CHAPTER 1SPORT NETBALLLEARNING OUTCOMESWhen you complete this
module will be able to: Explain and describe the basic game of
netball Be able know how to play netball Be able to know the rules
of the sports
1.0 IntroductionNetball is a wonderful game that gives us all a
great deal of satisfaction and pleasure. It is a simple game,
players throw, they catch and they move. Netball is about doing the
simple things well, over and over again, every time. At the end of
the match it is the team who makes the least amount of unforced
errors who will succeed. Champions are just that because they make
fewer errors than their opponents do. They are more consistent in
everything they do. They have the ability to consistently play with
minimal errors in their game.
1.1The GameNetball is a game that is based on running, jumping,
throwing and catching. The players of the game work very hard on
endurance, speed and agility. It is a non-contact sport and no
player may come into personal contact with an opponent even if it
is accidental. The objective of a netball team is to score more
goals than the opposition. A goal is scored through a successful
shot into the opponents hoop. The team which scores the most goals
wins the match. A game is usually played into four 15 minutes
segments called quarters. At the end of each quarter the teams
change shooting ends. The game starts with a center pass, and
center passes change after each goal is scored. All shots must be
taken from within the goal-circle, which is the semi-circular area
around the goal post. The game is managed by 2 umpires, whose
predominant role is to enforce the rules of the sport. Umpires use
a whistle to gain attention and verbal and hand signals to
communicate with the players.
1.2The Netball CourtNetball is played on a court (either hard or
soft) which is 30.5 metres in length and 15.25 metres wide. The
court is divided into three equal parts - a centre third and two
goal thirds, with players only being permitted to enter particular
zones depending on their position. The goal circles have a radius
of 4.9m.There is a goalpost at either end of the court, with a hoop
positioned 3.05 metres off the ground and the metal ring has an
internal diameter of 380mm. The ball used in netball is size 5.
1.3The Position and ResponsibilitiesA netball team is made up of
7 players. Each player has a nominated position and role, and may
only be permitted into certain areas of the court. If a player
enters a zone which they are restricted from then they are deemed
'offside'. The position and responsibilities of the netballers can
be divided into, the attacker and the defender. The attacker
included center, wing attack, goal attack, and goal shooter while
the defenders include center, wing defense, goal defense and the
goal keeper.
PositionDescription (Responsibilities)Play Against
Center (C) Has to be very fit Has the role of attacking and
defending The center is the player that starts the game when it's
their teams turn to throw the ball. The center stands in the small
circle in the middle of the netball court. Allowed everywhere
except the semi circle
C
Goal Shooter (GS) The main shooter with the role of to get the
ball into the hoop and score points Allowed in attacking third and
semi circle
GK
Goal Attack (GA) The goal attack goes on attack and either feeds
the ball into the goal circle to the shooter, and can also shoot
the ball into the hoop. Allowed in center third, attacking third
and semi circle
GD
Goal Keeper (GK) Keep the goal shooter from getting the ball The
main role is to block of shots from the other team Allowed in
attacking third and semi circle
GS
Goal Defense (GD) Try to prevent the opposition from getting the
ball into the goal circle Are on the defense, ensuring the opposing
team's shooters can't get a shot at the goal. Allowed in center
third, attacking third and semi circle
GA
Wing Attack (WA) The wing attack helps with the feeding of the
ball into the goal circle to the shooters Allowed in center third
and attacking third
WD
Wing Defense (WD) Main role is to defend the ball from getting
into the opponents semi circle so they can't score. Allowed in
center third and defending third.
WA
1.4Basic Rules of NetballDuration of the Game Netball is played
over four 15 minute quarters. There is a 3 minute break between the
first and second quarter and the third and fourth quarters. The
half time break is 5 minutes. Injury time is up to 2
minutes.Starting the Game The game commences and is restarted after
each goal is scored and at the beginning of each quarter by a
centre pass taken alternatively by the two centres, irrespective of
who scores the goal. The umpires whistle indicates the beginning
and end of each quarter.Scoring a Goal A goal is scored when a Goal
Shooter or Goal Attack with no contact with the ground outside the
circle throws the ball completely through the goal ring. The
umpires whistle signals the goal is scored Team Changes and
Substitutions - A team may make any number of substitutions at the
quarter, half or three quarter time break as well as during a
stoppage due to injury or illness. If a substitution or team change
is made due to injury or illness the injured or ill player must be
involved in the substitution or positional change.Contact A player
cannot accidentally or deliberately come into contact with another
player in a way which impedes their play. For example, pushing,
charging, tripping, throwing the body against an opponent or using
the ball to push or contact an opponent. Players must not hold an
opponent, nor keep their elbows against another player.Obstruction
A player with arms extended cannot defend closer than 0.9 meters (3
feet). This distance is measured from the first landed foot of the
attacking player to the nearer foot of the defending player. A
player may stand closer to an opponent provided their arms are not
extended.If the attacking player lessons the distance in their
throwing or shooting action, then the defending player is not
considered to be obstructing because it was the attacking player
and not the defending player who shortened the distance. A player
must not use intimidating actions against an opponent with or
without the ball.Held ballA player must pass the ball or shoot for
goal, within three second.Over a Third The ball cannot be thrown
over a complete third without being touched by a player in that
third. The pass is taken from the third where the player gained
possession. It does not matter if they step into an adjacent third
to throw. A free pass is taken where the ball crossed the second
transverse line.Offside Players must stay within their designated
playing areas. A player may reach over and take the ball from an
offside area provided that no part of their body touches the ground
in that area. When two opposing players go offside but neither
touches the ball, there are not penalized If one or both players
are in possession of the ball when they go offside, a toss up is
given in their area of play.Out of Court When the ball goes out of
court it is thrown in by an opponent of the team which was last to
touch it. The player taking the throw in should place one or both
feet behind the point where the ball crossed the line and make sure
all other players are on the court before throwing the ball. If a
player has no contact with the ball they may stand or move out of
the court but must make contact with the playing area and have no
other contact with anything outside the court before attempting to
touch the ball againFootwork One foot landing When a player lands
on one foot they may step with the other foot, lift the landing
foot, but must throw before re-grounding it. They may use the
landing foot as a pivoting foot, stepping in any direction with the
other foot as many times as they wish. Once the pivoting foot is
lifted they must pass or shoot before re-grounding this foot. A
player may jump from the landing foot onto the other foot and jump
again, providing they throw the ball before re-grounding either
foot.NB. A player cannot: drag or slide the landing foot, hop on
either foot.Two foot Landing If a player catches the ball and lands
on both feet simultaneously, they may step in any direction with
one foot, lift the other foot but must throw or shoot before
re-grounding this foot. They may pivot on one foot, stepping in any
direction with the other foot as often as they wish. Once the pivot
foot is lifted they must throw the ball before re-grounding this
foot. They may jump from both feet onto either foot, or step and
jump but must throw or shoot before re-grounding either foot.
Playing the Ball A player who has possession of the ball may not
bounce the ball and replay it. If a player does not catch the ball
cleanly, it may be bounced once to gain possession or batted or
bounced to another team mate. After throwing the ball, a player
cannot play it again until it is touched by another player, or
rebounds off the goal post.
Short Pass There must always be room for a third player to move
between the hands of the thrower and those of the receiver when
passing. Passes that do not have this room are called short passes.
A player cannot: Punch, roll, kick or fall on the ball. Pass the
ball in any way while lying, sitting or kneeling on the ground. Use
the goal post as a way to regain balance or as a support while
stopping the ball from going out of court.Toss UpA toss up is used
to put the ball into play when: Opposing players simultaneously
contact each other Opposing players simultaneously knock the ball
out of court Opposing players simultaneously gain possession of the
ball The umpire unable to decide who last touched the ball out of
court Opposing players simultaneously offside with one in
possession of the ballThe two players stand 0.9m apart, facing each
other and their own goal ends. Their arms should be straight with
hands by their sides. Once in position, they must not move until
the umpire has tossed it up from just below shoulder height of the
shorter player and blown the whistle.1.5Fundamental Skills and
Techniques1.5.1PassingNetball is a game made up of a variety of
passing techniques. The players ability to pass accurate and well
timed throws will determine the success of the team. Players need
to master the basic skills of each of the throwing techniques as
well as balance, timing and control. The player must learn when and
where to pass the ball and which pass to use.Shoulder Pass 1 Handed
Stand side-onto the intended receiver Feet should be shoulder width
apart with knees slightly bent and weight on the back foot The ball
can be held with two hands but as the arm is taken back behind the
shoulder the ball is held with one hand Elbow should be bent The
opposite foot to the throwing arm should be forward Transfer the
body weight from the back foot to the front foot as the player
steps forward with the front foot The ball is pushed forward with
the shoulder, elbow, wrist and fingers Follow through with the hand
whilst the fingers should be pointing in line with the
throwShoulder Pass 2 HandedEverything is the same as the one handed
shoulder pass but as the arm is taken back behind the shoulder two
hands remain on the ball.Chest Pass
Two hands behind the ball with thumbs and fingers in a W shape
Ball held close to chest Elbows bent and relaxed by side Wrist and
fingers direct and control the ball Step forward into the pass
Weight is transferred onto the front foot Follow through with arms
and fingers in the direction of the pass As the player steps
forward ensure feet are in a balanced positionOverhead or Lob Pass
One or two handed pass The body can be facing or side-on the
receiver The ball should be released above the head As the throw is
executed the throwing arm or arms moves up and forward towards the
receiver The wrist and fingers direct the ball in a high arc into
the space ahead of the receiver The highest point of the arc should
be when the ball passes over the defender Weight is transferred
from the back to the front foot as the step forward is madeBounce
Pass A bounce pass can be performed with one or two hands from in
front or side of the body Hold the ball the same as for a shoulder
pass Ball can be held at either waist or hip level Bent knees and
step forward onto the front foot As the ball is pushed forward the
hand and fingers should follow the path of the ball When executing
the bounce pass the ball should bounce approximately 2/3 of the
distance between passer and receiver1.5.3Catching Emphasize a two
handed catch over a one handed catch Eyes watching the ball into
the hands Fingers and thumbs spread in a W shape ready to receive
Fingers and thumbs relaxed but strong Hands and arms outstretched
towards the ball Step forward and reach with hands to catch Snatch
the ball with strong fingers and bend arms when receiving the ball
to lessen the impact whilst pulling the ball towards the body Keep
thumbs behind the ball with fingers spread and relaxed Bring the
ball back to the chest ready for the return pass Allow time for a
balanced landing position before throwing the
ball1.5.3ShootingShooting is all about balance, rhythm and feel for
the shot. Shooting for goal should be an automatic well sequenced
skill. Shooters should always try to be balanced and in line with
the post before they attempt to shoot. Feet, hips, body, shoulders
and elbows should all be square to the post. This will give the
ball every opportunity to travel in a straight line to the ring.
Shooters should always look at the same aim point every time they
shoot. These aim points could be the front of the ring, above the
middle of the ring or at the back of the ring. Start at the base
and look at what the feet and legs do when shooting for goal. The
shooters feet should be parallel approximately shoulder width apart
in a comfortable stance. Shooters should try not to step forward as
they shoot. The power of the shot comes from the legs. More bend in
the knees will give more power on a longer shot for goal. The ball
should sit on all finger tips and the thumb on one hand The ball
should be placed above the head in the shooting hand. The other
hand is placed gently to the side of the ball as a support only to
keep it balanced. Because shooting is all about rhythm the knees
and elbows bend at the same time. As the body straightens in
sequence the ball is not released until the arm is at full
extension The ball is released in a smooth fluid action following
right through to the finger tips The index and middle fingers
direct the ball to the post and must be strong. The wrist and
fingers should flick the ball in a gentle back spin motion to the
ring. Fingers should follow the arc of the ball to the
post.1.5.4Attacking SkillsEffective attacking play comes from the
players ability to catch and throw whilst moving combined with
changes of speed and timing of movement. Explosive speed, agility,
strength and endurance are necessary components of a good attacking
player.Before moving the attacking player must take into
consideration: The spaces that are available Their starting
position in relation to the defender and their team mates The
timing of the movement Any limitations of space that may require a
preliminary movement to create spaceA good attacking player needs
to be able to execute the following movements:Straight and Diagonal
LeadsStraight Lead - A simple movement but a very effective one.
When timed to perfection it can be extremely difficult to defend.
The attacker initiates the movement whilst the defender can only
guess in what direction the attacker will run. The attacker must
decide the exact moment to move then begin with strong, explosive
steps towards the thrower either running directly forward or
diagonally to the free side.Diagonal Lead When leading to the right
or left it is important the player lands on their outside foot when
catching the ball. For example if the attacker is leading
diagonally to the right the land should be on the right foot when
the ball is caught. When leading to the left the land should be on
the left foot when the ball is caught. Practice taking off using
the outside foot. This will drive the attacker out on the angle
quickly and away from the defender. Dodge
Dodging is a short, sharp movement often executed from a
stationary beginning. It can be used to quickly change direction to
create space for themselves or team mates. It also allows the
attacker to wrong foot or takes the defending player away from the
space where the ball is to be caught.
Change of Direction
The change of direction is executed from a longer run. The same
technique is used as for the dodge but the player changes direction
after making a longer run.
Change of Pace
Changing the pace of the attacking movement is used to upset the
rhythm and timing of the defender. The attacker can create a clear
movement towards the ball. A change of pace can sometimes is a very
effective attacking strategy. Attacking is not always about
sprinting. It is a subtle blend of walking, jogging, running and
sprinting. The skill is to know when to change the speed of the
movement. The ability to read the cues of the defender e.g. when
the defender has committed to the initial movement a sudden change
of speed will cause the defender to re-adjust their speed. At this
point the attacker should accelerate away from the defender.
Timing There are many contributing factors as to why players
miss-times their movements. Factors such as placement of the pass.
Correct placement of the ball enables the receiver to catch the
ball in the appropriate position then turn quickly to identify the
intended target. The thrower must decide on the exact moment to
release the pass otherwise even a well-timed movement will not link
with the ball. One slight error in any of these elements will
result in the breakdown of play. On the physical side of things it
comes back to the execution of the basic skills that enables all
movements to link together with the flight of the ball. The players
ability to read the play and read the cues also plays a substantial
part in the entire process.
1.5.5Defending SkillsDefense work includes the
following:Pressurizing a player: One-on-One DefendingThe defender
tries to prevent her opponent from receiving the ball by tight
one-on-one marking. Their aim is to dictate to the attacker the
spaces they can go into and force a turnover ball. The team is
trying to force the opposition into errors or into a held ball
situation. The disadvantage of this type of defense work is that it
is reactive rather than creative. You are simply following and
trying to anticipate the movements of your opponent. A visual
awareness of your opponent, the ball and other players is a key
element of successful one-on-one defending. This is probably the
most physically difficult way to defend and players will need very
good fitness levels to successfully defend in a one-on-one
manner.
Semi-loose DefendingStill a one-on-one situation but the
defender is standing slightly off the player giving the attacking
player a false sense of security. The thrower assumes the attacker
is free to receive a pass but the defender is ready to move and
intercept. Timing is vital in order to take the interception. If
the defender has committed too soon she may be easily beaten, the
pass may not be thrown or a different pass is given in order to
beat the defender.
Marking or Defending SpaceWhen space marking peripheral vision
is vital. The defending team sets up intercept situations for
individual members of the team. Intercepts are generally taken
after the opposition has been lured into a false sense of security
in assuming some attacking players are free to receive the pass or
after the opposition has made a mistake. With this style of defense
players are able to create situations and opportunities for an
interception rather than simply reacting to the movements of the
opposing team. All players must be working together or the
effectiveness of this form of defense will be diminished.
Part Court/Full Court ZoningPlayers have specific areas of the
court to defend. They stand in relation to where the ball is at any
one time. This type of defense is reliant on total team work
because if any player is out of position the ball will be passed
with ease leaving many of the defending players behind play. The
aim is to encourage the opposition to throw a long clearing pass to
one of their team mates that can then be easily intercepted.
Players close to the ball stand a little higher so that spaces are
left further down the court to encourage the longer pass being
made.
Defending Player with the BallAims: To force opponents to pass
in a particular direction To force opponents to make a particular
pass To tip or intercept ball as it is being passedAfter the pass
is made to direct oppositions next movement i.e. towards or away
from the pass just thrown. Rather than simply defending 0.9m in
front of a player with the ball defend the player on their favorite
attacking side. Defend left/right handed players on their preferred
throwing side. The position of the player marking the thrower can
dictate the play to come (e.g. mark player towards the sideline or
mark player to path of the ball) thereby making it possible for a
team mate to have an attempt for the ball at the receivers end of
the pass.Defense of a shotLean 0.9m from first grounded foot of the
shooter. The defender stretches out to pressure the point of
release of the shot. Either:1. Opposite foot forward to arm
outstretched over ball2. Same arm/foot forward3. Balance on both
feet with both arms outstretched over ball4. Balance on both feet
with one arm outstretched over ball.
The other arm is used for balance and used to cover a possible
pass to the other shooter. The 0.9m stance can be taken from in
front, to the side or behind the shooter. The choice of position
dependent on shooting style and distance away from the goal.
Jump Timing is involved and if successfully executed will result
in a deflection of the shot. Player is at 0.9m away from first
grounded foot of the shooter. Time a powerful leap in the air
towards the ball to attempt to tip the ball at its point of release
or above. Try not to jump straight up and down. As you jump make
sure you jump towards the ball after it has left the shooters
fingers.
Combination
Lean over the shot standing at 0.9m from the first grounded foot
of the shooter then bring back foot forward to jump on release of
the shot.
Rebounding
The defender should aim to stand approximately one meter from
the post in the front position. This is the ideal position. The
defender should work to establish the rebounding position before
the shot is being taken. The defender who leans or jumps the shot
at goal then needs to screen out that shooter so that both
defenders will have the more favorable rebounding positions.
1.6Conclusion Netball is a simple, basic game. Its about doing
the simple things well over and over again every time. Coaches do
not need the fancy, complicated activities if the players could not
catch and throw well. Besides, coaches need to keep their mind open
and find new and better ways of doing the same things. Coaches need
to keep challenge their athletes and themselves.
SELF-TEST 11. What is the equipment that needed to play netball?
2. What are the skills the player needs to play netball?
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:Draw a diagram of the netball court showing
the position of each player and explain their use.
CHAPTER 2SPORT SOCCERLEARNING OUTCOMESWhen you complete this
module will be able to: Explain and describe the basic game of
soccer Be able know how to play soccer Be able to know the rules of
the sports
2.1IntroductionSoccer is the most popular sport in the world,
and it is also one of the most demanding. It is a challenging sport
because it requires cardiovascular fitness, cognitive, competitive
and psychomotor qualities. Soccer can be played in industrial and
less developed nations, by young and old, boys and girls, by elite
and physically or mental challenged. All that is needed is a ball
and willing participants.2.2The game, ball and playersPlayersSoccer
is played by two teams consist of 11 players for each team (with an
appropriate number of substitutes), including goalkeeper.
Objectives of the GameThe objective of the game is to score the
ball across the goal line and within the confines of the 8 x 24
foot goalposts and crossbar.Once the whistle blow, each team
attempts to gain possession, and through planned and creative
combinations of the fundamental skills (passing, shooting, heading,
trapping, dribbling, tackling, marking, and goalkeeping) attempts
to place the ball in the back of the opponents net.Player AgeGame
LengthOvertime PeriodsBall WeightBall Circumference
Goal SizeField Size
Adults Two 45-minute halvesTwo 15-minutehalves
400 g-457 g
69cm 71cm 2.44mx7.32m110mx64m
Under 16
Two 40-minutehalvesTwo 15-minute halves
Under 12Two 30-minutehalvesTwo 10-minute halves
314 g-371 g
64cm 66 cm2.13mx6.40m64mx46m
2.3Field of Play2.3.1GoalsPlaced at the center of each goal line
and consists of: Two upright posts (2.44m) high and 7.32m apart
made of wood, tubular metal, or plastic Horizontal crossbar (7.32m)
Nets (made of hemp, jute, or nylon) and attached to the back of the
crossbar and goalposts)2.3.2Technical AreaAlso known as coaching
box that is marked at least 1.53m from the parallel to the
touchline and extending 18.29m in both directions from the halfway
line. This technical area can be helpful in the management of the
game. Coaches and players should remain inside the technical area,
except when the players are warming up in preparation to
substitute. 2.4EquipmentThe most economical sport which requires: A
ball Appropriate footwear (flats or spikes) Shin guards, Shorts,
shirt and socks Field equipment, goals, nets, and corner
flags.2.5OfficialsA soccer matches are presided over by: A referee
and The center referee who makes all the final decision regarding
fouls and technical infringements Two assistant referees Run on the
touchlines and signal when a ball is completely crossed the touch
line, goal line, or goal Indicate fouls and offside infractions
Serve as advisorsThe objectives of having the officials is to allow
play to be free-flowing and within the spirit of the game while
maintaining optimal safety for the participating
players.2.6Out-of-Bounds (Restarts)Restart is awarded once the ball
is completely crosses (either in the air or rolling) the touchline
or the goal line or a violation is whistled. Depending on the
situation, any number of restarts may occur. A restart can be a
direct restart or indirect restart.
2.6.1Direct restartsDirect restart is when the goal can be
scored without touching another player. Direct restarts included
the following:Penalty KickA penalty kick is awarded when players of
the defending team: Handling the ball Holding Charging occurs
inside the penalty area Tripping Pushing Striking Any players of
the offended team may take the penalty kick except the substitute
brought in to take the penalty kick. A penalty kick is taken from
the penalty kick mark, 10.97m from the goalpost. Only penalty
kicker and goalkeeper would be in the penalty area, while all other
player should be outside until the ball is struck forward. The
goalkeeper is only allowed to move on the goal line with his feet
until the ball is kicked. The ball remains in play if it rebounds
off the goalpost or the goalkeeper. The penalty kicker may legally
play the ball again if it bounces off the goalkeeper; however, the
penalty kicker may not play the rebound off the goalpost or
crossbar until the ball has been touched by another player.Corner
KickA corner kick is awarded when the ball crosses the defenders
goal line and is last played by a defender. Corner kick must be
taken within the 0.9m arc of the corner of the field closest to
where the ball crossed the goal line. As the players defending the
corner kick must be 9.14m from the corner kick arc when it is
taken.
Direct kickA direct kick is awarded when players of the
defending team: Handling the ball Holding Charging occurs outside
the penalty area Tripping Pushing Striking Defending players must
always be 9.14m from the ball before it is played, or a retake may
be awarded.2.6.2Indirect restartsAn indirect restart when the ball
must be touched by another player, even the opposition, before a
goal is awarded. The indirect restarts are as follows: Goal KickA
goal kick is awarded to the defending team when the ball crosses
the defensive goal line and is last touched by the attacking side.
The goal kick must be taken from the goal area and must clear the
penalty area before being touched by either team.Throw-InA throw in
is a two handed overhead movement that must be taken with both feet
on the ground. It is awarded to the team that last touched the ball
when the ball crosses completely over the sideline. If the throw-in
handed improperly or fails to enter the field of play, the ball is
awarded to the opposing team. Indirect Free KickAs a technical
infraction occur; offsides, obstruction, dangerous play, or delay
of game, an indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team.
While the indirect free kick is taken the opposing players must be
9.14m from the ball. A goal from the shot can only be awarded if
another player touches the ball.OffsidesAn offside is usually
occurs when a player receive the ball from a teammate without
having two defensive players between him and the goal, or he is
nearer to the opponents goal line. An offside is not committed
when: The player is in his own half of the field There are two
opponents nearer to their own goal line than the attacking player
The ball was last played by the attacker The attacking player
receives the ball directly from a goal kick, corner kick, throw-in,
or drop ball An offensive player even with the second-to-last
defender is on-side.Drop BallA drop ball is held waist high and
dropped by a referee in a nonthreatening or neutral territory and
must hit the ground before being played. A drop ball is called for
after the referee stops play due to an injury or emergency or when
a call is unclear or in doubt.2.6.3Fouls and MisconductWhen a foul
or some other form of misconduct or illegal behavior is committed
by a player, the opposing team will be awarded with a direct or
indirect free kick. Intentionally fouling are as follow: Kicking or
attempting to kick an opponent Tripping Jumping at an opponent
2.7Fundamental Skills and TechniquesSoccer is a game of
movement, speed, physical and mental control, space, timing, flow,
creativity, improvisation, and imagination. A soccer player needs
to employ a basic fundamental skills and techniques as follow:
2.7.1Passing Types of Passing
Descriptions
Short Passes Made with the inside of the foot
Longer Passes Chipped, by placing the foot under the ball
Struck with force, while leaning the body backward to create the
desired loft
Square Pass Made at a right angle to the attacker in the hope
that the passer will continue the momentum and receive a return
pass
Through Pass Direct forward pass, the ball is thrust behind the
opponents into their defensive space as your teammate runs onto the
ball
2.7.2ShootingThe basic technique of shooting can be described as
a powerful instep blast with any surface of the foot or body can be
employed. The technique of shooting includes accuracy, deception,
discipline, and optimal concentration; and practice in all game
situations is paramount. 2.7.3HeadingHeading is a technique when
the player plays the ball with the head. Heading technique includes
concentration, awareness of players around you, proper body posture
and positioning, including the use of the arms as a protective
shield, and keeping your eyes on the ball as it is directed is
necessary as heading usually harm the player with injury. Heading
technique is used in soccer to pass or to shoot the ball. The ball
should be attacked by the header with the frontal bone of the
forehead near the hairline and directed to a teammate or space that
will permit a teammate to collect the ball or afford to reorganize,
especially in the defensive third of the field.2.7.4Trapping and
CollectingTrapping and collecting is the necessary techniques to
bring the ball under complete control from teammates pass or
opponents miscue. Trapping is a technique used to gain possession
and control of the ball. Collecting is a technique of receiving and
gaining control of the ball. Trapping and collecting may used
various parts of the body depending on the balls position upon
arrival.Key for a successful trapping and collecting: Knowing and
using your immediate space to gain possession of the ball Utilize
muscular control and bodily momentum-absorption techniques
Concentration and knowing the opponents whereabouts
Ball Position upon Arrival
Body Part Use
In Flight Ball
Chest Thigh Instep
Ground Ball
The sole of the foot The inside or outside of the foot trap
2.7.5DribblingDribbling is a succession of forward pushes or
touches in which the player keeps the ball under control. Effective
dribbling acquire both feet employing feints, or fakes; changes of
pace; and rapid, deceptive moves. Dribbling technique also requires
proper body position because the ball needs to be shielded,
screened, and protected from a defender or marker. The used of
dribbling are as follows: To advance the ball, Move into position
to get off a quick shot, Delay the game To take the ball into open
space2.7.6Tackling and MarkingTackling is a defensive technique
that is used to dispossess an opponent from the ball so that you or
your teammate can gain the ball possession. Tackling involves
marking, playing the opponent with the ball until optimal time
(usually just after the opponent has touched the ball) to make your
tackling move. Tackling technique requires sound judgment,
assertive play, mental toughness, and teamwork. It is accomplished
by blocking, poking, or sliding in a calculated effort to win the
ball. 2.7.7Goal KeepingThe goalkeeper roles are to stop, control,
and catch a ball within the penalty area if it is not intentionally
passed to him by a teammate. The goalkeeper may legally use the
hands. Upon collection of the ball, the goalie is also permitted to
clear the ball or initiate instant offense by throwing, drop
kicking, or punting the ball. The goalkeeper must know when and how
to challenge, come off the line, and cut down the attackers angle
and effectively smother and deflect shots. Sound judgment, common
sense, mental ability as well as physical skill are an important
quality in selecting a good goalie. 2.8Systems of PlayA system, or
style, of play describes the organization and configuration of the
players on the field, as well as their responsibilities within the
team structure. The teams players and the skill and style of the
opponent determine how a coach chooses to implement a particular
style of play.The SystemsFormation (Defense-Midfield-Forward)
Original English 2 3 5
Arsenal Football Clubs WU System
3 2 5
Italys more defense minded Catenaccio
4 2 4
System to total futbol5 4 1
Offensive PrinciplesMoving An attacking player must be able to
move without the ball, not only to create space but also to receive
a pass from a teammate. These moves or runs are in the form of:
Near and far-post runs Corner flag runs Runs away and off the ball
Overlapping runs (usually from the midfield position, runs forward
past the ball being held by a teammate and into open space behind
the defense)Support and PenetrationThe effectiveness of offensive
principles is the need of supporting system from teammate (at least
two should always be 10-15 yards from the teammate with the ball).
With proper support and communication, combination play, such as
wall passing and give and goes, can be initiated and space can be
created and exploited for penetration (via passing and dribbling)
behind the defense.
Finishing Once the scoring opportunity has been created, the
principles of finishing, or scoring, must be effectively applied.
This finishing principle is the critical shooting skills, the only
way to score. Defensive PrinciplesChase and Delay As the ball is
lost to the opposition, defensive play begins. Immediate chase and
pressure is applied to the player who has taken control of the
ball. These chasing and pressure effort is to delay the player with
the ball and force him to the nearest touchline, thereby preventing
a quick penetration toward the goal. Support The chasing and delay
gives opportunity to the defensive team to retreat, organize (find,
mark, and track) or regroup to support the defender playing the
ball. This support involves balance, depth, and cover in order to
restrict the amount of space that the opponent has to exploit.
Balance and ConcentrationDefensive team concentration is needed to
force the attacking team to its least desirable offensive option
(usually away from the center of the field, where the shooting
angle is most favorable).Challenge Once proper defensive support
and cover are implemented, the defender playing the ball can
challenge, or tackle (the act of taking the ball away from an
opposing player), the ball. Usually the ball is challenged by the
primary defender and won by the cover person.
Counterattack A counterattack or deliberate offensive buildup is
constructed (depending on where the ball is won) after the ball is
won. 2.9Teaching ConsiderationsIt is important to note that
teaching/coaching responsibilities needs some considerations as
follows: The health and safety of the players Fitness level
Learning environmentPractice can be manipulated by an instructor
depending on the: Age Fitness and skills level Season The
particular goals to be accomplished daily or long range
2.10Conclusion Since it is the most popular sport in world
soccer is the most played sport of school children. Some play for
their own satisfaction, enjoyment and some to challenge them to
empower their talent. As for these children, teacher or coaches
need to help in monitoring and developing their skill and ability.
With a proper guidance this young children might become a good
soccer player in the future. Thus, teacher or coaches need to
commit and play their responsibility to the younger.
SELF-TEST 11. How many position player in soccer game and
explain?
2. What are the fundamentals skills the player needs in
soccer?
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:Give examples of various drills that could
be employed to practice soccer skills.
CHAPTER 3ATHLETICS - TRACK AND FIELDLEARNING OUTCOMESWhen you
complete this module will be able to: Explain and describe the
basic athletics game Be able know how to play the game Be able to
know the rules of each track and field game
3.0 IntroductionAthletics is defined in five disciplines; track
and field, road running, race walking, cross country running, and
mountain running. All forms of athletics are individual sports with
the exception of relays races. Athletics or specifically the track
and field is the core and the most common in school. The track and
field competitions emerged in the late 19th century. Each school
has their annual sport day that especially for track and field
event.
3.1 Track and Field Event
The track and field events involve running, jumping, and
throwing activities where running activities make up the track
event while jumping and throwing activities make up the field
events.
3.1.1Running Events Running events can be divided into 5 main
categories; sprints, hurdles, relays, middle distances and long
distances.
Types of Event
Events Description
Sprints
100 meter200 meter400 meter
80 100 percent anaerobic energy expenditure Maximum
intensity
Middle Distances
800 meter1500 meter
Require approximately 50% aerobic and 50% anaerobic (speed and
endurance)
Long distances
3000 meter5000 meter10000 meterMarathon
Endurance event Aerobic in nature
Hurdles
110 meter (Men)100 meter (Women)400 meter
The heights of hurdles, the distance between them, and the total
distance run, vary among men, women, youth, master, and senior
athletes
Relays
4x100 meter4x400 meter
Consist of four members Each runner carries a baton a specific
distance, passing it to the next runner within a marked zone until
the last runner carries it across the finish line
Steeplechase
28 hurdle jumps and 7 water jumps 5 jumps per lap Water jump in
fourth Hurdles height vary by category (men and women) Water jump
hurdle should be 3.66m in width, 3.06m in length The water should
be 70cm in depth immediately in front of the hurdle and slope to
the level of the field at the farther end The hurdle should be
firmly fixed in front of the water
3.1.2 Jumping Events
Jumping events consists of four types of jump; long jump, triple
jump, high jump and the pole vault.
Types of Event
Description
Long Jump
The runway varies from 36.6m 48.8m (men) and 27.4m 42.7m (women)
The takeoff board, made of wood or other rigid material wide 19.8
20.32cm; long 1.22m, thick 10cm The landing area must not be less
than 2.74m in width and identical in elevation with the takeoff
board Filled with sand Jumping styles: Sail Hitch kick Hang
Triple Jump
Has three phases Hop landing on the takeoff foot Step landing on
the non-takeoff foot Jump into the landing pit
High Jump
Two primary styles of jumping Straddle Fosbury Flop used back
layout technique with a curve approach that allowing the athlete to
use more speed in the approach and provided for a very efficient
bar clearance
Pole Vault
The combination of speed, strength, coordination and agility
make up this event Runways vary 38.1 42.7m in length The poles made
up of fiberglass and have 14 16 feet in length
3.1.3 Throwing EventsThe throwing events include four types of
throw; shot put, discus throw, hammers throw and the javelin. Types
of Event
Description
Shot Put
The shots are made of a cast iron, bronze, or brass shell with a
lead center The weight are vary: Men 7.26kg High school boy 5.45kg
Women 4kg The shot are thrown from a circle 2.13m in diameter with
a stop board in front
Discus Throw
Usually made of wood with a metal rim The weight are vary Men
minimum weight 2kg with 219-221mm in diameter High school boy
1.62kg in weight with 209-211mm in diameter Women 1kg in weight
with 180-182mm in diameter Discus throw from a circle 2.5m in
diameter
Hammer Throw
The hammer consists of a round weight attached to a triangular
handle by a wire The weight and length are vary: Men 7.27kg not
exceed 1.22m High school boy 5.45kg in length Women 4kg and length
may not exceed 1.195m The hammer is thrown from a circle 2.13m in
diameter
Javelin
The javelin consists of three parts: Head metal head terminating
in a sharp point Shaft constructed of metal and fixed to head Cord
grip should be about the center of mass and shall not exceed the
diameter of the shaft by more than 8mm with uniform thickness The
length and weight are vary: Men 2.7m in length and weight of 800g
with a cord grip of 16cm Women 2.3m in length and weight of 600g
with a cord grip of 15cm
3.1.4 Other Track-and-Field Events
EventsDescription
Race Walking 3 km-10 km track 10km-50km road
Through a progression of steps so taken that unbroken contact
with the ground is maintained The advancing leg must be
straightened (not bent at the knee) from the moment of first
contact with the ground until the leg is in the vertical upright
position Failure to adhere to this rule lead to warning and
disqualification
Decathlon and Heptathlon The tests of all-around skill and
ability Decathlon - 10 events run over 2 days in the following
order: Day 1 100m, long jump, shot put, high jump, 400m Day 2 100m
hurdle, discus, pole vault, javelin, 1500m Heptathlon 7 events
scheduled in 2 days as follow: Day 1 100m hurdles, high jump, shot
put, 200m Day 2 long jump, javelin, 800m
3.2Basic Techniques3.2.1SprintingStart Incorporates reaction
time, block clearance time, and velocity out of the blocks The use
of starting blocks is essential because it provide a solid base
from which to push off and prevent slipping or injury to the runner
Starting fundamentals On your mark The runner moves in front of the
blocks and backs into position and place the feet in the blocks one
at a time Feet straight, toes in contact with the surface of the
track The hands are placed directly under the shoulders, with the
fingers and thumbs bridged just behind the starting line about
shoulder width apart The arms are fully extended, with the weight
evenly distributed between the hands, rear knee, and foot The front
knee relaxed, extending just inside the forearm The head in natural
alignment with the trunk, the eyes are focused about a yard in
front of the starting line Set The runners raise the hips to the
desired level and extends the knee joints to the appropriate angle
Shoulders move slightly forward in front of the hands in order to
provide a horizontal component GoAcceleration Usually sprinters
reach their maximum velocity between 60-70 meters The main
objective of sprinting is to accelerate over the longest possible
distance in the shortest time possible The acceleration pattern is
sets up by the clearance of the blocks with a maximum force in a
balanced positions Speed is the product of stride length (distance
between the touchdown of the toes for each stride) and stride
frequency The average of stride length, 2.20-2.38m Stride length
vary because of individual muscle strength, leg length,
flexibility, speed of running, and any injuriesVelocity Maintenance
Once maximum velocity reached (50-70 meters), the runner can only
maintain maximum velocity for a few strides (about 15-25 meters)
before fatigue cause of gradual deceleration Deceleration can be
minimized by relaxation, conditioning, and concentration on proper
techniqueMental and Psychological Aspects3.2.2200 Meters Runner
must be able to run the curve efficiently and carry the speed for
an additional 100 meters In order to cut down the distance run, the
runner must run close to the lane line as possible on the curve
This technically can maintain balance and fight the centrifugal
force that tends to push the athlete outward, the athlete should
look inside, lean inside, and drive outside arm across the body to
help maintain balance3.2.3400 Meters The runner must develop the
ability to distribute his or her speed and energy over the total
racing distance in the most efficient manner Need pace judgment and
effort distribution skills For the first 150 meters should be run
in a relaxed and smooth manner while trying to maintain rhythm and
velocity with the least effort Gradually increase the arm drive and
stride frequency at the 200-meter mark For the final 100 meters,
the runner must stay as relaxed as possible and try to maintain
form and concentration Success of this event requires maximum
development of the anaerobic endurance energy system 3.2.4Relays
Relays require team work and timing Employ two types of baton
passes: Non-visual pass not seen by the receiver, and it is used in
sprint relays Baton must be passed in a 20-meter zone The outgoing
runner has an additional 10-meter zone in which to accelerate
Alternate hands, first and third runners carrying baton in the
right hand and the second and forth runners carrying the baton in
the left hand Outgoing runner accelerate maximally into and through
the passing zone as the incoming runner hits the go mark Visual or
vocal cues can be used to initiate the pass The more efficient
technique extended arm position with open-palm, thumb down hand
position because it provides a bigger target, a natural hand-baton
fit, better control and a longer free distance between runner The
incoming runner uses an upsweep push into target hand of the
outgoing runner The main objective is to keep the baton moving
through the passing zone at top speed Visual pass A pass that is
seen by the receiver and it is primarily used in long relay The
outgoing runner should turn and go as the incoming runner hits the
go mark The outgoing runner accelerates into 3-5 strides and turns
about 10 meters into the zone and reaches back with the left hand,
chest facing the curb The hand should reach high into the face of
the incoming runner as it provides a good target with the fingers
extended and the thumb open in the natural reaching position The
incoming runner places the baton into the target hand of the
outgoing runner and as he/she turns, he/she must judge the strength
and speed of the incoming runner The outgoing runner has about 10
meter to slow down or speed up to complete the pass As it is
completed and the runner is clear of traffic, the baton should be
switched to the right hand, and the runner should sprint hard
through the first turn and establish position3.2.5Hurdles Requires
outstanding sprinting ability, rhythm, flexibility, coordination,
balance, and efficient technique The start is basically the same as
for sprinting with an adjustment to achieve the correct stride
number to the first hurdle, 8 strides is the most common pattern
The lead leg should be placed in the rear block in preparation for
8 strides to the first hurdle The takeoff distance from the hurdle
is important to establish an efficient flight path over the hurdle
as the hurlers size, speed of approach, and lead leg action
determine the proper takeoff distance for each hurdler Hurdle
clearance Depends on proper takeoff and lead-leg action Takeoff
high on the balls of the feet, highly flexed lead knee and large
split between legs as this lifts the center of gravity high into
efficient flight path over the hurdle while minimizing vertical
forces Lead leg should not swing up with straight or locked leg,
and should not swing inside or outside Lead leg should be directly
in front of the hip, with the toe straight up The take off leg is
driven up and around to the side of the body in a tightly folded
position The toe of the takeoff leg is turned out Arm action Most
efficient technique single arm action as it stimulates the running
action The lead arm is driven forward about shoulder level, with a
bent elbow The takeoff arm swings backward for balance and rhythm
The hurdler leans forward with the shoulders square Landing Land on
the ball of the foot with the center of mass (hips) over or
slightly in front of the landing foot Takeoff leg comes through
with a high knee action and flows into a full sprint stride The
hurdler takes 3 sprint strides between hurdles, with the last
stride being shorter Hurler should sprint through the first hurdle
out of the blocks, between the hurdles, and off the last hurdle
through the finish line3.2.6 Endurance EventsThe main emphasis of
the endurance training is on the development of the aerobic
metabolic oxygen transport system (the lungs, heart, and vascular
systems). There is a strong correlation between a high aerobic
capacity and success in endurance events.Long Continuous Runs The
major part of endurance runners training programs where they build
a strong aerobic base first The runs range from 3 to 10 miles for
middle distance runner, and 10 to 20 miles for longer distance
runners These runs may average a pace of 5 to 7 minutes per mile
for men and 6 to 9 minutes per mile for women depending on the
level of competition and fitnessInterval Training Precise
measurement of each phase of work is essential to get the specific
training effect to produce the developmental heart stimulus The
basic elements: The distance run groups of 100, 200, or 400 m The
recovery interval 30, 60, 90 seconds. Heart-rate recovery of 120
beats/minute have also been used The pace of the run how fast each
interval is run depends on the fitness of the athlete and the race
pace desired The number of repetition the number of times the run
is repeated depends on the planned workloadFartlek Fartlek
alternates hard and easy running over varied and interesting
terrains It takes the athlete away from the confines of a track to
a more natural setting Fartlek means speed play The runner can
develop speed and endurance at the same time in a fun and
stimulating environment It is a flexible and wide ranging
system3.2.7Jumping EventsLong JumpApproach The distance of the
run-up is determined by strength, skill, conditioning, and the
acceleration pattern of the jumper The main objective of the
approach is to develop maximum controllable speed at takeoff
Techniques that have been used to achieve this goal: gradual
buildup, an explosive buildup, or a two-to four-step walk-in to the
first check mark The key factors are a fast, relaxed, consistent
stride patternTakeoffAn efficient take off action is one that
allows the jumper to get lift at the appropriate angle with a
minimum loss of horizontal velocity. The position of the takeoff
foot and the center of mass at takeoff are the most important
technical considerations for successful jumps A long/short stride
pattern in the last two strides should be used as it can lowers the
center of mass on the next-to-last stride and catches the hips on
the rise in the final stride. The takeoff action should be fast,
with a short duration on the boardFlight in the airThree types of
in-the-air styles: the sail, the hang, and the hitch kick have been
used effectively, and each has its strengths and weaknesses. All
styles are basically used to counter forward rotation created at
takeoff. They allow the athlete to maintain balance and prepare the
legs for an efficient landing.Landing The most effective landing
position is with the feet as far as possible in front of the center
of mass (hips) without falling backward into the pit. The landing
action is initiated by extending the legs parallel to the pit or
slightly above parallel, with the toes up The head, chest, and arms
are thrust forward The arms sweep down and back, then forward, as
the heels contact the sand At this point, the knees flex and allow
the hips to move forward The athlete can fall forward into a tight
tuck position or execute a sit out technique that employs a pivot
to the side with a hip thrust that strikes the sand with the
buttocks near or past the feetTriple Jump Triple jump require the
lower takeoff angle and three jumps of an even distribution of
effort and conservation of horizontal velocity on each jump Te
triple jumper must takeoff and land on the same foot in the first
jump; on the second jump the jumper must land on the opposite foot;
and on the third jump the jumper may land in any manner The triple
jumper may also posses good balance and a high level of legs
strength and powerApproach The takeoff in the first phase is
characterized by a single or double arm action The single arm
action is recommended as it is more natural extension of the run
The stronger leg should be used for this phase
First Jump The jumper runs off the board with a single arm
action and pulls the takeoff leg tightly through under the buttocks
to a thigh-thigh position in front of the hips The fore leg is
extended slightly forward, and the ankle is cocked The arms are
simultaneously extended backward into a double arm position The
jumper is now prepared to execute the second phaseSecond Jump
Initiated by a forward swinging of the arms, an explosive firing
and pawing action by the extended takeoff leg and flexed ankle into
the ground under the body, and a forward drive of the opposite knee
into a high-thigh position The jumper must hold this position as
long as possible to achieve the greatest distance possible in this
phase The jumper must again extend both arms backward, and the
foreleg of the lead leg extends forward, with the ankle cockedThird
Jump Begins with the forward swing of the arms, the driving, pawing
action of the lead leg under the body, and the forward and upward
drive of the opposite knee. The flight path and landing of the
third phase is similar to the long jump Usually used a sit-out
landing technique because lack of momentum to carry them over the
legs in the traditional tuck position High JumpTwo basic styles of
high jumping that have produced the highest jumps are the flop and
the dive straddle.Plant and takeoff The jumper should plant the
outside foot almost parallel to the bar, 0.9 to 1.2 m directly in
front of the near standard The jumper plants with the heel and
rotates to the toe The ankle and the knee extend fully to the toe
for maximum drive The inside knee is driven up and across the body
at takeoff as it rotates the body into a back-to-the-bar position
To ensure maximal takeoff force with the most efficient takeoff
angle to clear the bar, the lead knee must be driven away from the
bar, and the body must be perpendicular to the ground at the
takeoffBar clearance The jumper prepares to clear the bar as soon
as he or she leaves the ground From the back-to-the-bar position,
the jumper drops the head back and lifts the hips to clear the bar
Spreading the knees with the heels kept close together facilitates
flowing into this position The arms and hands rest on the thighs
Once the hips clear the bar, the jumper drops the hips and lifts
the arms and legs to clear the feet (action-reaction) The jumper
lands on the shoulder and back in the pitPole VaultingThe five
phase of pole vaulting are as follow:Approach Approach that allows
the greatest buildup of controlled speed should be used. The
handhold should be slightly wider than shoulder widthPole plant The
pole should be plant early and out in front of the body The upper
arm is extended as straight as possible overhead or slightly in
front of the head The plant foot should be directly under or behind
the upper hand at takeoffSwing The lower arm should be locked after
the takeoff as it aids in the transfer of linear velocity to
angular velocity The knee opposite the plant foot should be driven
up, whereas the plant foot is left hanging until the next
phaseRollback The hips should be brought higher than the head and
the knees flexed into the chest The vaulter should remain in the
rollback position until the pole is well into its
recoilPull-up/push-up/push-off This final phase start with a
pull-up which should be done when the pole is almost straight for
maximum efficiency and greatest height potential The push-up is
done much like the handstand push-up As the vaulter reach maximum
height, the vaulter push-off, dropping the legs and rotating around
the bar3.2.8Throwing EventsShot PutThe technique for throwing the
shot is a putting action (elbow and forearm extension). Two basic
techniques are: the glide and the spin.The glide The thrower starts
at the back of the circle facing the opposite direction of the
sector The knees should be flexed and the trunk leaning forward
over the right leg The throw is started by driving the left leg in
the direction of the throw At the same time the right leg should
begin a driving action The landing and throw The right foot lands
near the center of the circle, and the left foot makes contact with
the inside edge of the toe board The hips and the body begin to
rotate in the direction of the throw The forearm and elbow of the
right arm should remain directly behind the shot The throwing arm
extends explosively and chases after the shot, and the wrist is
snapped During the follow-through and reverse, the thrower should
lower the center of mass and extend the arms and legs to maintain
balance and stay in the circleThe spin The thrower starts at the
back of the circle and rotates into the power position like the
discus thrower instead of gliding The remaining movements are the
same as the glide so as the foot movementsDiscus Throw The hand is
placed on the discus with the fingers slightly separated and the
first joint of each finger curled slightly over the rim The thumb
rests on top of the discus and the wrist is slightly cocked toward
the little finger to lose contact with the discus The thrower
starts in the extreme back position of the circle and will
eventually complete one-and-three-quarters turns before the release
The beginning of the spin is usually preceded by a few preliminary
swings of the discus back and forth to establish a rhythm The
beginning position of the spin should be with the feet slightly
wider than shoulder width and the top part of the body rotated more
than 180 degrees to the right The spin is initiated by the legs and
the hips as the weight is shifted to the left The upper body
remains relaxed, and the throwing arm trails behind with the discus
at shoulder height The right foot will be lifted off the ground and
driven forward toward the center of the ring to establish a new
support as the weight continues to the left Before the right foot
contacts the ground, the thrower will face the front of the ring,
pass through this position, and again face the back of the ring
Once the right foot contact with the ground, the performer pivots
on this foot The left foot comes off the ground to eventually be
placed at the front of the circle a little pass the centerline Once
the left foot makes contact, the thrower enters the explosive part
of the throw With the right foot now planted at the center of the
circle and the left foot planted at the front of the circle, the
thrower explodes and accelerates the turning of the upper body
against the firmly anchored lower body The discus at the beginning
of this explosion should be about shoulder height, then it is
dropped to hip height, and release at shoulder heightJavelin The
most important aspect in javelin throw is the velocity of the
release that developed in the run-up, the torque created by the
throwers body and the transfer of these forces over the throwers
plant leg. The angle of release is dependent on the ability of the
thrower.Approach The approach covers 33.5 to 40 m, with crossover
steps in the final 5 or 6 strides The crossover steps allow the
thrower to place the body in a strong throwing positionPlant The
thrower plants the leg opposite the throwing arm in front of the
body with a long last stride The javelin is pulled back, and the
shoulders are rotated back to create torque in the bodyThrow The
throw initiated by an explosive push by the rear leg that drives
the body over the plant leg The shoulders and the arms follow the
leg drive as they rotate into the throw The final wrist flick and
body follow-through further accelerate the javelin at releaseGrip
Varieties of grip are used, but for all of them the hand must be in
contact with the cord grip The palm should face upward, and the
thrower should pull straight through the shaft to the tip into the
proper release angle and direction The final wrist and finger drive
should be against the cord grip and through the tip, to impart spin
of the javelin and stabilize its flightHammer ThrowHammer throw
require a high degree of skill as well as balance, strength, power,
speed, and very specific motor patterns. The hammer is a rhythm
event thus it require many hours of drills to coordinate the
balanced movements of the body. The basic parts of the throw are
preliminary swings, entry, turns, low and high points of the swings
and the release. The throw must be viewed as a whole, linked by its
various parts. Technique: The thrower begins from a position facing
the opposite direction of the throw and toward the edge of the
circle Feet approximately shoulder-width apart, arms extended, and
body weight over the leg on the side of the hammer The throw
initiated with one or two preliminary swings around the head while
facing the starting position in the back of the circle The thrower
then accelerates into three-and-a-half complete turns with the
hammer The hammer thrower attempts to build maximum velocity in the
hammer head during the turns While rotating through the
three-and-a-half turns, the hammer moves progressively from a low
point to a high point and reaches a final angle of approximately 45
degrees at the release3.3Basic RulesEventsRules
Running Events
Starting blocks must be used for all races up to and including
400 meters Up to 400 meters, starting command is on your mark, set
and the gun fired about 2 seconds after everyone is up and
motionless Races over 400 meters, the starting command is set and
the gun fired 2 methods of timing are considered official, hand
timing (manual) and fully automatic timing. Hand times are recorded
to the next tenth of a second. Add .24 seconds to hand times to
convert to fully automatic times A false start is declared if the
runner jumps the gun. A runner is disqualified after the second
false start A competitor who cuts in front of another runner
without proper clearance of one full strides shall be disqualified
In all races run in lanes, runners shall start and finish in their
assigned lanes
Hurdles
All competitors must clear, within their lane, the required
number of hurdles The hurdler may not run around the side of the
hurdles, trail the leg below the level of the hurdle bar, run out
of her or his lane, impede another hurdler, or deliberately knock
down a hurdle with the hand or foot The entire body must pass over
the hurdle
Relays
The baton must be passed in 20-meter passing zone The runner
must remain in his or her lane and not interfere with other team
exchanges The batons position, not the body of either athlete, is
the decisive point in determining if the exchange occurred within
the zone The baton must be carried in the hand, and if dropped,
must be recovered by the athlete who dropped it The last runner of
the race must have the baton
High Jump
A legal high jump is one in which competitor jumps from one foot
The crossbar must be cleared without displacement It is a failed
attempt when, after clearing the bar and landing in the pit, the
jumper stumbles against the uprights and displaces the crossbar
Pole Vault
The crossbar must be cleared without displacement either with
the body or the pole It is a failed attempt if the vaulter leaves
the ground in an attempt to vault and fails to clear the bar A
trial or failure may not be counted if a vaulters pole breaks
during an attempt to clear the bar The pole may be of any material
or combination of materials, and it may be of any size and weight
The landing pad measured beyond the vertical plane of the stopboard
shall be a minimum of 4.88 m wide and 3.66 m deep
Long and Triple Jump
The jumpers shoe must not extend over the foul line The jumper
must leave the pit under control beyond his or her mark made in the
sand The triple jumper must take off and land on the same foot in
the first jump, and any landing is permissible following the final
jump In attempting a jump, it is foul jump if the jumpers runs
beyond the foul line extended
Shot Put and Discus
Must start from a stationary position Must not leave the circle
until the implement has touched the ground Must not exit from the
back half of the circle once the implement has landed The implement
must land within the sector The proper implement must be used The
shot must be held in close proximity to the chin, and the throwing
arm must not drop behind or below the shoulder level No tape is
allowed on hands unless there is an open cut or wound. Gloves are
not permitted There are no form requirements while throwing the
discus Must not touch the tip of the stopboard or ring, or outside
the circle
Javelin
The throw must land within the sector The javelin must be held
by the cord grip A regulation javelin must be used It shall be a
foul and not measured if during the attempt to throw, the thrower
touches with any part of the body, any surface of the foul line,
the run-up lines, or the area outside of the foul line or run-up
lines
Hammer Throw
The throw must land within the sector During the throw, the
competitor must not leave the circle The hammer must be legal
Gloves may be used
3.4Safety Precautions Proper warm up with a few flexibility and
conditioning exercises prior to practice or competition to prepare
the body and prevent injury Wear shoes that are suitable for the
individual events and make sure they fit properly Take proper care
of equipment Use caution in all throwing events. Carry the
implements back to the thrower and make sure the throwing area is
clear Check all jumping surfaces for stability and firmness. Take
special precautions for wet, slippery conditions3.5Teaching
ConsiderationsTeaching and coaching track and field require the
basic understanding of the physical and mental responses to
training as well as a general knowledge of exercise physiology and
biomechanical principles need to be used as a guideline in planning
training programs. These guidelines should include the following
principles:
PrinciplesDescriptions
Specificity of Training
Training should be specific to the requirements of the event in
terms of the development of strength, power, speed, flexibility,
and the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems
Training Loads
The appropriate intensity, frequency, and duration of training
should be well planned The principle of gradual progressive
overloads should be followed to allow for training adaptation
Individuality
Each individual has unique ability and skills A sensitivity to
genetic and acquired differences should be considered Body size and
composition and muscle type should be evaluated Individual
temperament and tolerances should also be considered
Adaptation to Stress
Adequate rest and recovery cycles should be included in the
training to allow for positive adaptation The hard day, easy day
principle is a good policy to follow Overtraining can lead to
injury, staleness, and burnout thus athlete needs regular recovery
periods, both physically and psychologically
3.6Class or Team ManagementAs to achieve the various training
goals, management requires a careful planning. The following tasks
should be considered: Setting individual and group goals Designing
daily, weekly, and monthly practice schedule Providing for
equipment needs Staffing and teaching strategies Proper selection
and grouping of athletes into appropriate events Testing and
evaluation of performances Motivational techniques and
strategies3.7Conclusion As a core sport in school, it requires
every single teacher to at least have knowledge of skill, basic
techniques and rules of the athletic track and field events. This
is important to ensure teacher can administer student athletes for
the school sport day. Besides, teacher can guide and trained
potential student to be a successful athletes. Since athletic
develop fitness as whole, teacher can help student to stay fit and
healthy by this activity.the correct technique help to reduce the
pain of injury as well. Therefore, teacher needs to have the basic
skill and technique for this athletic track and field event.
SELF-TEST 11. Describe the basic rules of hurdles
2. What are the fundamentals skills of throw event? Explain
all.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:Outline and discuss a training program for
selected track and field events.
CHAPTER 4RECREATION OUTDOORLEARNING OUTCOMESWhen you complete
this module will be able to: Explain and describe the basic of
outdoor recreation Be able to know the benefit of outdoor Be able
to know the values of ourdoor
4.0IntroductionExperiential education is learning by doing or by
participating in an experience. Through direct experiences with
nature, people, objects, things, places and by actually learning by
doing, scientific evidence has shown that the learning process is
faster, what is learned is retained longer, and there is greater
appreciation and understanding for those things that are learned
firsthand. Outdoor education is a form of experiential education
that is important in society today.4.1Outdoor EducationOutdoor
education usually refers to organized learning in an outdoor
setting. Outdoor Learning has become a more contemporary term for
arguably the same thing, but it reflects well the distinction
between discovery/active learning (which Ardroy promotes) and
didactic education, which is more the domain of mainstream
education. Outdoor education programs usually involve residential
or journey-based experiences in which students participate in a
variety of adventurous, memorable challenges. The community aspect
of living in a residential environment for a period of time should
not be down-played either. Definition of Outdoor EducationOutdoor
education can be simply described as experiential learning in the
outdoors. The term outdoor education, however, is widely used to
refer to a range of organized activities, which take place in a
variety of ways, in predominantly outdoor environments. Outdoor
education programs sometimes involve residential orjourney-based
experiences in which students participate in a variety of
adventurous challenges in the form ofoutdoor activitiessuch
ashiking, climbing, canoeing, ropes courses, andgroup games.
Outdoor education draws upon the philosophy, theory, and practices
ofexperiential educationandenvironmental education.Outdoor
recreation activities have been defined as those activities that:
are undertaken outside the confines of buildings (i.e., in the
outdoors); do not involve organized competition or formal rules can
be undertaken without the existence of any built facility or
infrastructure may require large areas of land, water and/or air;
may require outdoor areas of predominantly unmodified natural
landscapeThe outdoor education must encompass: an educational
element which stimulates personal and social development an
experience which includes themes of outdoor, adventure, and
education learning as an experiential process which utilizes direct
experiences an increased self and social awareness, plus increased
awareness of community and environment4.2Benefits of Outdoor
EducationHealth BenefitsPersonal health, including psychological
health, is one of the important outcomes of outdoor recreation
participation.Psychological health can be demonstrated as: Stress
reduction. Relaxation, rest and revitalization all happen as people
participate in outdoor activities. The influence of a natural
environment, the opportunity to escape the pressures of urban life
and the sense of achievement that occurs through participation all
contribute to increasing the ability of individuals to deal with
the world around them. Good self-esteem and positive self-image.
Achievement, stress reduction, positive lifestyle options and
choices all contribute to individuals feelings of having control
over their life and of success. Life satisfaction, inspiration and
self-realization. Many individuals use outdoor recreation as a
major motivating force. Instead of describing themselves as a
teacher or a banker many people prefer to describe themselves as a
rock climber or a bushwalker. The personal rewards and satisfaction
they achieve through their participation mean that many
participants regard it as an integral component of their life,
providing the impetus for work and participation in their
community, and the goal at the end of the week can all be provided
by their activity.Physical health can be demonstrated in all active
people through: reduced heart disease decreased obesity greater
fitnessEnvironmental Benefits Outdoor recreation participants have
historically demonstrated their willingness to preserve the
conservation values of sites through substitution, maintenance and
rehabilitation projects arising through an active communication and
consultation process with landholders. Outdoor recreation
participants are likely to be highly motivated to assist in
conservation initiatives on a site to which they feel attached.
Collaboration and consultation with these groups and individuals
are likely to result in successful communication of and compliance
with restrictions on sites with conservation values that are
incompatible with outdoor recreation use Outdoor recreation
activities based in natural environments raise the profile and
community importance of looking after these places, providing
insurance for a new and improved environmental future.4.3The Values
of Outdoor EducationPromote active learning through direct personal
experience and offer excitement, fun and adventure within a
framework of safety Active learning and adventure outdoors can take
place in a variety of environments: rural and urban, local and more
remote. Outdoor education, training and recreation involve both
young people and adults in a wide range of experiences, including
adventurous activities on land and water and activities with an
environmental focus. Methods used include skills-focused learning,
problem solving, team building and self-reliant journeys and
activities, with residential experience an especially valued
featureChallenging experience outdoors impacts powerfully upon a
young persons intellectual, physical, spiritual, social and moral
development Use of the outdoors makes a major contribution to
physical and environmental education and enhances many other
curriculum areas. It contributes to personal growth and social
awareness and develops skills for life and the world of work.
Qualities such as a sense of responsibility and a purpose in life
are nurtured. There is also a great deal of intrinsic enjoyment and
satisfaction to be experienced from participation in outdoor
activities.Building self confidence and self esteem is fundamental
to any young persons development Outdoor activities provide
valuable alternative, often non-competitive, avenues for
achievement, as well as opportunities to develop independence and
self reliance. Through successfully facing up to the challenges
which outdoor activities provide, overcoming fears and
apprehensions along the way, young people make major strides in
confidence, with implications for all aspects of their
development.A positive attitude to learning is essential if young
people are to make the most of their education Participation in
exciting and enjoyable outdoor activities with teachers, youth
workers and peers reinforces a positive attitude to education and
contributes significantly to the general ethos of a school or youth
group. Direct experience out of doors stimulates and reinforces
learning across many areas of the curriculum, and the use of the
outdoors encourages young people to take greater responsibility for
their own learningAwareness of the needs and contributions of
others and the ability to sustain effective relationships, at work
and in the family, are vital in todays society Experience in the
outdoors provides rich opportunities for personal and social
development through carefully structured group work in challenging
situations. Trust, care, tolerance and the willingness to give and
accept support are all encouraged and anti-social behavior is
challenged. Opportunities are presented to exhibit and develop
effective inter-personal behavior and to work co-operatively and
effectively in teams.The purposeful use of leisure time is
increasingly seen as making an important contribution to a
fulfilling lifestyle Outdoor recreation introduces young people to
a range of worthwhile leisure pursuits which will enrich their
future lives, and develops the skills and knowledge essential for
safe participation. Outdoor exercise contributes greatly to health
and fitness and continuing participation in outdoor pursuits
encourages the maintenance of a healthy lifestyle into middle age
and beyond.Our relationship with the environment is a key issue
facing tomorrows citizens Active learning and adventure outdoors
introduces young people to the environment in a way which develops
understanding appreciation, awe, wonder and respect. It fosters
sensitivity to the environment, helps young people to see
themselves in a global context and helps to develop citizens with
an awareness of the need for sustainable use of the worlds natural
resourcesTomorrows successful citizens will possess the
adaptability to cope with a rapidly changing world of work and the
responsibility to be an effective member of a community Challenging
outdoor experiences promote the development of communication,
problem solving and decision making skills which have currency
across a range of occupations. They encourage a positive opting in
and can do attitude. Young peoples horizons are broadened, new
challenges come to be relished rather than shunned, and
perseverance and determination are reinforced. Values and attitudes
developed in a context of shared endeavor help to form a sound
basis for responsible citizenship4.4ConclusionExperience of outdoor
education is both unique to the individual and equally just as
prone to development and change. Outdoor education is the blending
of both adventure and environment approaches into a program of
activities or experiences. Through exposure to the outdoor setting,
individual learn about their relationship with the natural
environment, relationships between the various concepts of natural
ecosystems and personal relationships with others and their inner
self. Outdoor education as one means of assisting each student in
developing an attitude of personal responsibility for our finite
and fragile environment. This quality need to be adding to the
curriculum view of the school teacher. SELF-TEST 11. Explain
outdoor recreation education.
2. Explain benefit outdoor recreation.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:What are the values that you gain in
outdoor recreation activity? Explain in school based program.
CHAPTER 5RECREATION SAFETYLEARNING OUTCOMESWhen you complete
this module will be able to: Explain and describe the importance of
safety in outdoor Be able know the principles of safety in outdoor
Be able to know the leadership function in safety outdoor
5.0IntroductionSafety management has been continuously developed
and has emerged as a distinct discipline. Many organization realize
that the preventing or avoiding looses improves the bottom line,
but controlling hazards, managing risks and maintaining proactive
safety program are essential activities still overlooked by many
top leadership management. A well organized safety program plays a
vital role in meeting the challenges of providing effective patient
care and other services within a safe environment. Integrating
safety into the care environment using a systems approach remains
the most proven method for achieving these desired results. The
challenges facing organizations include: Making safety an integral
part of job performance. Understanding accidents and their
relationship to cost, time and performance factors. Educating all
personnel on basic safety management concepts and principle.
Increasing involvement of staff and departments in the safety
program. Establishing a functional safety committee that can make a
difference. Implementing as effective system of information
collection and evaluation. Conducting safety related causation
analyses. Applying system safety orientation, training and
education sessions. Focusing on unsafe behaviors as well as hazard
control.Definition of SafetySafetyis the state of being "safe", the
condition of being protected against physical, social, spiritual,
financial, political, emotional, occupational, psychological,
educational or other types or consequences of failure,
damage,error,accidents,harmor any other event which could be
considered non-desirable. Safety can also be defined to be the
control of recognized hazards to achieve an acceptable level of
risk. This can take the form of being protected from the event or
from exposure to something that causes health or economical losses.
It can include protection of people or of possessions.Types of
SafetyIt is important to distinguish between products that meet
standards, that are safe, and those that merely feel safe. The
highway safety community uses these terms:Normative safetyNormative
safetyis a term used to describe products or designs that meet
applicable design standards and protection.Substantive
safetySubstantive or objective safety means that the real-world
safety history is favorable, whether or not standards are
met.Perceived safetyPerceived or subjective safety refers to the
level of comfort of users. For example,traffic signalsare perceived
as safe, yet under some circumstances, they can increasetraffic
crashesat an intersection. Trafficroundaboutshave a generally
favorable safety record yet often make drivers nervous.5.1Safety
Management PrincipleAccidents, injuries and loss events occur as a
result of management deficiencies and reveal the existing of
managerial and leadership problems. The following actions should be
taken to minimize the likelihood of accidents: Correct the causal
factors to make better use of human and material resources.
Understanding that placing blame never addresses real safety
problem. Use analysis to help pinpoint system problems. Improve
safety throughout the organization by integrating safety programs
into all functions within the organization. Improve organizational
performance and the bottom line. Determine ways to reduce the costs
of accidents, insurance, equipment, hiring and training. Bolster
worker morale and promote good public relations.
5.2Management Efficiencies and SafetyManagement deficiencies and
inefficiencies lead to errors of omission and commission.
Management deficiencies set the stage for accident events. Most
accidents result in interruptions and the loss of someones time.
Good management eliminates the causes of accidents while poor
management generates accidents. The occurrence of accidents has a
domino effect on the entire organization.
Safety Program FundamentalTop management must demonstrate a
total commitment to the organizations safety program. An effective
program considers maintaining worker safety to be a fundamental
responsibility of the organization:Workplace Analysis Management
must ensure that effective workplace hazard surveys are conducted.
Hazard information must be accurately analyzed to better permit the
organization to anticipate and prevent accidents.
Accidents Prevention and Hazard Control Organizations should
stress accident prevention and safe work practices to all
employees. Actions should be taken to control hazards through the
design of work areas or job task itself. When it is not feasible to
eliminate hazardous conditions, the organization must implement
measures to protect individuals from unsafe conditions or unhealthy
exposures.
Employee Training Training is the key to success. The mature of
the training depends on the type, size and complexity of the
organization. Training is also based on potential hazards, risks or
exposures present
Coordinating SafetyCoordinating hazard control and safety
activities that address behaviors can be difficult for a number of
reasons. Coordination cant take place unless the cultural and
communication aspects of the organization are understood. The
coordinating function of management is the vehicle to change
behaviors and expectations. Result occurs when the culture is
understood, communication is effective and coordination takes
place. Management commitment provides the motivating force for
organizing and controlling safety related programs. A clearly
stated worksite policy regarding safety and working conditions
demonstrates the priority management has placed on safety in
relation to other organizational values.
Policy StatementsGood policy statements express a belief or
philosophy. An understanding philosophy regarding safety provides
the foundation for an organizational policy statement and a good
policy statement provides direction for meeting established safety
goals or objectives. Senior leadership must approve the safety
policy statement.Developing a Safety Policy Statement: Develop a
safety policy that effectively expresses a belief or philosophy.
Publish the policy in writing, using clear and easy to understand
language. Be sure the policy is written using broad terms and that
it focuses on long range objectives. Understand that effective
policies support a proactive, not reactive and approach to safety.
Remember that the policy must promote direct involvement by all
organizational members and departments. Plan to use a well written
safety policy for at least 5 years. Understand the changing
policies can create confusion with regard to the direction of the
safety program. Dont focus too much on compliance issues; instead
promote safety as being the right th