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1 Motivation and Emotion Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion I. What is Motivation II. How Does Motivation Affect Behavior? III. What is Emotion? IV. How Does Emotion Affect Behavior? What is Motivation? A condition that initiates, activates, or maintains an organism’s goal-directed behavior. Usually an internal condition Can not be directly observed Inferred from external behaviors
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Page 1: Motivation and Emotion - Potentiality!potentiality.org/.../uploads/2010/02/Chapter-8-Motivation-and-Emotio… · Motivation and emotion are inseparable Motivation pushes us towards

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Motivation and Emotion

Chapter 8

Motivation and Emotion

I. What is Motivation

II. How Does Motivation Affect Behavior?

III. What is Emotion?

IV. How Does Emotion Affect Behavior?

What is Motivation?

A condition that initiates, activates, or maintains

an organism’s goal-directed behavior.

– Usually an internal condition

• Can not be directly observed

– Inferred from external behaviors

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Theories of Motivation

Evolutionary

• Behavior is motivated by instincts

– Fixed behavioral patterns

– Occur throughout a species

– Inborn, rather than learned

• Humans have more instincts than other

animals

Evolutionary Theories

Motivation and emotion are inseparable

Motivation pushes us towards a number of

behaviors (goals)

Emotion sets priorities for behaviors

Behaviors that result in pleasure or pain will be

motivating

• Feelings relate to survival

• Evolutionary psychologists focus on

universal motivations and emotions

Drive Theory

Assumes an organism is motivated to act

because of a need to attain, maintain, or

reestablish a goal

A drive is an internal aroused condition

• Directs an organism to satisfy a need

– A state of physiological imbalance

» Usually accompanied by arousal

• An organism motivated by a need is in a

drive state

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Drive Theory

The ultimate goal is homeostasis

Maintenance of a constant state of internal

balance (equilibrium)

• Behaviors that reduce biological needs are

reinforced

– Behaviors that reduce drives are

especially likely to recur

• The goal that satisfies a need is an incentive

– Can pull us toward some behaviors and

away from others

Drive Theory

When drives motivate two or more competing

behaviors, conflict results

Three types (Miller, 1944, 1959)

a. Approach–Approach Conflict

Distress is usually tolerable because

both choices are pleasant

Drive Theory

b. Avoidance–Avoidance Conflict

c. Approach–Avoidance Conflict

– Occurs when a choice has both pleasant

and unpleasant aspects simultaneously

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Arousal Theory

Focuses on the connection between physical

arousal and behavior.

• Yerkes–Dodson Principle

– Suggests that task performance is related to

arousal level

• Hebb suggested that there is optimal arousal

level

Cognitive Theories of Motivation

Focus on our goals and mental processes

Expectancy Theories

• Focuses on our expectations of achieving

a goal an on the value of that goal

• Expectations are based on experience

– Some are based on social needs

» A need to feel good about oneself and

to establish and maintain relationships

» E.g., needs for achievement and

affiliation

Cognitive Theories

Extrinsic Motivation: Comes from the external

environment in the form of rewards and threats

of punishment

Intrinsic Motivation: Arises from our internal

processes

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Humanistic Theory

– Emphasizes the entirety of life, rather than

individual components of behavior

– Focuses on human dignity, individual choice,

and self-worth

– Incorporates elements of other theories

– Believes behavior must be viewed within the

framework of a person’s environment and

values

Humanistic Theory

Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970)

– Assumed people are essentially good

– Believed people are naturally motivated

toward self-actualization

• One of the highest level of psychological

development

• Involves striving to achieve everything one

is capable of

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow organized a hierarchy of motives

– As lower-level needs are satisfied,

higher-level needs become more

motivating

– Believed only a small portion of

people attain self-actualization

Problems with Maslow’s theory

– Too global to be tested

experimentally

– Strongly tied to Western values

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II. How Does Motivation Affect

Behavior?Hunger: A Physiological Need

– Hunger is influenced by

physiology, learning and

culture

The Physiological Determinants

of Hunger

– Focused on homeostasis

– A balance of energy intake

and output that results in a

stable weight

The Physiological Determinants of

Hunger

Weight stability is consistent with the idea of a set

point

A predetermined weight that the body maintains

Several possible mechanisms (fat cells, hormones)

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The Physiological Determinants of

Hunger

The hypothalamus is important in processing signals

from these hormones

Surgery alters eating patterns

• Damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus leads to

extreme overeating

• Damage to the lateral hypothalamus leads to

extreme undereating

Environmental and Cultural Influences

on Hunger

Hunger is often not a factor in eating

People eat tasty food, even if not hungry

People who are full will also sometimes eat if a

different food is presented

– Suggests variety is a factor in eating

Is the variety of food available in the United States

a factor in overeating?

Eating and Obesity

Four factors that contribute to overeating

Food is readily available

Portion sizes are increasing

The average diet is higher in fat

Most children and adults do not engage in regular

exercise

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Eating and Obesity

Dieting is more common than being overweight

Women are especially susceptible to the “thin ideal”

However, eating disorders are increasing for men

Dieting is usually unsuccessful and often unhealthy

Brain of People with Eating

Disorders

Sexual Behavior

Sex Hormones

– Hormones are important

• Both males and females produce

androgens (“male” hormones) and

estrogens (“female” hormones)

– In males, the testes are the principle

producers of androgens

– In females, the ovaries are the principle

producers of estrogens

• Release of these hormones triggers

secondary sex characteristics at puberty

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Sexual Dysfunctions

• Refers to impairment either in

– The desire for sexual gratification

– The ability to achieve it

• The human sexual response has four phases:

– Desire phase

– Excitement phase

– Orgasm

– Resolution

Sexual Response Cycle

Masters and Johnson (1970)

Sexual Response Cycle

• Desire: Fantasies and desires about sexual activity.

• Excitement: Sexual pleasure and accompanying physiological changes. Heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration increase

– Vasocongestion is characteristic

– Engorgement of blood vessels in the genital area

• Plateau Phase: Physical arousal continues to increase as the body prepares for orgasm

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Sexual Response Cycle

• Orgasm: Peaking of sexual pleasure, with the

release of sexual tension and rhythmic contraction

of muscles and organs.

• Resolution or Refractory Period: Muscular

Relaxation and general well-being. Body returns

to its normal, resting state. Takes one to several

minutes. Time varies considerably from person to

person. Men are usually unable to achieve an

erection

Dysfunctions of Sexual Desire

• Hypoactive sexual desire disorder : a person shows little or no sex drive or interest

• Sexual aversion disorder : Person shows extreme aversion to, and avoidance of, all genital sexual contact with a partner

• Sexual desire disorder appears to be the most common female sexual dysfunction

Sexual Dysfunctions

• Characterized by a disturbance in the

processes that characterize the sexual

response cycle or by pain associated with

sexual intercourse

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Dysfunctions of Sexual Arousal

• Male erectile disorder

– Effects half the male population on at least a

temporary basis

– May be based on

• Anxiety about sexual performance

• Physiological dysfunction

• Female sexual arousal disorder is in many

ways the female counterpart of erectile

disorder

Orgasmic Disorders• Premature ejaculation: persistent and

recurrent onset of ejaculation with minimal

sexual stimulation

• Male orgasmic disorder: persistent inability to

ejaculate during intercourse

• Female orgasmic disorder: Persistent or

recurrent delay in or absence of orgasm

following a normal sexual excitement phase

Dysfunctions Involving Sexual

Pain

• Vaginismus: An involuntary spasm of the

muscles at the entrance of the vagina (not

due to physical disorder) that prevents

penetration and sexual intercourse

• Painful coitus, or dyspareunia, can occur in

men but is far more common in women

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Sexual Desire Disorders

• Deficiency or absence of sexual fantasies

and desire for sexual activity

• The disturbance must cause marked distress

or interpersonal difficulty

• Not due to a general medical condition

• Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder

• Sexual Aversion Disorder

Sexual Arousal Disorders

• Persistent or reoccurring inability to attain

or maintain sexual activity.

• Female Sexual Arousal Disorder

• Male Erectile Disorder

Orgasmic Disorder

• Persistent or recurrent delay in, or absence

of, orgasm following normal sexual

excitement phase.

• Female Orgasmic Disorder

• Male Orgasmic Disorder

• Premature Ejaculation

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Sexual Pain Disorder

• Pain during sexual intercourse.

• Dyspareunia (not due to a General Medical

Condition)

• Vaginismus (not due to a General Medical

Condition)

Sexual Dysfunction NOS

• NOS: Not Otherwise Specified

• This category includes sexual dysfunctions

that do not meet criteria for any specific

Sexual Dysfunction

Sexual and Gender Variants:

The Paraphilias

• The paraphilias are a group of persistent

sexual behavior patterns in which unusual

objects, rituals, or situations are required to

fulfill sexual satisfaction

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The Paraphilias

• Fetishism

• Transvestic fetishism

• Voyeurism

• Exhibitionism

• Sadism

• Masochism

The Paraphilias

• Mostly male

• Have more than one paraphilia

• Usually do not seek treatment

Sexual Dysfunction NOS

• Paraphilias

• Exhibitionism

• Fetishism

• Frotteurism

• Pedophilia

• Sexual Masochism

• Sexual Sadism

• Transvestic Fetishism

• Voyeurism

• Paraphilia NOS

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Therapy for Sexual Disorders

• Senate Focus: Masters and Johnson (1970)

– Technique used with couples to focus on their sensory experience during sexual activity.

• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy:

– Combines behavioral exercises (those suggested by Masters and Johnson,1970) with therapy techniques that emphasize thought patterns or cognitive factors

– Cognitive Restructuring: The therapist tries to change people’s inappropriate negative thoughts about some aspect of sexuality.

Gender Identity Disorders

Two components must be present:

– Evidence of a strong and persistent cross-gender

identification, (not merely a desire for any perceived

cultural advantages of being the other sex).

– Persistent discomfort about one’s assigned sex and

sense of inappropriate in the gender role of that sex

– Significant distress or impairment in social,

occupational, or other important areas of functioning

• Gender Identity Disorder NOS

• Sexual Disorder NOS

Gender Identity Disorders

• Characterized by two components:

– Cross-gender identification

– Gender dysphoria– persistent discomfort about

one’s biological sex or the sense that the gender

role of that sex is inappropriate

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Sexual Orientation

Kinsey acknowledged a continuum of sexual orientations

Can not define sexual orientation solely by behavior

– Same-sex sexual experience does not make

someone homosexual

– A person may be homosexual or bisexual without

ever having a same-sex sexual experience

Exclusively

homosexual

Exclusively

heterosexualMostly

homosexual

Mostly

heterosexual

Sexual Orientation

Kinsey reported that 37% of men had had at least

one same-sex sexual experience

– Only 10% were primarily homosexual

Other researchers find different estimates

– 2.8% of men and 1.4% of women identify as

primarily homosexual

Non-heterosexuals experience discrimination in

some cultures, but not others

– In the U.S., such discrimination and violence

lead to other problems (suicide)

Social Needs

The Need for Achievement and Mastery

Directs a person to strive for excellence and

success

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Measuring Achievement Motivation

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Analyze the

thought content of imaginative stories

Four questions:

1. What is happening?

2. What has led up to this situation?

3. What are those in this situation thinking?

4. What will happen next?

Stories that stress success, getting ahead, and

competition indicate need for achievement

TAT

The TAT

The TAT has been criticized for being too subjective

– Other alternatives exist

Practice improves performance for those high in

need for achievement

– May reflect

• Constant striving for improvement

• Belief in the importance of effort

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The Need for Achievement

Those high in need for achievement also tend

to be high in self-efficacy

The belief one can successfully perform a

behavior

• Specific to a particular task (Academic

self-efficacy)

–Best predictor of college GPA

The Need for Affiliation & Belonging

Our need to establish & maintain positive

relationships with others

Some people affiliate when feeling anxious or

stressed

Social support is an effective coping strategy

III. What is Emotion?

Feelings that generally have

both physiological and cognitive elements and

that influence behavior

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The Functions of Emotions

• Preparing us for action

• Shaping our future behavior

• Helping us interact more effectively with

others

Identifying Emotions

Cross-cultural consistency

in interpretations of

facial expressions

However, emotional

expression is not the

same as emotional

experience

There are cultural

differences in emotional

interpretation and

expression

Most researchers suggest that basic emotions include:

HappinessAnger Fear SadnessDisgust

Facial Feedback Theory

Suggests that sensations from the face help us

determine what emotions we are experiencing.

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Theories of Emotion

Physiological Theories: Physical changes that

accompany emotions

James–Lange Theory: Proposes that we experience

emotions as a result of physiological changes

that produce specific sensations; and the brain

interprets these sensations as specific kinds of

emotional experiences

“My heart is racing, I must be scared!”

Cannon-Bard Theory

Assumes that both physiological arousal and

the emotional experience are produced

simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus,

which emanates from the thalamus in the

brain

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James-Lange and Cannon-Bard

Theories

Figure 2 of Module 26

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The Roots of Emotions

• The Schachter-Singer Theory

– Emphasizes that we identify the emotion we are

experiencing by observing our environment and

comparing ourselves with others

– Supports a cognitive view of emotions

Evolutionary Theories

Emphasizes the role of a series of modules that

are activated by specific situations

Humans seem programmed to fear some things

more than others

– Heights, snakes, insects

– All may be dangerous, so fear responses are

adaptive

• Less adaptive in today’s safer world

IV. How Does Emotion Affect

Behavior?

Culture and Emotion

– Most emotions are expressed in most

cultures

– Expressions vary in degree and especially

the circumstances under which they occur

– Greatest cultural differences come from

evaluations of the events that provoke

emotions

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Gender & Emotion

In Western society, it is widely believed that women

are more emotional than men

– Ignores some emotions (men and anger)

– Shaped by stereotypes

– We remember stereotype-consistent

examples

– We ignore stereotype inconsistencies as

exceptions

– We interpret ambiguous situations in terms

of stereotypes

Gender & Emotion

“Men are more angry than women”

– Stereotype focuses on expression, not

experience, of anger

– Research shows few gender differences in

feelings of anger

• Behavioral expressions do differ

• Physiological reactions are similar

Gender and Emotion

Different display rules

– In most cultures, men display emotions

related to power (anger)

– Women display emotions related to

powerlessness (sadness, fear)