asked Hajjab Bin Yousaf for help. When Hijjaj asked

Dahir for release of prisoners and compensation, the later refused on the

ground that he had no control over those. Hajjaj sent Muhammad Bin Qasim

for this great expedition in 711 A.D. It was during this time when Spain and

many parts of Africa and Central Asia were brought under the Muslim rule;

and war was continue so Muslims were not in a position to start a new

expedition. The only reason of this conquest was to rescue pilgrims that were

taken captive by Hindu governor[dubiousdiscuss].

Themawali; new non-Arab converts; who were usually allied with Hajjaj's

political opponents and thus were frequently forced to participate in

theJihadson the frontier - such asKabul,SindhandTransoxania.[5]Through

conquest, theUmayyadsintended to protect its maritime interest, while also

cutting off refuge for fleeing rebel chieftains as well asSindhimilitary support

to theSassanidrump state; akin to those received at several prior major

battles during thetheir conquest of Persia- such as those

atSalasalandQdisiyyahand the finally at theBattle of Rasil.An actual push

into the region had been out of favor as an Arab policy since the time of

theRashidunCaliphUmar bin Khattab,who upon receipt of reports of it being

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an inhospitable and poor land, had stopped further expeditionary ventures into

the region.

THE CAMPAIGN

A

map of Muhammad bin Qasim's expedition into Sindh in 711 AD.

Muhammad bin Qasim's expedition was actually the third attempt, the first

two having failed due to stiffer-than-expected opposition as well as heat,

exhaustion.[citation needed]

Hajjaj had put more care and planning into this campaign than the first

campaign[5]under Badil bin Tuhfa.[citation needed]Hajjaj superintended this

campaign fromKufaby maintaining close contact with Muhammad bin Qasim

in the form of regular reports and then regularly issuing orders.[5]The army

which departed fromShirazin 710 CE under Muhammad bin Qasim was 6,000

Syriancavalryand detachments ofmawalifromIraq.[5]At the borders of Sindh

he was joined by an advance guard and six thousandcamel ridersand later

reinforcements from thegovernorofMakrantransferred directly toDebalby

sea along with fivecatapults[5]("manjaniks"). The army that eventually

captured Sindh would later be swelled by theGurjarsandMedsas well as other

irregulars that heard of successes in Sindh.[5]When Muhammad bin Qasim

passed throughMakranwhile raising forces, he had to re-subdue the restive

Umayyad towns of Fannazbur and Arman Belah (Lasbela)[6]The first town

assaulted was Debal and upon the orders of Al-Hajjaj, he exacted a bloody

retribution on Debal by giving no quarter to its residents or priests and

destroying its greattemple.[5]

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Extent and expansion ofUmayyadrule under Muhammad bin Qasim

inmedieval India(modern state boundaries shown in red).

From Debal the Arab army then marched north taking towns such as Nerun

and Sadusan (Sehwan)peacefully.[5]often using their components; additionally

one-fifth of thebootyincludingslaveswere dispatched to Hajjaj and the

Caliph.[5]The conquest of these towns was accomplished easily; however,Raja

Dahir's armies being prepared on the other side of the Indus[7]were yet to be

fought.[5]In preparation to meet them, Muhammad bin Qasim moved back to

Nerun to resupply and receive reinforcements sent by Hajjaj.[5]Camped on the

east bank of the Indus, Qasim sent emissaries and bargained with the river

Jats and boatmen.[5]Upon securing the aid of Mokah Basayah, "the King of the

island of Bet", Muhammad bin Qasim crossed over the river where he was

joined by the forces of theThakoreof Bhatta and the western Jats.[5]

At Ar-rur (Rohri) he was met by Dahir's forces and the eastern Jats in

battle.[5]Dahir died in the battle, his forces were defeated and a triumphant

Muhammad bin Qasim took control of Sind.[5]In the wake of the battle enemy

soldiers were put to death - but not artisans, merchants or farmers - and Dahir

and his chiefs, the "daughters of princes" and the usual fifth of the booty and

slaves was sent on to Hajjaj.[5]Soon the capitals of the other

provinces,Brahmanabad, Alor (Aror) andMultan, were captured alongside

other in-between towns with only light Muslim casualties.[5]Usually after a

siege of a few weeks or months the Arabs gained a city through the intervention

of heads of mercantile houses with whom subsequent treaties and agreements

would be settled.[5]After battles all fighting men were executed and their wives

and children enslaved in considerable numbers and the usual fifth of the booty

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and slaves were sent to Hajjaj.[5]The general populace was encouraged to carry

on with their trades and taxes and tributes settled.[5]

With Sindh secured Qasim sent expeditions toSurashtra,where his generals

made peaceful treaty settlements with theRashtrakuta.[1]Muhammad bin

Qasim wrote out letters to "kings ofHind" to surrender and acceptIslam,and

subsequently 10,000 cavalry were sent toKannaujasking them to submit and

pay tribute before his abrupt recall ended the campaign.[5]

MILITARY AND POLITICAL STRATEGY

The military strategy had been outlined by Hajjaj in a letter sent to Muhammad

bin Qasim:[8]

My ruling is given: Kill anyone belonging to the ahl-i-harb[combatants]; arrest

their sons and daughters for hostages and imprison them. Whoever does not

fight against us...grant them aman[safety] and settle their tribute [amwal]

as dhimmah[protected person]...

The Arabs' first concern was to facilitate the conquest of Sindh with the fewest

casualties while also trying to preserve the economic infrastructure.[8]Towns

were given two options: submit to Islamic authority peacefully or be attacked

by force (anwattan), with the choice governing their treatment upon

capture.[8]The capture of towns was usually accomplished by means of a treaty

with a party from among the enemy, who were then extended special privileges

and material rewards.[9]There were two types of such treaties, "Sulh"or "ahd-e-

wasiq(capitulation)" and "aman(surrender/ peace)".[9]Among towns and

fortresses that were captured through force of arms, Muhammad bin Qasim

performed executions as part of his military strategy, but they were limited to

the ahl-i-harb(fighting men), whose surviving dependents were also enslaved.[9]

Where resistance was strong, prolonged and intensive, often resulting in

considerable Arab casualties, Muhammad bin Qasim's response was dramatic,

inflicting 6,000 deaths at Rawar, between 6,000 and 26,000 at Brahmanabad,

4,000 at Iskalandah and 6,000 at Multan.[10]Conversely, in areas taken

by sulh, such as Armabil, Nirun, and Aror, resistance was light and few

casualties occurred.[10]Sulh appeared to be Muhammad bin Qasim's preferred

mode of conquest, the method used for more than 60% of the towns and tribes

recorded byBaladhuriand theChachnama.[10]At one point, he was actually

berated by Hajjaj for being too lenient.[10]Meanwhile, the common folk were

often pardoned and encouraged to continue working;[9]Hajajj ordered that this

option not be granted to any inhabitant of Daybul, yet Qasim still bestowed it

upon certain groups and individuals.[10]

After each major phase of his conquest, Muhammad bin Qasim attempted to

establish law and order in the newly conquered territory by showing religious

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tolerance and incorporating the ruling class theBrahminsandShramanas

into his administration.[9]

REASONS FOR SUCCESS

Muhammad bin Qasim's success has been partly ascribed to Dahir being an

unpopular Hindu king ruling over aBuddhistmajority who sawChach of

Alorand his kin as usurpers of theRai Dynasty.[4]This is attributed to having

resulted in support being provided by Buddhists and inclusion of rebel soldiers

serving as valuable infantry in his cavalry-heavy force from the Jat

andMeds.[11]Brahman, Buddhist, Greek, and Arab testimony however can be

found that attests towards amicable relations between the adherents of the two

religions up to the 7th century.[12]

Along with this were:

1.

Superior military equipment; such assiege enginesand theMongol

bow.[4]

2.

Troop discipline and leadership.[4]

3.

The concept of Jihad as a morale booster.[4]

4.

Religion; the widespread belief in the prophecy of Muslim success.[4][12]

5.

The Samanis being persuaded to submit and not take up arms because

the majority of the population was Buddhist who were dissatisfied with

their rulers, who were Hindu.[12]

6.

The laboring under disabilities of the Lohana Jats.[12]

7.

Defections from among Dahirs chiefs and nobles.[12]

ADMINISTRATION BY MUMHAMMAD BIN QASIM

After the conquest, Muhammad bin Qasim's task was to set up an

administrative structure for a stable Muslim state that incorporated a newly

conquered alien land, inhabited by non-Muslims.[13]He adopted a conciliatory

policy, asking for acceptance of Muslim rule by the natives in return for non-

interference in their religious practice,[13]so long as the natives paid their taxes

and tribute.[4]

He established IslamicSharialaw over the people of the region;

however, Hindus were allowed to rule their villages and settle their disputes

according to their own laws,[4]and traditional hierarchical institutions,

including the Village Headmen (Rais) and Chieftains (dihqans) were

maintained.[13]A Muslim officer called an amilwas stationed with a troop of

cavalry to manage each town on a hereditary basis[13]

Everywhere taxes (mal) and tribute (kharaj)were settled and hostages taken -

occasionally this also meant the custodians of temples.[9]Non-Muslim natives

were excused from military service and from payment of the religiously

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mandated tax system levied upon Muslims calledZakat,[13]the tax system

levied upon them instead was thejizya- aprogressive tax,being heavier on the

upper classes and light for the poor.[13]In addition, three percent of government

revenue was allocated to theBrahmins.[4]

INCORPORATION OF RULING ELITE INTO ADMINISTRATION

During his administration, Hindus and Buddhists were inducted into the

administration as trusted advisors and governors.[4]A Hindu, Kaksa, was at

one point the second most important member of his administration.[14]Dahir's

prime minister and various chieftains were also incorporated into the

administration.[15]

JAT CLASHES WITH MUHAMMAD BIN QASIM

Significant medievalMuslimchronicles such as theChachnama,Zainul-

AkhbarandTarikh-I-Baihaqihave recorded battles between theJatsand forces

of Muhammad bin Qasim .[16]

Passage from the Chachnama

(After capturing Debal and Nerun, Muhammad Bin Qasim then) proceeded to

the fort of Ishbahar. It was in the month of Muharram year 93AH, that (he)

arrived in the vicinity of that fort. He witnessed the fort (which ) was strong and

impregnable. The inhabitants of the fort (hisariyan) were making preparations

for the battle and had made a deep moat (khandiqi zart) around the fort. The

Jats and the rustics (rustayan) that were living in the western sid (shelter) in

the fort fought against Muhammad-i-Qasim for one week displaying the

mastery (ustadaqi) of their warfare by demonstrating (their tactic of) seize and

hold (dar-u-gir). After that they petitioned Bin Qasim, asking for safety

(aman).[17]

TREATMENT OF JATS

The narrative in the Chachnama conveys that Chach humiliated theJatsandLohanas.Denzil Ibbetsonrecords that "Muhammad bin Qasim maintained

these regulations, declaring that the Jats resembled the savages of Persia

"[18]According to Wink "While the Jats were also granted (aman)a considerable

number of Jats were also captured as prisoners of war and deported to Iraq

and elsewhere as slaves.[5]

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RELIGION

There are conflicting views regarding religious policy in his reign. According to

some historians,no mass conversions were attempted and the destruction of

temples such as theSun Temple of Multanwas forbidden.[19]Lane-Poole writes

that, " as a rule Muslim government was at once tolerant and economic".[20]But

other historians like Elliot, Cousens, Majumdar and Vaidya have held the view

that there wascoercive conversionduring his reign and destruction of temples

was a reflection of the more basic, religiously motivated intolerance.[10]

A small minority who converted to Islam were granted exemption from Jizya in

lieu of paying the Muslim mandatedZakat.[13]Hindus and Buddhists were

given the status ofDhimmi(protected people).[4]

An eccelastical office, "sadru-I-Islam al affal", was created to oversee the secular

governors.[13]While someproslytizationoccurred, the social dynamics of Sindh

were no different from other regions newly conquered by Muslim forces such

asEgypt,where conversion to Islam was slow and took centuries.[13]

DEATH

Muhammad bin Qasim had begun preparations for further expansions when

Hajjaj died, as did CaliphAl-Walid I,who was succeeded bySulayman ibn Abd

al-Malik, who then took revenge against all who had been close to Hajjaj.

Sulayman owed political support to opponents of Hajjaj and so recalled both of

Hajjaj's successful generalsQutaibah bin Muslimand Qasim. He also

appointedYazid ibn al-Muhallab, once tortured by Hajjaj and a son ofAl

Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah, as the governor ofFars,Kirman,Makran,

andSindh;he immediately placed Qasim in chains.[21]

There are two different accounts regarding the details of Qasim's fate:

1.

The account from the Chachnama narrates a tale in which Qasims

demise is attributed to the daughters of King Dahir who had been taken

captive during the campaign. Upon capture they had been sent on as

presents to the Khalifa for hisharem.The account relates that they then

tricked the Khalifa into believing that Muhammad bin Qasim had

violated them before sending them on and as a result of this subterfuge,Muhammad bin Qasim was wrapped and stitched in oxen hides,[22]and

returned toSyria,which resulted in his death en route from suffocation.

This narrative attributes their motive for this subterfuge to securing

vengeance for their father's death. Upon discovering this subterfuge, the

Khalifa is recorded to have been filled with remorse and ordered the

sisters buried alive in a wall.[23][24]

2.

The Persian historianBaladhuri, however, states that the new Khalifa

was a political enemy of Umayyad ex-governor Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf,

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Muhammad bin Qasim's paternal uncle and thus persecuted all those

who were considered close to Hajjaj. Muhammad bin Qasim was

therefore recalled in the midst of a campaign of capturing more territory

up north. Upon arrival, he was howevere promptly imprisoned inMosul,

(in modern-dayIraq)and subjected to torture, resulting in his death.[4][24]

Whichever account is true, is unknown. What is known however is that he was

20 years old when he was killed by his own Caliph. None have read the

tombstone marking his grave for none know where he lies.

Muhammad bin Qasim had a son namedAmr bin Muhammadwho later

became governor ofSindh.[citation needed]

CONTROVERSY

There is controversy regarding the conquest and subsequent conversion of

Sindh. This is usually voiced in two antagonistic perspectives viewing Qasim's

actions:[10]

His conquest, as described by Stanley Lane-Poole, in Medieval India (Published

in 1970 by Haskell House Publishers Ltd), was "liberal". He imposed the

customary poll tax, took hostages for good conduct and spared peoples' lives

and lands. He even left their shrines undesecrated: 'The temples;, he

proclaimed, 'shall be inviolate, like the churches of the Christians, the

synagogues of the Jews and altars of the Magians'.[25]In the same text,

however, it is mentioned that "Occasional desecration of Hindu fanes took

place...but such demonstrations were probably rare sops to the official

conscience..".

1.

Coercive conversionhas been attributed to early historians such as Elliot,

Cousens, Majumdar and Vaidya.[10]

They hold the view that theconversion of Sindh was necessitated. Qasim's numerical inferiority is

said to explain any instances of apparent religious toleration, with the

destruction of temples seen as a reflection of the more basic, religiously

motivated intolerance.[10]

2.

Voluntary conversionhas been attributed to Thomas W. Arnold and

modern Muslim historians such as Habib and Qureishi. They believe

that the conquest was largely peaceful, and the conversion entirely so,

and that the Arab forces enacted liberal, generous and tolerant

policies.[10]These historians mention the "praiseworthy conduct of Arab

Muslims" and attribute their actions to a "superior civilizational

complex".[26]

Variouspolemicalperceptions of Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism are also

reflected in this debate.[26]Elliot perceived Islam as a religion of "terror,

devastation, murder and rapine" where the conquering Arabs were

characterized as "ruthless bigots" and "furious zealots" motivated by "plunder

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and proselytism".[10]The period of Qasim's rule has been called by U.T.

Thakkur "the darkest period in Sind history", with the records speaking of

massive forced conversions, temple destruction, slaughters and genocides; the

people of Sindh, described as inherently pacifist due to their Hindu/Buddhist

religious inclinations, had to adjust to the conditions of "barbarian

inroad".[27]On one extreme, theArab Muslimsare seen as being compelled by

religious stricture to conquer and forcibly convert Sindh, but on the other

hand, they can be seen as being respectful and tolerant of non-Muslims as part

of their religious duty, with conversion being facilitated by the vitality, equality

and morals of the Islamic religion.[26]Citations of towns taken either violently

or bloodlessly, reading back into Arab Sindh information belonging to a later

date and dubious accounts such as those of the forcible circumcision of

Brahmins at Deybul or Qasims consideration of Hindu sentiment in forbidding

the slaughter of cows are used as examples for one particular view or the

other.[26]

Some historians strike a middle ground, saying that Qasim was torn between

the political expediency of making peace with the Hindus and Buddhists;

having to call upon non-Muslims to serve under him as part of his mandate to

administer newly conquered land; and orthodoxy by refraining from seeking the

co-operation of "infidels". It is contended that Qasim may have struck a middle

ground, conferring the status ofDhimmiupon the native Sindhis and

permitting them to participate in his administration, but treating them as

"noncitizens" (i.e. in theKhilafat,but not of it).[13]

LEGACY

There is controversy regarding the conquest and subsequent conversion ofSindh. This is usually voiced in two antagonistic perspectives viewing Qasim's

actions:[10]

His conquest, as described by Stanley Lane-Poole, in Medieval India (Published

in 1970 by Haskell House Publishers Ltd), was "liberal". He imposed the

customary poll tax, took hostages for good conduct and spared peoples' lives

and lands. He even left their shrines undesecrated: 'The temples;, he

proclaimed, 'shall be inviolate, like the churches of the Christians, the

synagogues of the Jews and altars of the Magians'.[25]In the same text,

however, it is mentioned that "Occasional desecration of Hindu fanes took

place...but such demonstrations were probably rare sops to the official

conscience..".

1.

Coercive conversionhas been attributed to early historians such as Elliot,

Cousens, Majumdar and Vaidya.[10]They hold the view that the

conversion of Sindh was necessitated. Qasim's numerical inferiority is

said to explain any instances of apparent religious toleration, with the

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destruction of temples seen as a reflection of the more basic, religiously

motivated intolerance.[10]

2.

Voluntary conversionhas been attributed to Thomas W. Arnold and

modern Muslim historians such as Habib and Qureishi. They believe

that the conquest was largely peaceful, and the conversion entirely so,

and that the Arab forces enacted liberal, generous and tolerant

policies.[10]These historians mention the "praiseworthy conduct of Arab

Muslims" and attribute their actions to a "superior civilizational

complex".[26]

Variouspolemicalperceptions of Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism are also

reflected in this debate.[26]Elliot perceived Islam as a religion of "terror,

devastation, murder and rapine" where the conquering Arabs were

characterized as "ruthless bigots" and "furious zealots" motivated by "plunder

and proselytism".[10]The period of Qasim's rule has been called by U.T.

Thakkur "the darkest period in Sind history", with the records speaking of

massive forced conversions, temple destruction, slaughters and genocides; the

people of Sindh, described as inherently pacifist due to their Hindu/Buddhist

religious inclinations, had to adjust to the conditions of "barbarian

inroad".[27]On one extreme, theArab Muslimsare seen as being compelled by

religious stricture to conquer and forcibly convert Sindh, but on the other

hand, they can be seen as being respectful and tolerant of non-Muslims as part

of their religious duty, with conversion being facilitated by the vitality, equality

and morals of the Islamic religion.[26]Citations of towns taken either violently

or bloodlessly, reading back into Arab Sindh information belonging to a later

date and dubious accounts such as those of the forcible circumcision of

Brahmins at Deybul or Qasims consideration of Hindu sentiment in forbiddingthe slaughter of cows are used as examples for one particular view or the

other.[26]

Some historians strike a middle ground, saying that Qasim was torn between

the political expediency of making peace with the Hindus and Buddhists;

having to call upon non-Muslims to serve under him as part of his mandate to

administer newly conquered land; and orthodoxy by refraining from seeking the

co-operation of "infidels". It is contended that Qasim may have struck a middle

ground, conferring the status ofDhimmiupon the native Sindhis and

permitting them to participate in his administration, but treating them as

"noncitizens" (i.e. in theKhilafat,but not of it).[13]

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Footnotes:

1.

Alexander Berzin, "Part I: The Umayyad Caliphate (661 - 750 CE), TheFirst Muslim Incursion into the Indian Subcontinent", The Historical

Interaction between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before theMongol Empire Last accessed September 11, 2007

2.

^Jump up to:abcdWink (2002), pg.164

3.

Jump up^Wink (2002), 51-52

4.

^Jump up to:abcdefghijklNicholas F. Gier, FROM MONGOLS TO

MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES,Presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academyof Religion, Gonzaga University, May, 2006[1]

5.

^Jump up to:abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvWink (2004) pg 201-205

6.

Jump up^Wink (2004) pg 131

7.

Jump up^TheIndus Riverduring this time flowed to the east of Nerun,but a 10th-century earthquake caused the river to change to its course.

8.

^Jump up to:abcDerryl pg. 37-39

9.^Jump up to:abcdefWink (2002) pg. 204-206

10.

^Jump up to:abcdefghijkDerryl pg.22-29

11.

Jump up^"The fall of Multan laid the Indus valley at the feet ofthe conqueror. The tribes came in, 'ringing bells and beating drums anddancing,' in token of welcome. The Hindu rulers had oppressed themheavil