MSc Dissertation Final Version 1

Joshua Neale Phillips

715797

Department of the Built Environment

MSc Water, Energy and The Environment, Liverpool John Moores University

Community perceptions of renewable energy technologies in rural Pembrokeshire: Examining to what degree community perceptions are affected by nearby Solar and wind energy projects, looking at how they

impact the environment, landscape and local development.

2016

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This dissertation was completed as part of the MSc Water Energy and The

Environment at Liverpool John Moores University. This is my own unaided

work. Where the work of others has been used or drawn on then it has been

fully attributed to the relevant source

Signed: Joshua N Phillips Date: 26.09.16

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my supervisor Olga Korostynska for the help with formulating my research question, as well as Dr Duncan Casey for advising me on how to approach the questions within my questionnaire. I would also like to thank the many people throughout Pembrokeshire who took the time to take part in my survey and provide me data to make this investigation worthwhile.

I would also like to thank my partner and parents for encouragement whilst working on the project.

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Table of Contents

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………… 6

Chapter 1

1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………...7-14

Chapter 2 – From Fossil Fuels to Renewables

2.1 Abstract……………………………………………………………………..15-162.2 Energy Demand Problem.………………………………………………...162.3 The Depletion Fossil Fuel Based Resources.…………………………..16-172.4 Fossil Fuels and there Environmental Impacts..……….………………17-182.5 A Sustainable Approach…………………………………………………..18-192.6 Renewables Revolution…………………………………………………...19-202.7 The Economics of Renewable Energy…………………………………..20-212.8 Solar Power………………………………………………………………...21-222.9 Wind Power………………………………………………………………...22-232.10 Rural Energy……………………………………………………………...23-242.11 A Welsh Dimension………………………………………………………24-26

Chapter 3 – The Challenge of Public Opposition

3.1 Environmental Impacts of Renewable Technologies………………….27-283.2 Public Acceptance of Solar and Wind Energy Projects……………….29-303.3 Community Participation in Renewable Energy Developments……...30-31

Chapter 4

4.1 Methodology……………………………………………………………….32-354.2 Results……………………………………………………………………...36-444.3 Discussion……………………………………………………………….....45 4.3.1 Effects on Wildlife………………………………………………….46-47 4.3.2 Visual Impact……………………………………………………….47-48 4.3.3 Noise Pollution……………………………………………………..49-50 4.3.4 Cost Effectiveness………………………………………………....50-51 4.3.5 Community Involvement…………………………………………..51-524.4 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….53-55

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………….56-66

Appendices……………………………………………………………………..67-70

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Table of Figures

Figure 1……………………………………………………………………………..37

Figure 2……………………………………………………………………………..38

Figure 2a……………………………………………………………………….......38

Figure 3……………………………………………………………………………..39

Figure 4……………………………………………………………………………..40

Figure 5……………………………………………………………………………..41

Figure 5a……………………………………………………………………………41

Figure 5b……………………………………………………………………………42

Figure 6……………………………………………………………………………..42

Figure 7……………………………………………………………………………..43

Figure 8……………………………………………………………………………..44

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Abstract

With energy demand continuing to rise, and a decline in the quantities of

conventional energy, renewable energy technologies are now being

considered as viable energy generation methods. The social acceptance of

these technologies is something that has been addressed in a lot of social

science literature on renewable energy; however there is very little research

about how public perceptions are affected when renewable energy projects

are constructed in close proximity to local communities. The aim of this

research was to provide a better understanding of the factors that influence

public perceptions towards such renewable energy projects. This was

achieved through quantitative research with questionnaires as the primary

source of data collection; a number of different case studies were utilised for

this study so that the perceptions of communities near both solar and wind

farms can be examined. It looked at specific dimensions, for example their

impact on the environment, landscape and how it influences local

development. Surveys were conducted in a number of towns in rural

Pembrokeshire that have nearby renewable energy developments, for

example the Castle Pill Wind Farm located in Steynton on the periphery of the

town Milford Haven and the Jordanston Solar farm which is on the outskirts of

the Town of Tenby, both of which are sizeable renewable energy projects,

other towns were also sampled including Narberth, Whitland and

Haverfordwest. The overall perception of solar and wind farms was relatively

positive; however there was a great deal of negativity surrounding wind

energy technologies with solar energy being the preferred type of

development due to many considering it to have less of an impact with

regards to its visual impact and effects on local wildlife. This research will aid

in the development of further renewable energy projects, as it will be provide

greater awareness on public acceptance in local communities.

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Chapter 1

1.1 Introduction

The transference away from the use of fossil fuels is something that is

becoming of increasing significance; fossil fuels are finite resources and will

inevitably run out. For example peak oil; this describes the point in time when

the rate at which oil is extracted reaches a plateau, (Abas, Kalair and Khan,

2015). Despite the production oil having been peaked 1995, due to improved

exploration and subsequent oil discoveries, oil reserves are steadily

increasing, with gas and coal reserves experiencing similar increases.

However, at present fossil fuels are the main source of energy production

within the global energy market, this coupled with the continued increase in

consumption and there finite nature, (Brutschin and Fleig, 2016), will

eventually result in a decline in the total deposits. This would in turn have a

detrimental effect on the global energy market. In order to ensure long-term

energy security new methods of energy production will need to be adopted

through the innovation of the energy sector. The deployment of renewable

power generation technologies could be one such solution as this would not

only mitigate the environmental concerns associated with the use of fossil

fuels but it would also aid in strengthening energy security, (Pfenninger and

Keirstead, 2015).

The adaptation of the energy sector can be considered to be of paramount

importance, as in order to sustain the current energy requirements imposed

by societal demands; renewable energy sources will need to be developed as

we transfer away from fossil fuel based methods of energy production. The

advancement of energy technologies will ensure the reinforcement of global

energy security, which if not managed in a correct manner would have dire

consequences on a multitude of stakeholders including policy makers,

businesses and the wider community which is reliant on a continuous energy

supply in order to preserve a certain quality of life, (Ang, Choong and Ng,

2015). The UK in particular has a solid foundation, to which it can harness its

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renewable energy potential; it can achieve this through a combination of

renewable technologies with the most viable options being wind energy, solar

and biomass, which would in turn increase the UK’s capacity for renewable

energy, (Brennand, 2004).

Renewable energy investment has risen to the forefront of government energy

policy in recent times; for example the European Union has increased

investment resulting in the expansion of renewable energy technologies, this

follows the European growth strategy 2020, with the reduction of greenhouse

gases being one of its main objectives, (Gatzert and Vogl, 2016). The

investment from private and institutional bodies is heavily encouraged through

legislative action; an example of this is the use of incentives with the

government providing financial support through the use of subsidies, grants

and the feed in tariff scheme (FIT), (White et al, 2013). The UK in particular

when compared to other European countries has a great wealth of renewable

energy sources, with a number of regions through out the British isles having

optimal conditions; for example It has the some of the best wind resources

when compared to other European nations, most notably in Scotland,

(Connor, 2003). Renewable energy has been a mainstay within much of UK

energy policy for many years. With the groundwork for renewable energy

policy being laid out in energy paper 55, entitled Renewable Energy in the UK:

The Way Forward, which outlined a number of targets these included:

Assist the UK in national & international targets for the reduction of

emissions.

Help in providing a diverse, sustainable & competitive energy supply;

Aid in making the Renewable energy industry in the UK competitive in

both home and export markets, whilst also providing employment, and

contributing to rural development.

These targets were expanded upon in the subsequent energy papers and in

2000 the UK government adopted the renewable obligation (RO), which now

forms the basis for current policy, (Connor, 2003). One of the main objectives

of the renewable obligation was to ensure that renewables made up 10% of

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all UK energy generation by 2010, however since then this has been be

amended with the new target being 20% by 2020. It is the primary support

mechanism for the deployment of renewable energy projects, its intention to

increase the share of electricity generated by renewable sources, as

generators are obligated to do so, (Gurkan and Langestraat, 2014). Another

important policy instrument that has been used to drive the deployment of

renewable technologies is Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO), albeit originally

intended to support the nuclear power industry, it now solely benefits

renewable energy sources, (Dow and Wood, 2010).

Wind is one such renewable energy source, and can be considered to be a

viable and clean alternative for energy production and can aid in the

transference away from the over reliance on more conventional fuel sources

such as oil, coal and gas, (Kumar et al, 2016). In the UK in particular there is

extensive availability for both on-shore and offshore wind sources, (Boyle,

2012). The cost of this technology is dependent on a number of factors which

include transportation of parts, foundations and connecting to the grid, these

capital costs tend to make up the majority of the total project cost, with

variable costs such as the operation and maintenance of the turbine making

up the rest. However, the cost of wind energy technologies has been subject

to a dramatic reduction in recent times as a result of an improvement in

turbine technology and increased efficiency, and wind energy has expanded

as a direct consequence of this, (Kumar et al, 2016). The UKs largest

indigenous resource can be considered to be offshore wind power, (Rajgor,

2010). This particular form of energy has benefitted a great deal from policy

support, as it has allowed for an increase in investment in the technology,

resulting in its rapid deployment, (Kern et al, 2014).

Solar is another renewable energy source that has experienced a significant

increase in usage, as it is not only used to generate electricity but also to

provide heat energy, (Burnett, Barbour and Harrison, 2014) Whether it be

small scale solar or utility scale solar developments. It is something that is

likely to continue because similarly to wind power, solar technologies are

improving, becoming more efficient and have increased availability. Along with

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wind energy, policy support has played an integral role in its deployment, for

example legislation such as the Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) and the

Feed in Tariff Scheme (FiTs). Solar Photovoltaic is used to generate electricity

and is the most widely recognised form solar energy. Its market has in recent

times been subject to significant growth, and has expanded 50% per year

worldwide, this is as a result of a reduction in production costs, despite the

improvement in the efficiency of solar cells such as, crystalline-silicon (c-Si)

PV modules, (Huang et al, 2016). In terms of solar electricity production,

utility-scale produces a great deal of energy, however when compared to wind

electricity production it pales in comparison, (Carlisle et al, 2016), despite this

it is still a viable energy production alternative and this along with domestic

solar PV can aid in alleviating the over reliance on fossil fuel based energy

sources.

Despite renewable energy being an integral part of the evolution of the energy

market, there is however a number of environmental impacts that is

associated with the various renewable technologies; this in turn may affect

their acceptability, (Sokka et al, 2016). Some of the impacts include:

Visual and Aesthetic Impacts

Health Impacts

Noise

Shading & Shadow Flicker

Recreational Usage Impacts

Land use

Wildlife Impacts

There are a number of positives to using wind energy, however it is also

useful to look at the negatives that are associated with wind energy, (Saidur et

al., 2011). The most notable impacts related to wind energy are as follows:

Wildlife Impacts

Visual Impact; and

Noise Pollution

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In terms of acceptability noise pollution is probably the most decisive, wind

turbines emit both mechanical and aerodynamic noise. The effects of noise

pollution are likely to have an impact on residences in close proximity to a

wind turbine, for example they can decrease property values. The noise

emitted by wind turbines can also have a detrimental effect on bat population,

this is because bats tend to orientate themselves to nearby audible sound and

could be attracted by the noise from the rotating turbines, (Wang and Wang,

2015). There are various ways that both the mechanical and aerodynamic

noise can be minimised, for example during the planning phase for wind

turbine developments it is recommended by local authorities that there is a

minimum separation distance between wind turbines and neighbouring

residences, (Saidur et al, 2011).

The impact wind turbines have on wildlife is another factor that adds to the

negative perceptions surrounding wind energy. It can be split into two

categories direct and indirect impacts, for example a direct impact can be

increased mortality rates in local avian and bat populations from collisions

whilst indirect impacts may be from wildlife displacement and habitat

disruption. (Saidur et al, 2011). However, research is being conducted in

order to determine way in which these impacts can be reduced; despite them

already being relatively minimal when compared to other renewable sources.

Wind turbines also have a negative visual impact on the landscape, the most

notable being shadow flicker, this is caused as a result of the turbines moving

through the sunshine, (Dai et al. 2015). The visual impact of a wind turbine is

dependent on a number of different variables including:

Distance away from habitations

Size

Weather

Local topographies

Scenic backgrounds

Operating hours; and

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Interactions with sunlight

However, the visual impact of wind turbines can be considered to be

subjective, peoples positive or negative attitude towards wind turbines may

depend on a person’s view on the wind energy industry. For example people

may realise that wind turbines are fundamental to the expansion of the energy

market so that current energy demands can be met, whilst others may view

them as unnecessary and an unwanted burden on the natural landscape, (Dai

et al. 2015).

Solar energy also has a number of potential environmental impacts that

include:

Land use

Habitat Loss

Land use and habitat loss are the most prominent environmental impacts

associated with solar energy developments. Utility- scale solar developments

need extensive areas of land typically between three and ten acres, however

this varies depending on a number of factors such as topography of the site

and intensity of the solar resources, (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2016).

The land lost to solar developments could impede on more conventional land

uses; whether it is for agricultural or recreational purposes,

(Greenmatch.co.uk, 2016). Dissimilar to wind energy developments there is

little opportunity solar developments to occupy agricultural land as it is single

purpose, whereas agricultural uses can still take place on land occupied by

wind developments. However there are ways that this can be minimised,

through alternative siting on areas land such as brownfields. This only applies

to Utility-scale developments as small scale solar PV can be built on both

residential and commercial buildings.

Public opposition to renewable energy developments is something that is

experienced in municipalities throughout the UK. Such disapproval is in

response to them wanting to defend their amenity, with many people living in

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the locality to these developments placing great value on the landscape; this

can have a negative effect on house prices in rural areas. It also is considered

to be as direct consequences to the number of environmental impacts that are

associated with solar and wind energy developments, as previously

mentioned. Wind turbines in particular have been said to have of a damaging

affect on the countryside not only environmentally but visually as well,

(Brennand, 2004). Solar energy much like wind energy also has to overcome

public opposition; in particular utility- scale solar developments face

considerable public resistance because of the large areas of land needed to

facilitate them. Public opposition is perhaps the greatest obstacle for the

renewable energy technologies because in order for renewable technologies

to be successfully integrated into the energy system, a positive attitude

towards them is necessary so that there widespread deployment can be

achieved and energy policy targets met, (Karlstrøm and Ryghaug, 2014).

As part of the transition towards a more sustainable energy system,

governments are paying particular attention to the roles that different

stakeholders can play at various levels, for example, individuals, households,

communities and businesses, (Goedkoop and Devine-Wright, 2016).

Community energy is an initiative where renewable energy developments are

community owned; typically solar panels, wind turbines and small scale

hydroelectric developments are community owned. Community owned

renewable energy projects tend to generate a great deal of public support,

and would negate the negative public perceptions that are generally

associated with renewable technologies such as solar and wind. In the UK a

community energy strategy was published in 2014. As part of this strategy

shared ownership between commercial developers and community

stakeholders was heavily encouraged. This policy was originally envisioned to

contribute to the rapid deployment of renewable energy, (Goedkoop and

Devine-Wright, 2016) and It was intended to be done by engaging with people

in the developments whilst simultaneously improving peoples understanding

of renewable energy technologies.

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The objective of the investigation is to determine the reasons as to why there

is public opposition towards both wind and solar energy developments in rural

Pembrokeshire. There has been very little research in this area, (Knopper et

al, 2011), and this study would be beneficial in determining what the reasons

are behind peoples negative perceptions towards wind and solar energy

developments. It will also look at how community involvement can be

improved, so that individuals as a collective have more of an influence during

the planning and construction phases of the developments, whether that be

by determining the sites of the developments or through the involvement at

each stage of the development process. In addition to this the investigation

will look at what people’s attitudes are towards the shared ownership of

renewable energy developments, whereby communities will not only be

involved in renewable energy developments but they would also benefit from

them. This research would benefit a number of project stakeholders in

Pembrokeshire, as they would not only be able to attempt to mitigate some of

the reasons behind peoples negative viewpoints towards wind and solar

developments, but also they could endeavour to increase communities

involvement in projects and this could in turn affect public attitudes towards

them.

Chapter 2 – From Fossil Fuels to Renewables

2.1 Abstract

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As a result of societal demands there has been a significant increase in global

energy demand; however as the demand for energy has increased more

natural resources such as fossil fuels are being consumed in large quantities.

Fossil fuels have formed the basis of global energy production systems for

many years, and play an important role in the world energy market; these

fuels include oil, natural gas and coal. Fossil fuels are finite resources, the

reserves tend to be used in combustion processes, and as a result they are

susceptible to depletion. This is likely to present a number of challenges for

global energy systems in the future. There are also a number of

environmental challenges associated with the use of fossil fuels, for example

when subject to the combustion processes carbon dioxide is released. Carbon

dioxide emissions account for the majority of green house gas emissions, with

green house gases being a major contributor to climate change, for example it

can induce a radiative imbalance in the atmosphere thus increasing global

surface temperatures. There are also various other problems associated with

the combustion of fossil fuels for example a decline in air quality, and in

urbanised areas smog events can occur. As a direct response to these

problems a more sustainable approach to energy production methods is

required. Sustainability is a relatively new concept that has risen to

prominence in recent times, and has become commonplace within modern

discourse. As a result, governing bodies around the world have been

encouraged to conserve depleting fuel resources and to stimulate the

development and use of renewable energy sources. The utilization of

renewable energy sources are considered to be a viable alternative to fossil

fuels, and could aid in the transference towards more sustainable energy

systems, whilst also improving efficiency of energy production and alleviating

energy security concerns. Wind energy and solar represent the largest share

of renewable energy within the energy market. However there are a number

of environmental concerns associated with them, they can be categorised into

ecological, human and climate impacts. There are however a number of ways

in that they can be mitigated, this is necessary in order to avoid local

challenges such as public perception which can be considered to be the

greatest barrier for the renewable energy industry to overcome. One way in

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particular that this can be remedied is community energy whereby

communities and renewable energy developers collaborate through

investment and increased participation. This is because people will no longer

be consumers but they will have a direct influence on what methods are used

to produce the energy and the scale and location to which they are built.

2.2 The Energy Demand Problem

At present natural resources are consumed in large quantities in order to

maintain global energy systems, with the vast majority of them being finite

resources for example fossil fuels. Speirs et al (2015) looks at how the

dependency on fossil fuels as a primary energy source is likely to create

problems in the future. Hammond (2000) also stated that ‘Energy systems

pervade industrial societies and weave a complex web of interactions that

affect the daily lives of citizens’, this suggests that the methods which are

utilized in order to generate energy is influenced by societal demands; for

example fossil fuels such as oil, gas and coal are utilized in the industrial,

transportation, utility and residential sectors in both developed and developing

countries, (Dincer et al, 2014). These fuel sources have formed the basis of

global energy production systems for many years; they also play an important

role in the world’s energy market that is currently worth around 1.5 trillion

dollars. The current inefficient use of resources such as fossil fuels, that are

expected to account for 84% of the world’s energy demand in 2030; this could

create a number of problems, because of the uncertain supply of fossil fuels in

the future, (Shafiee and Topal, 2009).

2.3 The Depletion Fossil Fuel Based Resources

Capellán-Pérez et al (2014) talks about how the finite reserves of fossil fuels

tend to be used in combustion processes, and as a result of this they are

susceptible to depletion. For example since 2010 world oil production has

remained at 85 million barrels per day (mb/d) or 3900 millions tonnes of oil

equivalents (mtoe) annually, with natural gas and coal at 3700 to 2900 mtoe

per year, (Höök and Tang, 2013). The exhaustible nature of fossil fuels means

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that there are limited reserves, Hammond (1997) talks about how the different

types of fuel have varying lifetimes, for instance oil has around 20-40 years of

life, Natural Gas has 40-70 years of life and Coal has the longest lifetime

based on current consumption rates with 80-240 years of life. These figures

highlight the need for our energy systems to evolve, this is something that is

discussed in both Capellán-Pérez et al (2014) and Höök and Tangs (2013)

research, looking specifically at the high production rates of oil, coal and

natural gas and how increased consumption has caused a steady decline in

fossil fuel reserves. Reviewing this information is necessary in order to

increase awareness of the challenges that global energy systems will face in

the future, whilst also prompting a multinational response.

2.4 Fossil Fuels and there Environmental Impacts

Hoel and Kverndokk (1996) address the environmental challenges that are

associated with the continued use of fossil fuels. The carbon within these

fuels, is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2) during the

combustion process, (Dincer et al, 2014). Lotfalipour et al (2010) looks at the

direct correlation between fossil fuel consumption and carbon dioxide

emissions, despite primarily looking at the emissions in Iran it can be applied

on a global scale. A study into carbon dioxide emissions is important as they

play a critical role in the current debate on sustainability and the preservation

of the environment. Lotfalipour et al (2010) in a recent study have found that

carbon dioxide accounts for around 58.8% of all greenhouse gas emissions

(GHG). Greenhouses are a major contributor to climate change, aside from

carbon dioxide other gases include nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4),

however, carbon dioxide accounts for most of the green house gas emissions.

A study conducted by Adam and Apaydin, (2016) despite talking about ways

in which to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, it also discusses the disparity

in the production of greenhouse gases between countries, as this is

dependent on a number of different factors such as population, economic

activity and land use. Both this study and the one undertaken by lotfalipour et

al (2010), support the idea that carbon dioxide emissions from the combustion

of fossil fuels are the leading cause for increased concentrations of

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greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Nicoletti et al (2015) discusses how

increased emission levels are proportionate to the continued development of

industrial progress, reinforcing the idea that the dependency on fossil fuels is

becoming an increasing environmental concern. The increases in the levels of

greenhouse gas emissions have contributed to adverse impacts on the

environment, an example of this is that it can induce a radiative imbalance in

the earth’s atmosphere thus increasing global surface temperatures, (Masnadi

et al, .2015.). Masnadi et al (2015) suggests as a result of the issues

associated with increased greenhouse gas emissions, it will initiate a

response and the subsequent transference towards more sustainable energy

production methods, this is something that is universally recognised in various

studies. There are also various other problems that are associated with

combustion of fossil fuels; examples include smog that is usually as a result of

vehicular emissions coupled with industrials emissions. Shi et al (2016) looks

extensively at this, looking specifically at China where smog events are

commonplace as a result of the intensive industrial practices throughout the

country, however air quality issues are present in other countries that are

experiencing rapid rates of industrialization, (Shi et al, 2016).

2.5 A Sustainable Approach

Sustainability is a concept that was identified as a means of reducing the gap

between development and the environment. The term sustainable

development received a great deal of impetus and rose to prominence

following the report in 1987 from the World Commission on Environment and

Development (WCED), this report that is often referred to as the Brundtland

report. Sustainable development is defined as being development that is of

satisfactory levels for present needs without compromising the ability of future

generations to meet there own needs, (Strantzali and Aravossis, 2016).

Further awareness on the issue of sustainability was raised in 1992 at the

Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro (the UN Conference on Environment and

Development) this compounded what was established in the Brundtland

report and built on these foundations. It recognised that the concept of

sustainable development needed to be embedded within new strategies and

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that a balance between economic and social development along with

environmental protection was essential to this, (Rogers et al, 2008). As a

result, governing bodies around the world have been encouraged to conserve

depleting fuel resources and to stimulate the development and use of

renewable energy sources, Hammond, (1997), looks at how a more

sustainable approach could be incorporated into governmental strategy.

If sustainable principles are applied to the way that energy is generated, it will

aid in the conservation of finite resources that currently act as the primary

method of energy generation, these include coal, oil and gas. The use of

alternative energy sources, for example renewables energy technologies such

as wind energy, solar power and tidal power can all play a major role in

reshaping the way that global energy demands are met, (Srivastava, 1999).

2.6 Renewable Revolution

With energy demand continuing to rise, and a decline in the quantities of

conventional energy sources, Pacesila et al, (2016) considers a number of

different renewable energy alternatives, in order to improve the security of

energy supply. Renewables energy sources can be said to be influential in

transforming and diversifying the current energy market and facilitating a

transference away from the over dependence on fossil fuels. Bhattacharya et

al (2016) further adds to this idea of a move towards a sustainable energy

sector, as it would aid in improving energy efficiency and security. It is this

sort of research that has become commonplace in modern discourse, as the

prospect of a decline in energy security, is becoming an ever more prevalent

issue, because of finite nature of fossil fuel resources. Renewable energy is

energy that is derived from natural resources such sunlight, wind, rain,

biomass, tides and geothermal heat, (Strantzali and Aravossis, 2016).

However there are a number of barriers that renewable energy technologies

must overcome, these include socio-economic, environmental, institutional

and technical.

There has however been significant growth in the use of renewables in recent

times, this is as a result of government incentives such as subsidies and tax

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credits, (Bhattacharya et al, 2016). Battacharya et al (2016) and Strantzali et

al (2016) both discuss the increased investment in renewables, with global

investment in renewables rising from $36 billion to $139 billion (USD) in

developed countries, whilst developing countries show growth from $9 billions

to $131 billion, with a total global increase from $45 billion to $270 billion

between 2004 and 2014, both acknowledge that the increase is as a result of

the universal push towards a more sustainable energy system. There are a

number of different types of renewable technologies that include:

Wind Power

Solar Power

Hydro Power

Biomass

Geothermal Energy

However in 2014 both Wind power and solar power accounted for the majority

of global investment in renewables of 92%, (Strantzali, et al, 2016), both solar

and wind power are considered to be exceptional methods of power

generation.

This is something Bhattacharjee et al (2016) looks at in great detail, seeing

whether they are viable alternative energy option in terms of power yield; this

type of research into renewable energy sources is fundamental when

considering whether there utilization will be able to provide sufficient power

yields as we begin to transfer away from fossil fuel use.

2.7 The Economics of Renewable Energy

In terms of low-carbon electricity generation renewables are at the forefront of

the market, the economic dimensions of their implementation has been widely

discussed; Suna and Resch (2016) consider renewable energy’s ability to

meet current energy demands and also reduce carbon dioxide emissions, and

whether the cost implications associated with them will hinder there

deployment. Cerdá and del Río (2015) discusses the definition of the cost

effectiveness of renewable energy technologies for example it can be

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considered to be a reduction in the cost of renewable energy generation

however it can also be seen as the minimisation of consumer costs. With

regards to consumer costs it is something that has decreased significantly in

recent times, this is as a result of reduced production costs as well as

improvements in the efficiency of the manufacturing process, (Carlisle et al,

2016). Research done by Khatib and Difiglio (2016) looks into the returns on

renewable energy investments and their viability; there are various factors that

can affect this, including the variability of the cost profile in particularly with

wind and solar energy developments, the great deal of uncertainty in terms of

there performance this is dependant on whether they are located in areas that

provide ideal conditions for energy generation, for example if they are

exposed to optimum weather conditions and also high transmission costs

because generally renewable energy developments are located away from

load centres, (Khatib and Difiglio, 2016). Winkler et al (2016) examines the

support mechanisms that are available in order to ensure the expansion of

renewable technologies share within the energy market. One such support

mechanism is the feed-in tariff (FIT), where a tariff is paid to operators for

each unit of electricity produced, this is usually fixed and remains the same

regardless of whether there is a decline in demand, (Winkler et al, 2016).

Ritzenhofen, Birge and Spinlerv (2016) further discusses the feed-in tariff as a

support scheme, with it being the most effective and widely used scheme,

looking specifically at how it aids in achieving three objectives including

affordability, reliability, and sustainability, these dimensions are fundamental

to renewable energy policy, (Ritzenhofen, Birge and Spinlerv, 2016).

2.8 Solar Power

There is an abundance of energy from the sun, and solar energy is present

across the earth surface, (Khan et al, 2016). Solar energy can be converted

by various application methods, for example from passive solar to heat

buildings and into concentrated form that can then be used to generate

electricity, (Guney, 2016). Guney (2016) discusses the various application

methods of solar energy, with the most notable conversion process being

helioelectrical; this is done by utilizing solar cells to generate electricity

21

(Photovoltaics). Solar and photovoltaic (PV) cells can transform both direct

and indirect solar radiation into electricity. Khan et al (2016) discusses the

benefits of utilizing this technology, as it aids in the transference to a more

sustainable energy system, in terms of its environmental friendliness, cost

effectiveness and its universal social acceptance, thus making it a viable

energy alternative. The environmental impacts of this technology are also at

the forefront of discussion as any alternative to fossil fuels must be of little

environmental concern, there tends to be very little environmental concerns,

these only arise during the assembly and decommissioning phases. Khan et

al (2016) and Xu et al (2016) outline some of the issues that are associated

with the use of solar technology; these include a reduction in efficiency when

there is an increase in ambient temperature and also energy output can be

dependent on the weather and time of day, despite there being research into

the negatives associated with solar power, the positives tend to outweigh the

negatives. Despite some of drawbacks associated with the use of solar power

Guney (2016) further highlights the important role that solar power can play in

reducing the energy deficits, providing better outlook on current environmental

problems such as climate change and how it can aid in the movement

towards a future where sustainable principles form the basis of how energy

demands are met.

2.9 Wind Energy

Along with solar power, wind power is one of the most commonly used

renewable technologies for energy generation, and its importance is

continuing to increase. Wind turbines work by converting the kinetic energy in

the wind into mechanical energy and then into electricity, (Tummala et al,

2016). The various different types of wind turbines are discussed by

Tummala et al (2016); wind turbines are classified by the axis of rotation and

the diameter of the rotor. There are both vertical and horizontal axis turbines

and these range in size from small scale (ranging between 3-10 metres) to

large scale wind turbines (ranging between 50-100 metres). Some benefits of

using wind power is that a turbine is able to generate more power than they

consume between 17 and 39 time when compared to coals plants which are

22

around 11 times, they also provide clean and sustainable energy efficiently

and at a relatively low cost, thus making them and attractive alternative to

more conventional energy production methods, (Siddique et al, 2016). Mahela

et al (2016) discusses the potential for wind energy going forward, with a

current capacity exceeding 280 gigawatts (GW) it is expected to rise to 1900

GW by 2020. This is as a result of the continued growth of the global energy

demand that has provided impetus for a number of countries to invest heavily

in the installation of large scale wind farms both onshore and offshore in order

to meet this demand. For example in 2014 China had an installed capacity of

wind energy of around 114,609 megawatts (MW), followed by the United

States with 65,879 MW and Germany 39,165 MW, with China accounting for

the majority of the total global wind power (31%), (Mahela, 2016). However

there is great deal of opposition to wind turbines, these can be said to be due

to a number of reasons, examples include noise, animal and habitat impacts

and the impact on the landscape, (Oerlemans et al, 2007); this is discussed

by both Broekel et al (2015) and Baxter et al (2013) looking specifically at the

varying degrees of opposition towards wind turbines, this type of study is

necessary in order to determine whether these perceptions are valid. Despite

the negatives perception associated with wind energy, it is still at the forefront

of the diversification of the energy market, and will play a key role in the future

as sustainable methods of energy production will begin to displace the current

fossil fuel orientated energy generation practices.

2.10 Rural Energy

Rural areas account for large amount of the land area in the UK; Renewable

energy investments are something that is becoming commonplace within rural

communities, (Bergmann, Colombo and Hanley, 2008). Renewables can be

considered to be best suited to rural areas, because depending on the type of

technology and the scale of the development; considerable areas land may be

needed for installations. The spatial implications that are associated with

renewable energy technologies are a concern particularly in rural areas,

(Zerriffi and Wilson, 2010); these impacts are well documented in renewable

energy discourse. , Bergmann, Colombo and Hanley (2008), consider the

23

benefits of diversifying rural economies and placing more emphasis on

renewable energy schemes, however this cannot be achieved without

difficulty, with their at present being an increasing emphasis on public

attitudes towards these developments; this is as a result of the various

environmental and social impacts associated with renewable energy

technologies. In terms of the benefits associated renewable energy schemes

Simas and Pacca (2014) discuss the possibility of the creation of new jobs

whether they be direct jobs that include the construction, operation and

management, or indirect jobs in the supply of materials used to construct the

various renewable energy technologies; this can also be beneficial in

promoting local development in rural communities, especially since the

decline of agriculture as a source of income and employment, (Bergmann,

Colombo and Hanley, 2008). However, in contrast to this renewable energy

infrastructures can also significantly impact local developments in terms of

tourist demand especially in rural territories. Broekel and Alfken (2015) adress

their impact on the landscape attractiveness, and how by siting these

developments in areas of high aesthetic quality can have a negative effect,

and diminish the tourist appeal of an area.

2.11 A Welsh Dimension

The transference to a more sustainable energy system is of paramount

importance to governmental bodies, in Wales the Welsh Government is

attempting to facilitate a shift towards renewable energy technologies. There

energy policy ‘Energy Wales: A Low Carbon Transition’ provides a template

for how this will be achieved. At present energy share in wales in comprised

of predominantly solar and wind energy sources, this policy looks further

increase share whilst also stimulating growth in other renewable energy

technologies, (Welsh Government, 2013).

Energy Wales: A Low Carbon Transition is suggestive of the direction that the

Welsh Government in order to establish an energy market comprised of

mainly renewable energy sources. Outlining a course of action in terms of its

ability to achieve its objective of becoming an influential figure in terms low

carbon energy production. This policy takes a holistic approach recognising

24

the importance of energy with it providing a basis to which the economic,

social and environmental wellbeing of people can be sustained over the long

term, not only Wales but worldwide, (Energy Wales: A Low Carbon Transition,

2012). Cowell (2010) discusses how the Welsh Government has used various

instruments in order to facilitate the expansion of wind energy technologies

across Wales, whether they are onshore or offshore; whereby utilising rural

spaces that have optimal conditions for operation. However it also highlights

the difficulties associated with the deployment of these technologies within

rural space for example public opposition from nearby communities, and how

the welsh government are attempting to mitigate and promote social

acceptance, (Cowell, 2010). At present Wales supplies 9% of the total energy

generation in the UK, this is can be considered to be a relatively low figure,

with a large part of the energy generation coming mainly from gas, whereas in

the past I was sourced from coal. The policy is intended to provide a

framework for the present whilst at the same time creating an energy system

that is sustainable for the future. This is evidenced in the growth of renewable

energy electricity generation in recent times, with an increase from 2.9% to

5.1% between 2004 and 2010, this is likely to continue as a result of further

investment from the Welsh Government. Further to this there are various

other policy mechanisms that have been designed in order to encourage

electricity generation from renewable energy sources, this was discussed by

Mitchell and Connor (2004), an example is the Renewable Obligation, it was

introduced in 2002 and has been adopted in both England and Wales, and

can be considered to be the central mechanism in terms of stimulating

electricity generation from low carbon energy sources, (Connor, 2003).

Woodman and Mitchell (2011) however, discusses some of the failings of the

Renewable Obligation, as it has been heavily criticised for its lack of

effectiveness in terms of its ability as an instrument to encourage the

implementation of renewable energy. Despite its failings it is still used as a

mechanism in aiding with renewable energy expansion in England and Wales.

25

Chapter 3 - The Challenge of Public Opposition

3.1 Environmental Impacts of Renewable Technologies

26

Despite the ever-expanding role of renewable energy within the energy

market, there are facets of this method of energy productions that can have a

detrimental effect on the environment, (H Rashid, 2016). Research conducted

by McCombie and Jefferson (2016) aims to determine the various

environmental impacts of different renewable energy technologies including:

Solar PV (Photovoltaic)

Biomass

Wind

Solar CSP (Concentrated Solar Power)

Hydro

They look at to what degree each technology affects the environment looking

specifically at their materials, energy requirements, and emissions during

operation, health effects and waste streams, (McCombie and Jefferson,

2016). Looking in particularly at solar and wind energy there are a number of

implications associated with these technologies these can be grouped into

ecological, human and climate related concerns. Rashid (2016) highlights a

number of factors associated with solar power, either during the

manufacturing or operation stages. For example there are various chemicals

used during the manufacturing of solar panels, including the use of cadmium

(Cd) that is an extremely harmful substance. The use of such toxic materials

means that at the end of a solar panels life cycle it is increasingly difficult to

dispose of; this can be effectively remedied by correct planning procedures

whereby designated landfill sites are provided or by utilizing a recycling

management system, (H Rashid, 2016). Solar Power developments, in

particularly utility scale solar power can be considered to have significant

impacts on the land uses; this is because of the large areas of land needed

for installations, (Gunderson et al, 2015). These impacts are as a direct

consequence of land clearing needed in order to increase sites suitability; this

can adversely affect local wildlife and reduce vegetation. Dai et al (2015)

reviews the various environmental issues that are associated with wind

energy; much like solar energy there are impacts that only occur through the

use of specific technologies, some do however overlap. For example, both

27

solar and wind power both have some ecological and human effects, such as

effects on wildlife and visual impacts on the landscape. In terms of how wind

energy can impact wildlife it can differ depending on whether onshore or

offshore is being utilized. It can affect local avian and bat populations inducing

mortality and disturbance risks to both; it can occur as a result of collisions

with the turbines rotating propellers or with other structures within a wind farm,

(Dai et al, 2015). Another primary environmental drawback is noise, Dai et al

(2015) talks about how noise creates a great deal of opposition towards wind

energy developments, as residents become more antagonised by turbine

noise compared to traffic noise. The noise created by wind turbines can be

categorised into aerodynamic and mechanical noise; there are ways however

that the noise from wind turbines can be reduced; this can be done during the

design phase by altering the shape of the blades. It can also be mitigated by

implementing longer standoff distances for developments, or by constructing

turbines in areas where there are greater levels of noise, for example areas

that experience higher levels of traffic, (H Rashid, 2016). Wind energy’s

impact on the landscape is another issue that is explored by Minelli et al

(2014), looking at how the location of the wind developments can affect how

people view there aesthetic impact on the landscape. There is also the

concern of shadow flicker this occurs when the sunlight is distorted by the

movement of the blades and is considered a human impact especially when

developments are built in close proximity to residences, (Dai et al, 2015).

Similarly to noise impacts this can be minimised by carefully locating

developments, especially in areas near to habitations.

3.2 Public Acceptance of Solar and Wind Energy Projects

The rapid expansion of the renewable technologies within the energy market

has resulted in a decrease in the use of fossil fuel based energy sources,

despite this it has however created local challenges in terms of public

28

acceptance, (Bertsch et al, 2016). Bertsch et al refers to the impacts that are

associated with renewable energy technologies in particularly looking at how

renewable energy technologies modify the landscape and also how the

distances between both renewable energy developments and residences are

the main drivers behind the lack of acceptance to the technologies. The lack

of support towards renewable is more common in rural areas, Woods (2003)

discusses the idea of reactive ruralism, whereby rural populations will mobilise

in the event that the local landscape has something imposed upon it, and in

this instance it is renewable technologies and more commonly solar and wind

energy developments. In terms of acceptance, attitudes will need to change in

order to facilitate the widespread implementation of renewable systems and

so that energy targets are met. Research done by Karlstrøm and Ryghaug

(2014) suggests that there is generally widespread support towards

renewable energy in not only the UK but across Europe. There work also

makes reference to how the level of education can influence people’s

perceptions towards renewables sources; this can also be attributed to

people’s age, generational effects can also be seen in people’s attitudes

towards renewables, with older generations tending to have a more negative

attitude towards renewables. Attitudes towards these technologies whether

they are positive or negative can be considered to be subjective. Dai et al

(2015) talks about how people’s attitudes depend on their view towards the

renewable energy industry; for example people may understand that wind

turbines are fundamental to the expansion of the energy market so that

current energy demands can be met, whilst others may view them as an

unnecessary burden on the natural landscape, (Dai et al, 2015) this draws

connections to Karlstrøm and Ryghaug (2014) research on how peoples

education can effect their views. The factors effecting public acceptance are

varied, and there is not a sole reason behind people’s reluctance to invest in

renewable technologies, this is something that is suggested in Sardianou et

al, (2013) research.

3.3 Community Participation in Renewable Developments

29

The concept of community energy is something that has become increasingly

more prevalent within renewable energy discourse; it is when communities

collaborate with renewable energy project developers through investment and

increased involvement, (Holstenkamp and Kahla, 2016). Examples of

community energy projects include:

Solar PV (Photovoltaic) Panels

Wind Turbines

Heat Pumps; and

Biomass Boilers

Such bottoms up initiatives are becoming ever more important in terms of

renewable energy developments, with policy makers recognising its

importance to encouraging public engagement within the renewable energy

market. Mey, Diesendorf and MacGill, (2016) discuss how communities can

help in supporting the expansion and deployment of renewable energy

technologies, by influencing energy policy. Bauwens (2016) further reiterates

the importance of community based renewable energy initiatives. His work

considers the various motivations behind people’s participation in the

initiatives, suggesting that it differs between individuals and this can be as a

result of a number of different factors. The factors that influence the

heterogeneity behind people’s motivations include, material incentives,

following of social norms and spatial patterns, this can have an have a

significant effect on policy decision makers as they can adapt to policy to

correspond to community needs, (Bauwens, 2016). In terms of community

renewable energy there is a direct relationship between this and public

acceptance. Kalkbrenner and Roosen (2016) discuss how people’s ability to

actually engage in local energy systems will in fact encourage a more positive

attitude towards renewable technologies because they would no longer just

be consumers but have a direct influence on what methods are used to

produce the energy and the scale to which they are built.

This is idea further discussed by Colvin, Witt and Lacey (2016) whereby social

conflict and localised opposition can be significantly reduced through the

introduction of community energy; people’s perceptions towards renewable

30

energy sources can be directly influenced through increased involvement.

However the degree to which people engage in these projects can vary, and

this can have an effect on how people view energy developments within there

locality it can also depend on local context.

Chapter 4

4.1 Methodology

As part of the investigation surveys were conducted in the towns of Tenby,

Narberth, Whitland, Haverfordwest and Milford Haven all of which are located

in rural Pembrokeshire, the areas can be seen on the map below.

31

Questionnaires were the primary source of data collection, as this is a widely

accepted research instrument. However in order to yield a high return rate of

valid data that can be used in the investigation, the questionnaire was

carefully planned and designed. There are a number of positives to using a

questionnaire as a research instrument, as it allows for the target audience to

be clearly identified, also because it is quantitative data it is relatively

straightforward to analyse. Questionnaires tend to consist of primarily closed

questions and in some instances they implement a scale to indicate the

degree of agreement or disagreement with a statement, this provides

assurances that it is made clear what is being asked of the respondent,

(Marshall, 2005). There are however a number of disadvantages to using

questionnaires, this is dependent on the respondent and whether they have

adequate literacy skills and general knowledge of the topic to understand

what is being asked of them, a visual impairment or if they are non-English

speakers all of these variables can determine the success of a questionnaire.

The questionnaire used in this study consisted of 5 questions with some

containing multiple aspects in table like answers. It consisted of mainly closed

questions and a Likert response scale allowed a range that was used with

questions 3 and 5. A number of basic questions were also included to get an

idea of the respondent’s knowledge of solar and wind farms by asking

whether they were located near a sustainable farm, even though all

respondents selected lived in proximity to a solar or wind farm location. The

use of closed questions allows easy categorising of peoples responses

whether they Agree or disagree, (Marshall, 2005). A participant information

sheet was also provided so that the participants know the purpose of the

study, and so that they were aware that the information they have given would

remained anonymous and would be used only for the purpose of this study.

The survey would outline a number of different issues that have been raised

in a number of studies as to why people may oppose to both solar and wind

developments and it would allow for people to state their opinion, these

include:

Noise Pollution

32

Disruption of Wildlife

Visual Amenity Impact

Cost Effectiveness

Purchase and Installation cost.

Please refer to the questionnaire in the appendices.

A scale was utilized in this instance on a scale of 0-4; it is widely used

research method that involves measuring people’s opinions and attitudes. For

example No Opinion (0), Agree (1), Strongly Agree (2) Disagree (3) and

Strongly Disagree (4), (Hartley, 2014). However, question 3 differed from the

other questions and instead measured no opinion (0) No Concern (1) Least

Concern (2) Some Concern (3) Most Concern (4), the use of this scale was to

analyse how people view the potential impacts outlined in the questionnaire.

This method is preferred for this study because it allowed for a good variation

in data. The Likert scale will be used for questions 3 and 5; the intent of

question 3 was to gauge people’s opinions towards wind and solar

developments and identify the reasons behind these, and question 5 was

designed to determine what people’s opinions are on the ways in which the

level of community involvement could be improved for wind and solar

developments, these include:

Siting

Community Involvement from the outset

Shared Ownership

This question is intended to test people’s knowledge on the subject of

community energy, because it could be considered to be a great way to

encourage more positive attitudes towards renewable energy projects,

potentially achieved through increased levels of involvement.

It would be distributed in all of the aforementioned towns and peripheral

areas, as there are a number of renewable energy projects situated in close

proximity, please refer to the map below. These include:

33

Caeremlyn Farm Solar Park - located to the north of Whitland town,

covering a large area of land approximately 28 hectares, with 60,000

solar panels with a capacity of 6 megawatts (MW).

Jordanston Solar Farm – Located In St Florence just outside of the

town of Tenby covering 10.6 hectares, with a total of 20,680 solar

panels with a capacity 4.96 megawatts (MW).

Castle Pill Wind Farm – Located in Steynton on outskirts of the town

Milford Haven, there are 4 900-kilowatt (kW) Wind turbines at the site

with a capacity of 3.2 megawatts (MW).

Princes Gate Wind Farm – Located on the outskirts of Narberth town,

where there are 2 86.5 metre Wind turbines with a capacity of 1.6

megawatts (MW).

Wear Point Wind Farm – Located outside of Milford Haven, where

there are 4 Wind Turbines on the site with a capacity of 10 megawatts

(MW).

Parc Cynog Solar and Wind Farm – it is a co-location development

located near Pendine, it has 11 wind turbines with a capacity of 8.4

megawatts (MW) and also a solar park with a capacity of 5 megawatts

(MW).

A total number of 91 participants were asked, and these consisted of random

respondent house owners, pedestrians and business owners, of a varying age

and gender. A systematic survey procedure was adopted from the outset,

beginning with door-to-door interview surveys; this can sometimes fail and is

common in rural areas as people are sometimes reluctant to talk to strangers

in their homes, (Delicado, Figueiredo and Silva, 2016). With the door-to-door

method being not as successful as hoped, public places were then used

instead for example outside local businesses such as shops and restaurants

as well as parks, villages and town centre. Pembrokeshire being a very

touristy area and the survey being conducted over the summer holiday, it was

essential to differentiate between locals and tourists, as this would affect the

data collected.

34

4. 2 ResultsThis research looks into the perceptions of local stakeholders and residents

towards renewable energy projects, looking in particularly at wind and solar

developments that are in close proximity to their locality. This can be

considered to be fundamental in understanding the degree of public

acceptance towards renewable energy developments and the conflicts that

have arisen as a result of this. The survey was conducted in a number of

towns throughout Pembrokeshire these include:

35

Narberth

Milford Haven

Whitland

Tenby

Haverfordwest

This study has looked specifically at medium to large scale solar and wind

developments. During the survey participants were asked whether there are

any medium to large-scale projects in their area, (Fig. 1). It was expected that

all participants would answer yes, as everyone tested was local to a

renewable energy projects. As can be seen in Figure 1 nearly all the

respondents answered with yes. However there were a number of

respondents who answered no, the possible reasons for this could be due to

some of the respondents not being aware of the developments, or they did not

know what they were.

Solar Wind0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Are there any medium to large scale Solar or Wind energy projects in your area?

NoYes

Project Type

No.

of R

espo

nden

ts

To get some more background on the general perception of renewable energy

developments, people were asked whether or not they agree with the

development of solar and wind energy projects. A combined graph was used

Figure 1 – Primary Data, Collected between 4th July and 21st of August 2016: Are there any medium to large-scale Solar or Wind energy projects in your area? – This looks at whether there are any wind or solar energy projects in proximity to the locations that were surveyed.

36

to display the opinions of people towards both solar and wind energy

developments, illustrated in figure 2. Most of the respondents tended to either

strongly agree or agree with them, with some disagreeing and very little

people strongly disagreeing. However comparatively it is clear there is some

preference towards solar power over wind power projects with approximately

70% of respondents strongly agreeing with solar farms compared to 55% for

wind farms. Taking a closer look at the results, seen in Figure 2a, we can see

the proportion between answers more clearly. This means that out of 91

participants of which 88 had an opinion, 15% disagree or strongly disagree

with Solar and Wind energy project (fig. 2a).

0 1 2 3 40

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Do you agree with the development of both Solar and Wind Energy projects?

SolarWind

Opinion

No.

of R

espo

nden

ts

Figure 2 – Primary Data, Collected between 4th July and 21st of August 2016: Do you agree with the development of both Solar and Wind Energy projects? – A comparison between the number of respondents who agreed or disagreed with solar and wind energy installations.

37

One of the main objectives of the survey was to establish people’s opinions

towards wind and solar farms and then identify the reasons behind these;

various impacts were outlined and can be categorised into human and

environmental impacts, these include:

Noise Pollution

Visual Impact

Disruption of Wildlife

Cost Effectiveness

Noise Pollution

With wind farms tending to generate both mechanical and aerodynamic noise,

the question about noise pollution was asked to determine if this was the

cause for the negative views observed in the Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b towards wind

farms. Fig. 3 compares the answers of wind and solar farms, with there being

a clear distinction between them both. With regards to wind power the

majority of respondents feel that noise pollution is either of some cause for

concern or of most concern. In contrast to this in terms of solar power,

developments noise pollution is viewed by most of the respondents as being

of no concern.

85%

15%

A Look at the overall proportion of respondents who agreed or disagreed with both Solar and

Wind Energy Projects

Agree + Strongly AgreeDisagree + Strongly Disagree

Figure 2a – Primary Data Collected between 4th July and the 21st of August 2016: A look at the overall proportion of respondents who agreed or disagreed with both solar and wind energy projects.

38

No Opin

ion

No Con

cern

Leas

t Con

cern

Some C

once

rn

Most C

once

rn0

10203040506070

Noise Pollution

SolarWind

Opinion

No.

of R

espo

nden

ts

Disruption of Wildlife

With the potential demolishing of habitats, when setting up wind and solar

farms, wildlife disruption has recently become of increasing concern

(Tabassum-Abbasi et al, 2014). Pembrokeshire is very rural and is an

agriculturally focussed region with a multitude of wildlife species; habit

demolition should be a cause for concern. Figure 4 shows that the vast

majority of respondents believe it to be of least concern, this applies to both

wind and solar developments. However, in terms of the type of energy that

causes the most disruption, there is a trend towards wind farm, however there

is still some concern in relation to the development of solar energy

installations.

Figure 3 - Primary Data, Collected between 4th and 21st August: Noise pollution as a potential cause for people negative perceptions towards both solar and wind developments - Looking at whether participants believe noise pollution to be of concern in terms of its environmental impact.

39

No Opin

ion

No Con

cern

Leas

t Con

cern

Some C

once

rn

Most C

once

rn0

10

20

30

40

Disruption of Wildlife

SolarWind

Opinion

No.

of R

espo

nden

ts

Visual Impact

Visual Impact can be considered to be one of the primary motives for negative

attitudes towards renewable developments. With wind farms being clearly

visible from a distance and solar farms not so much due to their low vicinity to

the ground, seeing the public perception towards the renewable energy

systems was an intriguing question to ask the public. In terms of wind energy

projects the majority of respondents felt that visual impact was either of some

or most concern (Fig 5). However, with regards to solar power only some

respondents believed it to be some cause for concern, and the majority

viewing it as either least or of no concern.

Figure 4 - Primary Data, Collected between 4th and 21st of August: Solar and Wind Energy developments effects on Wildlife as a potential cause for peoples negative perceptions towards both solar and wind developments.

40

No Opin

ion

No Con

cern

Leas

t Con

cern

Some C

once

rn

Most C

once

rn0

10

20

30

40

Visual Impact

SolarWind

Opinion

No.

of R

espo

nden

ts

12%

24%

43%

15%

5%

Visual Impact of Solar Energy Installations

No Opinion No ConcernLeast ConcernSome ConcernMost Concern

Figure 5 - Primary Data, Collected between 4th July and 21st August: The Visual Impact of Solar and Wind Energy Developments as potential cause for negative perceptions – To look closer at the comparison between both solar and wind energy developments and the differences in how solar and wind energy developments affect visual amenity and the landscape.

Figure 5a - Primary Data, Collected between 4th July and 21st of August: The Visual Impact of Solar Energy Developments as a potential caused for negative perceptions.

41

5%7%

18%

43%

27%

Visual Impact Wind Energy Installations

No Opinion No ConcernLeast ConcernSome ConcernMost Concern

Cost Effectiveness

Cost effectiveness was another aspect that was looked at. Stakeholders of

renewable projects were assumed to be fully aware of the profit or loss of

these projects; the general public however may have only some idea of the

implications associated with the cost of these developments. Figure 6 shows

the opinion on the cost effectiveness of wind and solar energy developments.

In all cases there was a negative correlation, suggesting the majority of

respondents have little or no concern for the cost effectiveness of these

projects.

No Opin

ion

No Con

cern

Leas

t Con

cern

Some C

once

rn

Most C

once

rn0

102030405060

Cost Effectivness

SolarWind

Opinion

No.

of R

espo

nden

ts

Figure 6, Primary Data, Collected between 4th and 21st of August: A look at the Cost Effectiveness of Solar and wind energy developments as a potential cause for negative perceptions.

Figure 5b – Primary Data, Collected between the 4th July and the 21st August 2016: The visual impact of Wind Energy developments as a potential cause for negative perceptions.

42

Community Participation in Renewable Energy Developments

The final part of this section of questioning was to see what people’s opinions

were towards community involvement in renewable energy projects. Due to

renewable energy projects in Pembrokeshire being privately owned, no

surrounding residents benefit from the wind or solar farms. With this in mind, it

was believed that the potential benefits for residents and the lack of

involvement at all stages of development may have distorted their views

towards renewable energy projects. Figure 7 shows that a large number of

the respondents believe that communities should have a greater say in the

development of renewable energy projects.

19%

81%

Do you think communities should have a greater say in the development of Solar or wind projects?

NoYes

A number of potential ways of improving public involvement in renewable

energy projects were outlined in the survey. Participants who wanted more

say in sustainable projects were asked to answer the type of involvement they

would like by agreeing or disagreeing with the following methods of

improvement:

Siting

Community Involvement from the Outset

Figure 7 Primary Data, Collected between 4th July and 21st of August 2016: Do you think communities should have a greater say in the development of Solar or wind projects?

43

Shared Ownership

Figure 8 shows that the vast majority of respondents strongly agreed with all

of the methods of improvement in particularly siting and being able to

participate in all aspects of the development process. However there are

some respondents who have disagreed, and also given no opinion on the

matter, this may be as a result of peoples disregard for any type of

involvement in the development of solar and wind energy projects. Almost half

of the respondents had no opinion on ownership, potentially due to the

uncertainty whether this would entail any cost implications.

No opin-ion

Strongly Agree

Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

A look at the ways in which Community Involve-ment in Renewable Energy Developments can be

Improved

SitingParticipationOwnership

Opinion

No.

of R

espo

nden

ts

July and 21st of August A look at the ways in which Community Involvement in Renewable

Energy Developments can be improved – This was done in order to get an idea of whether members of the public would like to be more involved in the development of renewable projects, and by doing this it create a

44

4.3 Discussion

The primary objective of this study is to see if specific impacts that are

associated with renewable energy technologies, in particularly solar and wind

energy, influence people’s attitudes towards them. One drawback of this

investigation is that it is unable to show what people’s perceptions may have

been before the construction of solar and wind farms and how they may have

changed over a period of time, despite this the findings still presents an

extensive understanding of how individuals regard these technologies once

they are in operation. In terms of the way in which people view solar and wind

developments if can differ depending on the individual; for example, Delicado,

Figueiredo and Silva (2016) discuss the indifference between the way

stakeholders and the residents within communities view renewable energies;

this is because as is the case the majority of the time, stakeholders tend to be

the local authorities that are attempting to develop renewable energy projects,

and they can be considered to be the main beneficiaries from them, in terms

of financial gain, this can in turn influence their opinions. Renewable energy

projects can have various impacts on local businesses, associations and

residents whether they be positive or negative; for example with regards to

local business these developments can affect pre-existent enterprises by

reducing the tourist appeal of an area, or alternately they can stimulate further

development and encourage employment within a community, (Delicado,

Figueiredo and Silva, 2016). There has in recent times been a significant

increase in the number of solar and wind energy developments throughout

rural Pembrokeshire as a result of increased impetus from Pembrokeshire

National Park Authority and Pembrokeshire county council, all of which have

been constructed in relatively close proximity to habitations such as Narberth,

Haverfordwest, Milford Haven, Whitland, and Tenby. However, despite this

increase in developments near these areas, the vast majority of people who

took part in the survey still had a positive attitude towards solar and wind

projects. Conversely, there were still some who disagreed with their

development. The reasons behind people’s opinions were further explored in

the survey with a number of potential impacts being outlined.

45

4.3.1 Noise Pollution

In terms of noise pollution this is something that only really applies to wind

energy, as wind turbines emit noise and are presented as being a nuisance by

people who live in the vicinity. It can be considered to be one of the main

issues that influences people’s opinions towards these developments, this is

evidenced within the survey with most of the respondents believing noise

pollution to be of some concern in terms of its human impact. The noise

generated by wind turbines is categorised into either mechanical or

aerodynamic. Mechanical noise arises as a result of the components within

the turbine moving for example the gearbox and bearings. Aerodynamic noise

is a result of airflow through the blades of the turbine; this is more prominent

in areas that experience high wind speeds, (Saidur et al, 2011).

However, despite this it is not clear whether considering noise, as one of the

main impacts is justifiable. This is because modern wind turbines make

considerably less noise when compared to their predecessors, and adhere to

noise emission requirements. In the UK for example noise limits for medium to

large-scale wind turbines are proportionate to any background noise in a

given area, with limits that are changeable for both day (35-40 dB) and night

(43 dB). The noise limit during the day is dependent on a number of factors,

for instance the limit can be determined depending on the number of

dwellings in the area, as well as the duration and level of noise individuals

may be exposed to, (Boyle, 2012). Pedersen et al (2010) examines the

possibility of locating wind developments in areas that experience significant

noise exposure, for example where there is considerable road traffic noise, (H

Rashid, 2016). The investigation concluded that road traffic noise can in fact

reduce the antagonistic nature associated with the noise emitted by wind

turbines; this is because wind turbine noise levels tend to be between 34- 35

decibels (dB) this is considerably lower when compared to the noise levels of

cars that are between 80-89 decibels (dB), (Boyle, 2012). It is also possible to

minimise the aerodynamic and mechanical noise that is produced by wind

turbines, this is primarily done during design phase either by installing

acoustic insulation on the interior of the turbine or by altering the design of the

46

blades, (Oerlemans, Sijtsma and Méndez López, 2007). It could be beneficial

if these methods were implemented during the development of future projects,

as it could significantly reduce the noise levels emitted by the turbines; this

could in turn have a knock of effect on public attitudes because it would be

less impactful. However, Van Renterghem et al (2013) considers the

expansion of wind energy sector, because increased implementation could

create further problems associated with noise emissions as suitable locations

are becoming increasingly more difficult to find, and as a result we could see

more wind energy projects nearer densely populated areas.

4.3.2 Visual Impact on Landscape

Wind and solar energy developments visual impact on the landscape plays a

significant role in influencing attitudes towards these technologies. The survey

looks at its effect on a local scale and how people perceive it as an impact in

rural Pembrokeshire. From the survey it is clear that wind energy technologies

are considered to be more impactful in terms of their effect on visual amenity

and the landscape, when compared to solar energy developments. Maehr et

al (2015) discusses the visual impact of wind turbines in particularly how there

imposition upon rural landscape can generate residential opposition, they also

look at how in some cases visual impact can affect perceptions with regards

to wind turbine noise . However there are ways in which this can minimised;

Jones and Eiser (2009) suggests by correctly siting these developments they

would be more tolerable and have the potential to become accepted within

local discourse. Public opposition to wind turbine developments can be

considered to be subjective in the sense that it is dependent on the individual

and there are a several factors that can influence their views. Whether or not

someone has a positive or negative opinion it may depend on his or her

viewpoint towards the wind energy industry as a whole. Dai et al (2015)

suggests that people who understand the importance of renewable energy

technologies are more inclined to be more accepting whereas others may

simply view them as avoidable imposition on the landscape and may favour

less intrusive methods of energy generation. Drawing on the idea that wind

turbines are often considered to be unnecessary impositions upon the

47

landscape, Torres Sibille et al (2009) talks about how wind turbines are poorly

integrated into the landscape, and particularly in rural areas, where it is

regarded as an alien feature especially in rural areas as it can have a

damaging effect on the natural beauty of an area. Similarly to wind turbines,

solar power technologies are also a cause for concern; this is evidenced in

the results from the survey however with more emphasis being place on wind

energy technologies by respondents. Utility-scale solar energy developments

for example, require significant amounts of land for installations, for example

Jordanston solar farm covers 10.6 hectares and Caeremlyn Farm solar park

covers 28 hectares. This can significantly alter the visual aesthetic of rural

areas, especially if the facilities are located on what were originally intended

for agricultural purposes. Further to this Minelli et al (2014) discuss how the

location of the observer can distort how they perceive the shape and size of

the installations. This is can be caused by the topography of an area, and in

this instance the areas in question are comprised of predominantly agricultural

land, residential and commercial buildings. This could play a role in how

people view the developments throughout Pembrokeshire with each facility

differing in size. The problems associated with the visual impact of wind

turbines and solar panels becoming increasingly more prevalent throughout

rural Pembrokeshire, this can be considered to be as a result of the recent

expansion of renewable energy projects in the area, because of the increased

impetus from local authoritative bodies such as Pembrokeshire National Park

Authority and Pembrokeshire county council. Local Tourism can also be

affected; Broekel and Alfken (2015) look at the negative impacts on

renewable energy installations on the landscape and its visual aesthetic.

Pembrokeshire in particular which is renowned for its tourist appeal with its

coastline and picturesque views and the recent increase in the number of

utility-scale solar farms and wind turbines has put this at risk; it can be

considered to have an affect on the way people perceive wind and solar

energy projects, this is demonstrated in participants responses in the survey.

48

4.3.3 Disruption of Wildlife

The survey suggests that disruption of wildlife is not considered by

respondents to be of concern in terms of its environmental impact.

Conversely, various studies indicate otherwise, in that wind and solar

development do in fact have a significant effect on a number of different

species of wildlife. With wind energy developments in particularly having a

significant impact on various wildlife species. This is discussed in research

conducted by Tabassum-Abbasi et al (2014) where turbine induced mortality

of bats and avian species is affected by several variables that include weather

conditions, topography, location and the size of the turbine; for example

adverse weather conditions are likely cause an increase in the number of

collisions with wind turbines. Bellebaum et al (2013) for example looks

specifically at the effect it has on the red kite, a member of the raptor species.

This particular species is a high risk in terms of their vulnerability because of

their displacement from the habitats and the number of fatalities as a result of

collisions with wind turbines. There has been a steady decline in red kite

populations, whilst this cannot be as a direct consequence of the increased

implementation of wind energy projects there could be a correlation, and it

could be considered to be partly responsible. Furthermore Schaub (2012)

found from research that he conducted that population growth rates of red

kites experienced a continued declined as a direct result of an increase in the

number of wind turbines in a given area. However, despite wind turbines

potentially having some effect on the decline of red kite populations there are

various other human induced reasons for increased mortality rates. In addition

to this solar energy installations can also have negative impacts on local

ecosystems this is because they tend to be site specific and is dependent on

the scale of the development for example large-scale developments tend to

have a greater impact. Because of this it can alter current land uses for

example a loss agricultural land for animal grazing and it can also cause the

displacement of habitats, (Phillips, 2013). There is also the potential for solar

panels to discharge toxic chemicals into the environment, as chemicals such

as cadmium are used during the manufacturing of solar panels; this could

have devastating environmental effects especially in rural areas that are

49

primarily agriculturally focussed, and have nearby watercourses as is the case

throughout much of Pembrokeshire. Nevertheless, there are various ways in

that the impacts on local wildlife can be minimised, some of which are outline

in the work carried out by Phillips (2013) whereby through correct design,

implementation and management some if not all of the issues associated with

these technologies can be mitigated. Further to this with regards to avian

species developers must assess the suitability and must take into account

bird sensitive areas before designating a site for future wind turbines

proposals, (Tsoutsos, Frantzeskaki and Gekas, 2005).

.

4.3.4 Cost Effectiveness

The cost effectiveness of solar and wind energy developments was another

potential cause for negative perceptions examined by this study. There

various factors that must be considered when looking at the economics of

these installations they include annual energy production, cost of installation,

maintenance costs, as well as financial incentives. In recent times there has

been a significant decrease in the consumer cost of renewable technologies,

this is as a result of both a reduction in production cost and improvements in

the efficiency of the manufacturing process, (Carlisle et al, 2016). Further to

this, Khatib and Difiglio (2016) look specifically at the returns of renewable

energy investments and to see whether they are a viable energy generation

alternative in terms of cost; there are a number of factors that can affect this,

these include:

Cost profiles for both wind and solar developments tend to fluctuate,

however in recent times it has remained relatively low,

Unpredictability of performance, this being dependent on the suitability

of where the development is located, as it must be somewhere that

possesses optimum conditions for energy production.

Transmission costs, with majority of renewable energy developments

being located considerable distances away from load centres.

50

There is also the opportunity to utilise support mechanisms these have been

put in place in order to facilitate the expansion of the renewable energy

technologies share within the energy market; an example of this is feed-in-

tariff (FIT) scheme. Connor (2003) discusses how wind and solar technologies

are becoming an attractive alternative energy, and since the introduction of

the renewable energy obligation in 2002 by the UK government there has

been increased impetus towards them; and despite the various cost

implication associated with solar and wind energy technologies, when

compared to other renewable energy resources such as hydro and tidal power

they tend to be considerably less capital intensive. There is little evidence

from the survey to suggest that members of the public deem these

technologies to not be cost effective. However this may be because the

majority of developments in the areas that were surveyed are privately owned;

and the participants have no knowledge or firsthand experience of the cost

implications associated with solar and wind developments.

4.3.5 Community Involvement

Community participation is looked at in the second part of the survey, this is

something can be considered to be beneficial in terms of altering people’s

perceptions towards renewable energy developments. Holstenkamp and

Kahla, (2016) discuss how increased collaboration between renewable energy

developers and communities can positively affect public engagement within

the energy market; for example by influencing energy policy whereby policy

makers adapt in order adhere to communities needs. The areas that were

surveyed that had various renewable energy installations in close proximity

were mostly privately owned and participants had little or no involvement in

their development. As demonstrated by the outcome of the results of the

survey all participants wanted a greater level of involvement at all levels of the

development process. Kalkbrenner and Roosen consider the relationship

between community energy and the public acceptance of renewable

technologies. If members of the public are able to engage with local energy

developments it can encourage a more positive outlook towards renewable

technologies, this is because they would no longer be consumers, but would

51

also be able to control what method is used to produce energy, as well as the

scale to which they are built. Further to this Calvin, Witt and Lacey (2016)

discuss the benefits of community energy and how it can significantly reduced

social conflict and localised opposition. The benefits of community-based

energy projects are clear; with regards to the negative perceptions that were

evidenced in the survey and the apparent need amongst the communities to

have a greater level of participation in the solar and wind energy projects, this

could be remedied through the implementation of community energy and

could in turn alleviate some of the negativity in terms people’s attitudes

throughout Pembrokeshire.

52

4.4 Conclusion

This study was intended to assist in determining what influences public

attitudes towards solar and wind energy developments. This research can be

considered to beneficial in terms of its ability to demonstrate an insight into

the various factors that affect social acceptance or opposition towards

renewable energy infrastructures.

The results differ from the expected outcome with the majority of participants

agreeing with solar and wind energy developments; however it did suggest

some ambivalence in community member’s opinions. It was clear from the

results that there was a distinction between attitudes towards both solar and

wind energy developments with residents favouring solar energy over wind

energy developments; this can be considered to be as a result of human and

environmental impacts that are associated with wind energy technologies.

This is evidenced within the survey with regards to the impacts that were

outlined including noise pollution, visual impact and the disruption of wildlife; it

is clear that people believe the impacts such as these that are associated to

wind energy to be of greater concern when compared to solar energy

developments. This is in line with other literature where the environmental and

human impacts associated with wind energy are well documented, (Delicado,

Figueiredo and Silva, 2016). However, in terms of people’s opinions towards

the human and environmental impacts of solar energy infrastructures, there

was very little evidence to suggest that people believe them to be a concern.

This may be as a consequence of people associating these impacts with

smaller scale renewable energy technologies; such as roof mounted solar

photovoltaic panels, and not the utility scale developments that survey was

intended to make reference to. The cost effectiveness of solar and wind

installations was also explored, whilst not necessarily an impact, it does

however act as a means for people to criticize these technologies. Despite the

negativity that sometimes surrounds the cost implications that are associated

with these technologies, the vast majority of respondents felt that it was not a

concern.

53

The second part of the survey was intended to look at what people’s opinions

were towards the possibility of increased engagement in renewable energy

projects. This is something that has been widely discussed within literature,

whereby increased participation can positively influence people’s attitudes

and perceptions towards renewable energy infrastructures, Bauwens (2016).

It is something that was demonstrated in the results with nearly all of the

residents who lived in close to proximity to solar or wind energy developments

having little or no influence during the development process; in addition to this

nearly all respondents would prefer some form of involvement, this is

something that could potentially alter the way people view renewable energy

technologies, Kalkbrenner and Roosen (2016), because people would be able

to have more of a say on what technologies are utilised and where they are to

be located.

This research could be influential for the development of further renewable

energy projects near local communities in rural Pembrokeshire, with it

primarily benefitting the local governing body Pembrokeshire county council.

This is due to there being very little research at present that addresses how

public perceptions are affected when renewable energy projects are

constructed in close proximity to local communities. Rural Pembrokeshire has

experienced a significant increase in the amount of renewable energy

projects; and this research aims to provide a better understanding of the

factors affecting people’s perceptions that live in close proximity to solar and

wind farms. Whether the perceptions are affected in either a positive or

negative way it could provide local stakeholders in renewable projects with

information to better inform them during the decision making process, for

example when determining what technology is used and also when choosing

a suitable site for development. It will also serve as a means of educating

local people about the renewable energy projects within the locality,

something at present can be considered to an issue, as many people do not

fully understand the benefits of these projects. This research is fundamental

to furthering social science literature on renewable energy, as at present there

is very little on this particular subject, and especially for an area like rural

54

Pembrokeshire, where there has been a significant increase in investment for

renewable energy projects.

There were however several limitations to this study; firstly it was conducted

on a relatively small scale confined to the areas that had renewable

developments in the vicinity. Secondly because much of the study was based

in rural areas, there were some issues with people’s willingness to participate

especially in remote areas on the periphery of the towns; and the thirdly there

is no data on resident’s attitudes and perceptions of solar and wind farms

before they were constructed and it would have been beneficial to see how

they may have changed over time. With number of limitations to the study as

previously It could therefore be suggested that in future studies it would be

beneficial if the study was conducted on a larger scale across various regions.

It would also be interesting to compare people’s attitudes depending on

whether they live in an urban or rural setting. In addition to this comparing the

attitudes of people, who do not live near energy infrastructures compared to

those who do, may be an intriguing research topic, and would provide a more

in depth understanding of the degree to which the impacts associated with

these technologies influence people’s perceptions.

In summary I believe that this study shows that there is still a great deal of

apprehension towards renewable energies such as wind and solar

technologies on a whole, with the majority of participants believing that the

affects on visual amenity, land uses and animal welfare to be the main causes

behind negative public attitudes. Despite the main outcome of the study being

positive, respondents showed a preference towards solar energy when

compared to wind energy technologies and believed the impacts associated

with wind energy to be of greater concern. Further to this it exhibited strong

opinions in favour of increased community involvement in renewable energy

developments. I believe this to be beneficial in mitigating the issues

associated with these technologies as it would not only better in form

residents but also aid in reducing their impacts.

55

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Appendices

67

Community perceptions of renewable energy technologies in rural Pembrokeshire: Examining to what degree community perceptions are affected by nearby Solar and wind energy projects also looking at how they impact the environment, landscape.

You are being invited to take part in a research study. Before you decide it is important that you understand why the research is being done and what it involves. Please take time to read the following information. Ask if there is anything that is not clear or if you would like more information. Take time to decide if you want to take part or not.

1. What is the purpose of the study?

The purpose of this investigation is to see how community perceptions, both positive and negative, towards renewable technologies such as wind turbines and solar PV (Photovoltaic) are affected by nearby solar and wind energy projects. Looking at specific dimensions, for example their impact on the environment, landscape and how it influences local development. This type of investigation can be considered to be important to future renewable developments, as it is crucial when trying to understand the factors affecting public perceptions towards existing renewable energy developments in local communities.

2. Do I have to take part?

This study is completely voluntary, and is up to you whether or not you take part. If you do take part, you will be given a short questionnaire to fill out. However, you are still free to withdraw at any time and without giving a reason.

3. What will happen to me if I take part?

If you do take part in the study you will need to fill in a short questionnaire, with questions pertaining to the study, this should only take a few minutes.

4. Will my taking part in the study be kept confidential?

The information provided will remain anonymous, and in terms of confidentiality the information will only be used for this research.

This study has received ethical approval from LJMU’s Research Ethics Committee:

Contact Details of Researcher – Name: Josh Phillips Email: [email protected] Number: 0746259038

LIVERPOOL JOHN MOORES UNIVERSITYPARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET

68

Contact Details of Academic Supervisor: Name: Olga Korostynska Email: [email protected]

If you any concerns regarding your involvement in this research, please discuss these with the researcher in the first instance. If you wish to make a complaint, please contact [email protected] and your communication will be re-directed to an independent person as appropriate.

69

Community perceptions of renewable energy technologies in rural Pembrokeshire: Examining to what degree community perceptions are affected by nearby Solar and wind energy projects, looking at how they impact the environment, landscape and local development

The purpose of this questionnaire is to see how community perceptions towards solar and wind energy are affected by nearby projects. If you could take the time to complete the questionairre it would be much appreciated. The information provided will remain anonymous, and will only be used for this research.

1. Do you agree with the development of both Solar and Wind Energy projects? Please rate on a scale of 0-4, with 0 being no opinion, 1 that you agree and 4 being that you disagree.

2. Are there any medium to large scale Solar or Wind energy projects in your area? If Yes please proceed to question 3, if No thank you for taking the time to answer the questionnaire.

3. Pleases rate on a scale of 0-4, with 0 being no opinion and 1 being of no concern and 4 being most concern for the reasons as to why you do not agree with the development of Solar and Wind projects:

0 1 2 3 4Solar

Noise PollutionWindSolar Disruption of

WildlifeWindSolar

Visual ImpactWindSolar Cost

EffectivenessWind

4. Do you think communities should have a greater say in the development of Solar or wind projects? If Yes please continue to question 4, if No thank you for taking the time to answer the questionnaire.

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0 1 2 3 4SolarWind

Solar WindYes No Yes No

Yes No

0 1 2 3 4SitingCommunity Participation from the outsetShared Ownership

5. Please rate on a scale 0-4, 0 being no opinion, 1 being that you agree and 4 being

that you disagree with the following ways in which communities can have more input in Wind & Solar developments.

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