Module sed405 (1)

CHAPTER 1

SPORT – NETBALL

1.0

Introduction

Netball

is a

wonderful game that gives us all a great deal of satisfaction and pleasure. It is a simple

game, players throw, they catch and they move. Netball is about doing the simple things

well, over and over again, every time. At the end of the match it is the team who makes

the least amount of unforced errors who will succeed. Champions are just that because

they make fewer errors than their opponents do. They are more consistent in everything

they do. They have the ability to consistently play with minimal errors in their game.

1.1 The Game

Netball is a game that is based on running, jumping, throwing and catching. The

players of the game work very hard on endurance, speed and agility. It is a non-contact

sport and no player may come into personal contact with an opponent even if it is

accidental. The objective of a netball team is to score more goals than the opposition. A

goal is scored through a successful shot into the opponents hoop. The team which scores

the most goals wins the match. A game is usually played into four 15 minutes segments

called quarters. At the end of each quarter the teams change shooting ends. The game

starts with a center pass, and center passes change after each goal is scored. All shots

must be taken from within the goal-circle, which is the semi-circular area around the goal

post. The game is managed by 2 umpires, whose predominant role is to enforce the rules

of the sport. Umpires use a whistle to gain attention and verbal and hand signals to

communicate with the players.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you complete this module will be able to:

Explain and describe the basic game of netball

Be able know how to play netball

Be able to know the rules of the sports

1.2 The Netball Court

Netball is played on a court (either hard or soft) which is 30.5 metres in length

and 15.25 metres wide. The court is divided into three equal parts - a centre third and two

goal thirds, with players only being permitted to enter particular zones depending on their

position. The goal circles have a radius of 4.9m.There is a goalpost at either end of the

court, with a hoop positioned 3.05 metres off the ground and the metal ring has an

internal diameter of 380mm. The ball used in netball is size 5.

1.3 The Position and Responsibilities

A netball team is made up of 7 players. Each player has a nominated position and

role, and may only be permitted into certain areas of the court. If a player enters a zone

which they are restricted from then they are deemed 'offside'. The position and

responsibilities of the netballers can be divided into, the attacker and the defender. The

attacker included center, wing attack, goal attack, and goal shooter while the defenders

include center, wing defense, goal defense and the goal keeper.

Position Description (Responsibilities) Play

Against

Center (C) Has to be very fit

Has the role of attacking and defending

The center is the player that starts the game

when it's their teams turn to throw the ball.

The center stands in the small circle in the

middle of the netball court. 

Allowed everywhere except the semi circle

C

Goal Shooter

(GS)

The main shooter with the role of to get the

ball into the hoop and score points

Allowed in attacking third and semi circle

GK

Goal Attack (GA) The goal attack goes on attack and either

feeds the ball into the goal circle to the

shooter, and can also shoot the ball into the

hoop.

Allowed in center third, attacking third and

semi circle

GD

Goal Keeper

(GK)

Keep the goal shooter from getting the ball

The main role is to block of shots from the GS

other team

Allowed in attacking third and semi circle

Goal Defense

(GD)

Try to prevent the opposition from getting

the ball into the goal circle

Are on the defense, ensuring the opposing

team's shooters can't get a shot at the goal.

Allowed in center third, attacking third and

semi circle

GA

Wing Attack

(WA)

The wing attack helps with the feeding of the

ball into the goal circle to the shooters

Allowed in center third and attacking third

WD

Wing Defense

(WD)

Main role is to defend the ball from getting

into the opponents semi circle so they can't

score.

Allowed in center third and defending third.

WA

1.4 Basic Rules of Netball

Duration of the Game

Netball is played over four 15 minute quarters.

There is a 3 minute break between the first and second quarter and the third and

fourth quarters.

The half time break is 5 minutes.

Injury time is up to 2 minutes.

Starting the Game

The game commences and is restarted after each goal is scored and at the beginning

of each quarter by a centre pass taken alternatively by the two centres, irrespective

of who scores the goal.

The umpires whistle indicates the beginning and end of each quarter.

Scoring a Goal

A goal is scored when a Goal Shooter or Goal Attack with no contact with the

ground outside the circle throws the ball completely through the goal ring.

The umpires whistle signals the goal is scored

Team Changes and Substitutions - A team may make any number of substitutions at

the quarter, half or three quarter time break as well as during a stoppage due to

injury or illness. If a substitution or team change is made due to injury or illness the

injured or ill player must be involved in the substitution or positional change.

Contact

A player cannot accidentally or deliberately come into contact with another player

in a way which impedes their play.

For example, pushing, charging, tripping, throwing the body against an opponent or

using the ball to push or contact an opponent.

Players must not hold an opponent, nor keep their elbows against another player.

Obstruction

A player with arms extended cannot defend closer than 0.9 meters (3 feet). This

distance is measured from the first landed foot of the attacking player to the nearer

foot of the defending player.

A player may stand closer to an opponent provided their arms are not extended.

If the attacking player lessons the distance in their throwing or shooting action, then

the defending player is not considered to be obstructing because it was the attacking

player and not the defending player who shortened the distance.

A player must not use intimidating actions against an opponent with or without the

ball.

Held ball

A player must pass the ball or shoot for goal, within three second.

Over a Third

The ball cannot be thrown over a complete third without being touched by a player

in that third.

The pass is taken from the third where the player gained possession. It does not

matter if they step into an adjacent third to throw.

A free pass is taken where the ball crossed the second transverse line.

Offside

Players must stay within their designated playing areas.

A player may reach over and take the ball from an offside area provided that no part

of their body touches the ground in that area.

When two opposing players go offside but neither touches the ball, there are not

penalized

 If one or both players are in possession of the ball when they go offside, a toss up

is given in their area of play.

Out of Court

When the ball goes out of court it is thrown in by an opponent of the team which

was last to touch it.

The player taking the throw in should place one or both feet behind the point where

the ball crossed the line and make sure all other players are on the court before

throwing the ball.

If a player has no contact with the ball they may stand or move out of the court but

must make contact with the playing area and have no other contact with anything

outside the court before attempting to touch the ball again

Footwork

One foot landing

When a player lands on one foot they may step with the other foot, lift the landing

foot, but must throw before re-grounding it.

They may use the landing foot as a pivoting foot, stepping in any direction with the

other foot as many times as they wish. Once the pivoting foot is lifted they must

pass or shoot before re-grounding this foot.

A player may jump from the landing foot onto the other foot and jump again,

providing they throw the ball before re-grounding either foot.

NB. A player cannot: drag or slide the landing foot, hop on either foot.

Two foot Landing

If a player catches the ball and lands on both feet simultaneously, they may step in

any direction with one foot, lift the other foot but must throw or shoot before re-

grounding this foot.

They may pivot on one foot, stepping in any direction with the other foot as often as

they wish. Once the pivot foot is lifted they must throw the ball before re-grounding

this foot.

They may jump from both feet onto either foot, or step and jump but must throw or

shoot before re-grounding either foot.

Playing the Ball

A player who has possession of the ball may not bounce the ball and replay it.

If a player does not catch the ball cleanly, it may be bounced once to gain

possession or batted or bounced to another team mate.

After throwing the ball, a player cannot play it again until it is touched by another

player, or rebounds off the goal post.

Short Pass

There must always be room for a third player to move between the hands of the

thrower and those of the receiver when passing. Passes that do not have this room

are called short passes.

A player cannot:

o Punch, roll, kick or fall on the ball.

o Pass the ball in any way while lying, sitting or kneeling on the ground.

o Use the goal post as a way to regain balance or as a support while stopping

the ball from going out of court.

Toss Up

A toss up is used to put the ball into play when:

Opposing players simultaneously contact each other

Opposing players simultaneously knock the ball out of court

Opposing players simultaneously gain possession of the ball

The umpire unable to decide who last touched the ball out of court

Opposing players simultaneously offside with one in possession of the ball

The two players stand 0.9m apart, facing each other and their own goal ends.

Their arms should be straight with hands by their sides. Once in position, they must not

move until the umpire has tossed it up from just below shoulder height of the shorter

player and blown the whistle.

1.5 Fundamental Skills and Techniques

1.5.1 Passing

Netball is a game made up of a variety of passing techniques. The player’s

ability to pass accurate and well timed throws will determine the success of the

team. Players need to master the basic skills of each of the throwing techniques as

well as balance, timing and control. The player must learn when and where to

pass the ball and which pass to use.

Shoulder Pass 1 Handed

Stand side-onto the intended receiver

Feet should be shoulder width apart with knees slightly bent and weight on the

back foot

The ball can be held with two hands but as the arm is taken back behind the

shoulder the ball is held with one hand

Elbow should be bent

The opposite foot to the throwing arm should be forward

Transfer the body weight from the back foot to the front foot as the player

steps forward with the front foot

The ball is pushed forward with the shoulder, elbow, wrist and fingers

Follow through with the hand whilst the fingers should be pointing in line

with the throw

Shoulder Pass 2 Handed

Everything is the same as the one handed shoulder pass but as the arm is

taken back behind the shoulder two hands remain on the ball.

Chest Pass

Two hands behind the ball with thumbs and fingers in a “W” shape

Ball held close to chest

Elbows bent and relaxed by side

Wrist and fingers direct and control the ball

Step forward into the pass

Weight is transferred onto the front foot

Follow through with arms and fingers in the direction of the pass

As the player steps forward ensure feet are in a balanced position

Overhead or Lob Pass

One or two handed pass

The body can be facing or side-on the receiver

The ball should be released above the head

As the throw is executed the throwing arm or arms moves up and forward

towards the receiver

The wrist and fingers direct the ball in a high arc into the space ahead of the

receiver

The highest point of the arc should be when the ball passes over the defender

Weight is transferred from the back to the front foot as the step forward is

made

Bounce Pass

A bounce pass can be performed with one or two hands from in front or side

of the body

Hold the ball the same as for a shoulder pass

Ball can be held at either waist or hip level

Bent knees and step forward onto the front foot

As the ball is pushed forward the hand and fingers should follow the path of

the ball

When executing the bounce pass the ball should bounce approximately 2/3’ of

the distance between passer and receiver

1.5.3 Catching

Emphasize a two handed catch over a one handed catch

Eyes watching the ball into the hands

Fingers and thumbs spread in a “W” shape ready to receive

Fingers and thumbs relaxed but strong

Hands and arms outstretched towards the ball

Step forward and reach with hands to catch

Snatch the ball with strong fingers and bend arms when receiving the ball to

lessen the impact whilst pulling the ball towards the body

Keep thumbs behind the ball with fingers spread and relaxed

Bring the ball back to the chest ready for the return pass

Allow time for a balanced landing position before throwing the ball

1.5.3 Shooting

Shooting is all about balance, rhythm and feel for the shot. Shooting for

goal should be an automatic well sequenced skill. Shooters should always try to

be balanced and in line with the post before they attempt to shoot. Feet, hips,

body, shoulders and elbows should all be ‘square’ to the post. This will give the

ball every opportunity to travel in a straight line to the ring. Shooters should

always look at the same aim point every time they shoot. These aim points could

be the front of the ring, above the middle of the ring or at the back of the ring.

Start at the base and look at what the feet and legs do when shooting for goal.

The shooter’s feet should be parallel approximately shoulder width apart in a

comfortable stance.

Shooters should try not to step forward as they shoot.

The power of the shot comes from the legs. More bend in the knees will give

more power on a longer shot for goal.

The ball should sit on all finger tips and the thumb on one hand

The ball should be placed above the head in the shooting hand.

The other hand is placed gently to the side of the ball as a support only to keep

it balanced.

Because shooting is all about rhythm the knees and elbows bend at the same

time.

As the body straightens in sequence the ball is not released until the arm is at

full extension

The ball is released in a smooth fluid action following right through to the

finger tips

The index and middle fingers direct the ball to the post and must be strong.

The wrist and fingers should flick the ball in a gentle back spin motion to the

ring. Fingers should follow the arc of the ball to the post.

1.5.4 Attacking Skills

Effective attacking play comes from the player’s ability to catch and throw

whilst moving combined with changes of speed and timing of movement.

Explosive speed, agility, strength and endurance are necessary components of a

good attacking player.

Before moving the attacking player must take into consideration:

The spaces that are available

Their starting position in relation to the defender and their team mates

The timing of the movement

Any limitations of space that may require a preliminary movement to create

space

A good attacking player needs to be able to execute the following movements:

Straight and Diagonal Leads

Straight Lead - A simple movement but a very effective one. When timed to

perfection it can be extremely difficult to defend. The attacker initiates the

movement whilst the defender can only guess in what direction the attacker will

run. The attacker must decide the exact moment to move then begin with strong,

explosive steps towards the thrower either running directly forward or diagonally

to the free side.

Diagonal Lead – When leading to the right or left it is important the player lands

on their outside foot when catching the ball. For example if the attacker is leading

diagonally to the right the land should be on the right foot when the ball is caught.

When leading to the left the land should be on the left foot when the ball is

caught. Practice taking off using the outside foot. This will drive the attacker out

on the angle quickly and away from the defender.

Dodge

Dodging is a short, sharp movement often executed from a stationary

beginning. It can be used to quickly change direction to create space for

themselves or team mates. It also allows the attacker to wrong foot or takes the

defending player away from the space where the ball is to be caught.

Change of Direction

The change of direction is executed from a longer run. The same

technique is used as for the dodge but the player changes direction after making a

longer run.

Change of Pace

Changing the pace of the attacking movement is used to upset the rhythm

and timing of the defender. The attacker can create a clear movement towards the

ball. A change of pace can sometimes is a very effective attacking strategy.

Attacking is not always about sprinting. It is a subtle blend of walking, jogging,

running and sprinting. The skill is to know when to change the speed of the

movement. The ability to read the cues of the defender e.g. when the defender has

committed to the initial movement a sudden change of speed will cause the

defender to re-adjust their speed. At this point the attacker should accelerate away

from the defender.

Timing

There are many contributing factors as to why players miss-times their

movements. Factors such as placement of the pass. Correct placement of the ball

enables the receiver to catch the ball in the appropriate position then turn quickly

to identify the intended target. The thrower must decide on the exact moment to

release the pass otherwise even a well-timed movement will not link with the ball.

One slight error in any of these elements will result in the breakdown of play. On

the physical side of things it comes back to the execution of the basic skills that

enables all movements to link together with the flight of the ball. The player’s

ability to read the play and read the cues also plays a substantial part in the entire

process.

1.5.5 Defending Skills

Defense work includes the following:

Pressurizing a player: One-on-One Defending

The defender tries to prevent her opponent from receiving the ball by tight

one-on-one marking. Their aim is to dictate to the attacker the spaces they can go

into and force a turnover ball. The team is trying to force the opposition into

errors or into a held ball situation. The disadvantage of this type of defense work

is that it is reactive rather than creative. You are simply following and trying to

anticipate the movements of your opponent. A visual awareness of your opponent,

the ball and other players is a key element of successful one-on-one defending.

This is probably the most physically difficult way to defend and players will need

very good fitness levels to successfully defend in a one-on-one manner.

Semi-loose Defending

Still a one-on-one situation but the defender is standing slightly off the

player giving the attacking player a false sense of security. The thrower assumes

the attacker is free to receive a pass but the defender is ready to move and

intercept. Timing is vital in order to take the interception. If the defender has

committed too soon she may be easily beaten, the pass may not be thrown or a

different pass is given in order to beat the defender.

Marking or Defending Space

When space marking peripheral vision is vital. The defending team sets up

intercept situations for individual members of the team. Intercepts are generally

taken after the opposition has been lured into a false sense of security in assuming

some attacking players are free to receive the pass or after the opposition has

made a mistake. With this style of defense players are able to create situations and

opportunities for an interception rather than simply reacting to the movements of

the opposing team. All players must be working together or the effectiveness of

this form of defense will be diminished.

Part Court/Full Court Zoning

Players have specific areas of the court to defend. They stand in relation to

where the ball is at any one time. This type of defense is reliant on total team

work because if any player is out of position the ball will be passed with ease

leaving many of the defending players behind play. The aim is to encourage the

opposition to throw a long clearing pass to one of their team mates that can then

be easily intercepted. Players close to the ball stand a little higher so that spaces

are left further down the court to encourage the longer pass being made.

Defending Player with the Ball

Aims: To force opponents to pass in a particular direction

To force opponents to make a particular pass

To tip or intercept ball as it is being passed

After the pass is made to direct oppositions next movement i.e. towards or

away from the pass just thrown. Rather than simply defending 0.9m in front of a

player with the ball defend the player on their favorite attacking side. Defend

left/right handed players on their preferred throwing side. The position of the

player marking the thrower can dictate the play to come (e.g. mark player towards

the sideline or mark player to path of the ball) thereby making it possible for a

team mate to have an attempt for the ball at the receiver’s end of the pass.

Defense of a shot

Lean 0.9m from first grounded foot of the shooter. The defender stretches

out to pressure the point of release of the shot. Either:

1. Opposite foot forward to arm outstretched over ball

2. Same arm/foot forward

3. Balance on both feet with both arms outstretched over ball

4. Balance on both feet with one arm outstretched over ball.

The other arm is used for balance and used to cover a possible pass to the

other shooter. The 0.9m stance can be taken from in front, to the side or behind

the shooter. The choice of position dependent on shooting style and distance away

from the goal.

Jump

Timing is involved and if successfully executed will result in a deflection

of the shot. Player is at 0.9m away from first grounded foot of the shooter. Time a

powerful leap in the air towards the ball to attempt to tip the ball at its point of

release or above. Try not to jump straight up and down. As you jump make sure

you jump towards the ball after it has left the shooters fingers.

Combination

Lean over the shot standing at 0.9m from the first grounded foot of the

shooter then bring back foot forward to jump on release of the shot.

Rebounding

The defender should aim to stand approximately one meter from the post

in the front position. This is the ideal position. The defender should work to

establish the rebounding position before the shot is being taken. The defender

SELF-TEST 1What is the equipment that needed to play netball? What are the skills the player needs to play netball?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:Draw a diagram of the netball court showing the position of each player and explain their use.

who leans or jumps the shot at goal then needs to screen out that shooter so that

both defenders will have the more favorable rebounding positions.

1.6 Conclusion

Netball is a simple, basic game. It’s about doing the simple things well over and

over again every time. Coaches do not need the fancy, complicated activities if the

players could not catch and throw well. Besides, coaches need to keep their mind open

and find new and better ways of doing the same things. Coaches need to keep challenge

their athletes and themselves.

CHAPTER 2

SPORT – SOCCER

2.1

Introduction

Soccer is the most popular sport in the world, and it is also one of the most

demanding. It is a challenging sport because it requires cardiovascular fitness, cognitive,

competitive and psychomotor qualities. Soccer can be played in industrial and less

developed nations, by young and old, boys and girls, by elite and physically or mental

challenged. All that is needed is a ball and willing participants.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you complete this module will be able to:

Explain and describe the basic game of soccer

Be able know how to play soccer

Be able to know the rules of the sports

2.2 The game, ball and players

Players

Soccer is played by two teams consist of 11 players for each team (with an

appropriate number of substitutes), including goalkeeper.

Objectives of the Game

The objective of the game is to score the ball across the goal line and within the

confines of the 8 x 24 foot goalposts and crossbar.

Once the whistle blow, each team attempts to gain possession, and through

planned and creative combinations of the fundamental skills (passing, shooting, heading,

trapping, dribbling, tackling, marking, and goalkeeping) attempts to place the ball in the

back of the opponent’s net.

Player

Age

Game

Length

Overtime

Periods

Ball

Weight

Ball

Circumferenc

e

Goal Size Field Size

Adults Two 45-

minute

halves

Two 15-

minute

halves

400 g

-

457 g

69cm – 71cm 2.44mx7.32m 110mx64m

Under

16

Two 40-

minute

halves

Two 15-

minute

halves

Under Two 30- Two 10- 314 g 64cm –66 cm 2.13mx6.40m 64mx46m

12 minute

halves

minute

halves

-

371 g

2.3 Field of Play

2.3.1 Goals

Placed at the center of each goal line and consists of:

Two upright posts (2.44m) high and 7.32m apart made of wood,

tubular metal, or plastic

Horizontal crossbar (7.32m)

Nets (made of hemp, jute, or nylon) and attached to the back of the

crossbar and goalposts)

2.3.2 Technical Area

Also known as coaching box that is marked at least 1.53m from the

parallel to the touchline and extending 18.29m in both directions from the

halfway line. This technical area can be helpful in the management of the game.

Coaches and players should remain inside the technical area, except when the

players are warming up in preparation to substitute.

2.4 Equipment

The most economical sport which requires:

A ball

Appropriate footwear (flats or spikes)

Shin guards,

Shorts, shirt and socks

Field equipment, goals, nets, and corner flags.

2.5 Officials

A soccer matches are presided over by:

A referee and

o The center referee who makes all the final decision regarding fouls and

technical infringements

Two assistant referees

o Run on the touchlines and signal when a ball is completely crossed the

touch line, goal line, or goal

o Indicate fouls and offside infractions

o Serve as “advisors”

The objectives of having the officials is to allow play to be free-flowing and

within the spirit of the game while maintaining optimal safety for the participating

players.

2.6 Out-of-Bounds (Restarts)

Restart is awarded once the ball is completely crosses (either in the air or rolling)

the touchline or the goal line or a violation is whistled. Depending on the situation, any

number of restarts may occur. A restart can be a direct restart or indirect restart.

2.6.1 Direct restarts

Direct restart is when the goal can be scored without touching another

player. Direct restarts included the following:

Penalty Kick

A penalty kick is awarded when players of the defending team:

Handling the ball

Holding

Charging occurs inside the penalty area

Tripping

Pushing

Striking

Any players of the offended team may take the penalty kick except the

substitute brought in to take the penalty kick. A penalty kick is taken from the

penalty kick mark, 10.97m from the goalpost. Only penalty kicker and goalkeeper

would be in the penalty area, while all other player should be outside until the ball

is struck forward. The goalkeeper is only allowed to move on the goal line with

his feet until the ball is kicked. The ball remains in play if it rebounds off the

goalpost or the goalkeeper. The penalty kicker may legally play the ball again if it

bounces off the goalkeeper; however, the penalty kicker may not play the rebound

off the goalpost or crossbar until the ball has been touched by another player.

Corner Kick

A corner kick is awarded when the ball crosses the defender’s goal line

and is last played by a defender. Corner kick must be taken within the 0.9m arc of

the corner of the field closest to where the ball crossed the goal line. As the

players defending the corner kick must be 9.14m from the corner kick arc when it

is taken.

Direct kick

A direct kick is awarded when players of the defending team:

Handling the ball

Holding

Charging occurs outside the penalty area

Tripping

Pushing

Striking

Defending players must always be 9.14m from the ball before it is played,

or a retake may be awarded.

2.6.2 Indirect restarts

An indirect restart when the ball must be touched by another player, even

the opposition, before a goal is awarded. The indirect restarts are as follows:

Goal Kick

A goal kick is awarded to the defending team when the ball crosses the

defensive goal line and is last touched by the attacking side. The goal kick must

be taken from the goal area and must clear the penalty area before being touched

by either team.

Throw-In

A throw in is a two handed overhead movement that must be taken with

both feet on the ground. It is awarded to the team that last touched the ball when

the ball crosses completely over the sideline. If the throw-in handed improperly or

fails to enter the field of play, the ball is awarded to the opposing team.

Indirect Free Kick

As a technical infraction occur; offsides, obstruction, dangerous play, or

delay of game, an indirect free kick is awarded to the opposing team. While the

indirect free kick is taken the opposing players must be 9.14m from the ball. A

goal from the shot can only be awarded if another player touches the ball.

Offsides

An offside is usually occurs when a player receive the ball from a

teammate without having two defensive players between him and the goal, or he

is nearer to the opponent’s goal line. An offside is not committed when:

The player is in his own half of the field

There are two opponents nearer to their own goal line than the attacking

player

The ball was last played by the attacker

The attacking player receives the ball directly from a goal kick, corner kick,

throw-in, or drop ball

An offensive player even with the second-to-last defender is on-side.

Drop Ball

A drop ball is held waist high and dropped by a referee in a nonthreatening

or neutral territory and must hit the ground before being played. A drop ball is

called for after the referee stops play due to an injury or emergency or when a call

is unclear or in doubt.

2.6.3 Fouls and Misconduct

When a foul or some other form of misconduct or illegal behavior is

committed by a player, the opposing team will be awarded with a direct or

indirect free kick. Intentionally fouling are as follow:

Kicking or attempting to kick an opponent

Tripping

Jumping at an opponent

2.7 Fundamental Skills and Techniques

Soccer is a game of movement, speed, physical and mental control, space, timing,

flow, creativity, improvisation, and imagination. A soccer player needs to employ a basic

fundamental skills and techniques as follow:

2.7.1 Passing

2.7.2 Shooting

The basic technique of shooting can be described as a powerful instep

blast with any surface of the foot or body can be employed. The technique of

shooting includes accuracy, deception, discipline, and optimal concentration; and

practice in all game situations is paramount.

2.7.3 Heading

Types of

Passing

Descriptions

Short Passes Made with the inside of the foot

Longer Passes Chipped, by placing the foot under the ball

Struck with force, while leaning the body backward to

create the desired loft

Square Pass Made at a right angle to the attacker in the hope that

the passer will continue the momentum and receive a

return pass

Through Pass Direct forward pass, the ball is thrust behind the

opponents into their defensive space as your teammate

runs onto the ball

Heading is a technique when the player plays the ball with the head.

Heading technique includes concentration, awareness of players around you,

proper body posture and positioning, including the use of the arms as a protective

shield, and keeping your eyes on the ball as it is directed is necessary as heading

usually harm the player with injury. Heading technique is used in soccer to pass

or to shoot the ball. The ball should be attacked by the header with the frontal

bone of the forehead near the hairline and directed to a teammate or space that

will permit a teammate to collect the ball or afford to reorganize, especially in the

defensive third of the field.

2.7.4 Trapping and Collecting

Trapping and collecting is the necessary techniques to bring the ball under

complete control from teammate’s pass or opponent’s miscue. Trapping is a

technique used to gain possession and control of the ball. Collecting is a technique

of receiving and gaining control of the ball. Trapping and collecting may used

various parts of the body depending on the ball’s position upon arrival.

Key for a successful trapping and collecting:

Knowing and using your immediate space to gain possession of the ball

Utilize muscular control and bodily momentum-absorption techniques

Concentration and knowing the opponents’ whereabouts

Ball Position upon

Arrival

Body Part Use

In Flight Ball Chest

Thigh

Instep

Ground Ball The sole of the foot

The inside or outside of the foot

trap

2.7.5 Dribbling

Dribbling is a succession of forward pushes or touches in which the player

keeps the ball under control. Effective dribbling acquire both feet employing

feints, or fakes; changes of pace; and rapid, deceptive moves. Dribbling technique

also requires proper body position because the ball needs to be shielded, screened,

and protected from a defender or marker. The used of dribbling are as follows:

To advance the ball,

Move into position to get off a quick shot,

Delay the game

To take the ball into open space

2.7.6 Tackling and Marking

Tackling is a defensive technique that is used to dispossess an opponent

from the ball so that you or your teammate can gain the ball possession. Tackling

involves marking, playing the opponent with the ball until optimal time (usually

just after the opponent has touched the ball) to make your tackling move.

Tackling technique requires sound judgment, assertive play, mental toughness,

and teamwork. It is accomplished by blocking, poking, or sliding in a calculated

effort to win the ball.

2.7.7 Goal Keeping

The goalkeeper roles are to stop, control, and catch a ball within the

penalty area if it is not intentionally passed to him by a teammate. The

goalkeeper may legally use the hands. Upon collection of the ball, the goalie is

also permitted to clear the ball or initiate “instant offense” by throwing, drop

kicking, or punting the ball. The goalkeeper must know when and how to

challenge, come off the line, and cut down the attacker’s angle and effectively

smother and deflect shots. Sound judgment, common sense, mental ability as well

as physical skill are an important quality in selecting a good goalie.

2.8 Systems of Play

A system, or style, of play describes the organization and configuration of the

players on the field, as well as their responsibilities within the team structure. The team’s

players and the skill and style of the opponent determine how a coach chooses to

implement a particular style of play.

The Systems Formation (Defense-Midfield-

Forward)

Original English 2 – 3 – 5

Arsenal Football Club’s WU System 3 – 2 – 5

Italy’s more defense –minded

Catenaccio

4 – 2 – 4

System to “total futbol” 5 – 4 – 1

Offensive Principles

Moving

An attacking player must be able to move without the ball, not only to create space but

also to receive a pass from a teammate. These moves or runs are in the form of:

Near and far-post runs

Corner flag runs

Runs away and off the ball

Overlapping runs (usually from the midfield position, runs forward past the ball

being held by a teammate and into open space behind the defense)

Support and Penetration

The effectiveness of offensive principles is the need of supporting system from

teammate (at least two should always be 10-15 yards from the teammate with the ball).

With proper support and communication, combination play, such as wall passing and

“give and goes”, can be initiated and space can be created and exploited for penetration

(via passing and dribbling) behind the defense.

Finishing

Once the scoring opportunity has been created, the principles of finishing, or

scoring, must be effectively applied. This finishing principle is the critical shooting skills,

the only way to score.

Defensive Principles

Chase and Delay

As the ball is lost to the opposition, defensive play begins. Immediate chase and

pressure is applied to the player who has taken control of the ball. These chasing and

pressure effort is to delay the player with the ball and force him to the nearest touchline,

thereby preventing a quick penetration toward the goal.

Support

The chasing and delay gives opportunity to the defensive team to retreat, organize

(find, mark, and track) or regroup to support the defender playing the ball. This support

involves balance, depth, and cover in order to restrict the amount of space that the

opponent has to exploit.

Balance and Concentration

Defensive team concentration is needed to force the attacking team to its least

desirable offensive option (usually away from the center of the field, where the shooting

angle is most favorable).

Challenge

Once proper defensive support and cover are implemented, the defender playing

the ball can challenge, or tackle (the act of taking the ball away from an opposing player),

the ball. Usually the ball is challenged by the primary defender and won by the cover

person.

Counterattack

A counterattack or deliberate offensive buildup is constructed (depending on

where the ball is won) after the ball is won.

2.9 Teaching Considerations

It is important to note that teaching/coaching responsibilities needs some

considerations as follows:

SELF-TEST 1How many position player in soccer game and explain?

What are the fundamentals skills the player needs in soccer? DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

Give examples of various drills that could be employed to practice soccer skills.

The health and safety of the players

Fitness level

Learning environment

Practice can be manipulated by an instructor depending on the:

Age

Fitness and skills level

Season

The particular goals to be accomplished daily or long range

2.10 Conclusion

Since it is the most popular sport in world soccer is the most played sport of

school children. Some play for their own satisfaction, enjoyment and some to challenge

them to empower their talent. As for these children, teacher or coaches need to help in

monitoring and developing their skill and ability. With a proper guidance this young

children might become a good soccer player in the future. Thus, teacher or coaches need

to commit and play their responsibility to the younger.

CHAPTER 3

ATHLETICS - TRACK AND FIELD

3.0

Introduction

Athletics is defined in five disciplines; track and field, road running, race walking,

cross country running, and mountain running. All forms of athletics are individual sports

with the exception of relays races. Athletics or specifically the track and field is the core

and the most common in school. The track and field competitions emerged in the late 19 th

century. Each school has their annual sport day that especially for track and field event.

3.1 Track and Field Event

The track and field events involve running, jumping, and throwing activities

where running activities make up the track event while jumping and throwing activities

make up the field events.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you complete this module will be able to:

Explain and describe the basic athletics game

Be able know how to play the game

Be able to know the rules of each track and field game

3.1.1 Running Events

Running events can be divided into 5 main categories; sprints, hurdles,

relays, middle distances and long distances.

Types of Event Events Description

Sprints 100 meter

200 meter

400 meter

80 – 100 percent anaerobic energy

expenditure

Maximum intensity

Middle

Distances

800 meter

1500 meter

Require approximately 50% aerobic

and 50% anaerobic (speed and

endurance)

Long distances 3000 meter

5000 meter

10000 meter

Marathon

Endurance event

Aerobic in nature

Hurdles 110 meter (Men)

100 meter

(Women)

400 meter

The heights of hurdles, the distance

between them, and the total distance

run, vary among men, women, youth,

master, and senior athletes

Relays 4x100 meter Consist of four members

4x400 meter Each runner carries a baton a specific

distance, passing it to the next runner

within a marked zone until the last

runner carries it across the finish line

Steeplechase 28 hurdle jumps and 7 water jumps

5 jumps per lap

Water jump in fourth

Hurdles height vary by category (men

and women)

Water jump hurdle should be 3.66m in

width, 3.06m in length

The water should be 70cm in depth

immediately in front of the hurdle and

slope to the level of the field at the

farther end

The hurdle should be firmly fixed in

front of the water

3.1.2 Jumping Events

Jumping events consists of four types of jump; long jump, triple jump,

high jump and the pole vault.

Types of Event Description

Long Jump The runway varies from 36.6m – 48.8m (men) and 27.4m –

42.7m (women)

The takeoff board, made of wood or other rigid material –

wide 19.8 – 20.32cm; long 1.22m, thick 10cm

The landing area must not be less than 2.74m in width and

identical in elevation with the takeoff board

Filled with sand

Jumping styles:

Sail

Hitch kick

Hang

Triple Jump Has three phases

Hop – landing on the takeoff foot

Step – landing on the non-takeoff foot

Jump – into the landing pit

High Jump Two primary styles of jumping

Straddle

Fosbury Flop – used back layout technique with a curve

approach that allowing the athlete to use more speed in

the approach and provided for a very efficient bar

clearance

Pole Vault The combination of speed, strength, coordination and agility

make up this event

Runways vary 38.1 – 42.7m in length

The poles made up of fiberglass and have 14 – 16 feet in

length

3.1.3 Throwing Events

The throwing events include four types of throw; shot put, discus throw,

hammers throw and the javelin.

Types of Event Description

Shot Put The shots are made of a cast iron, bronze, or brass shell

with a lead center

The weight are vary:

Men – 7.26kg

High school boy – 5.45kg

Women – 4kg

The shot are thrown from a circle 2.13m in diameter with a

stop board in front

Discus Throw Usually made of wood with a metal rim

The weight are vary

Men – minimum weight 2kg with 219-221mm in

diameter

High school boy – 1.62kg in weight with 209-211mm

in diameter

Women – 1kg in weight with 180-182mm in diameter

Discus throw from a circle 2.5m in diameter

Hammer The hammer consists of a round weight attached to a

Throw triangular handle by a wire

The weight and length are vary:

Men – 7.27kg not exceed 1.22m

High school boy – 5.45kg in length

Women – 4kg and length may not exceed 1.195m

The hammer is thrown from a circle 2.13m in diameter

Javelin The javelin consists of three parts:

Head – metal head terminating in a sharp point

Shaft – constructed of metal and fixed to head

Cord grip – should be about the center of mass and

shall not exceed the diameter of the shaft by more than

8mm with uniform thickness

The length and weight are vary:

Men – 2.7m in length and weight of 800g with a cord

grip of 16cm

Women – 2.3m in length and weight of 600g with a

cord grip of 15cm

3.1.4 Other Track-and-Field Events

Events Description

Race Walking

3 km-10 km

track

10km-50km

Through a progression of steps so taken that

unbroken contact with the ground is maintained

The advancing leg must be straightened (not bent at

the knee) from the moment of first contact with the

road ground until the leg is in the vertical upright position

Failure to adhere to this rule lead to warning and

disqualification

Decathlon and

Heptathlon

The tests of all-around skill and ability

Decathlon - 10 events run over 2 days in the

following order:

Day 1 – 100m, long jump, shot put, high jump,

400m

Day 2 – 100m hurdle, discus, pole vault, javelin,

1500m

Heptathlon – 7 events scheduled in 2 days as follow:

Day 1 – 100m hurdles, high jump, shot put,

200m

Day 2 – long jump, javelin, 800m

3.2 Basic Techniques

3.2.1 Sprinting

Start

Incorporates reaction time, block clearance time, and velocity out of the

blocks

The use of starting blocks is essential because it provide a solid base from

which to push off and prevent slipping or injury to the runner

Starting fundamentals

o “On your mark”

The runner moves in front of the blocks and backs into position and

place the feet in the blocks one at a time

Feet straight, toes in contact with the surface of the track

The hands are placed directly under the shoulders, with the fingers

and thumbs bridged just behind the starting line about shoulder –

width apart

The arms are fully extended, with the weight evenly distributed

between the hands, rear knee, and foot

The front knee relaxed, extending just inside the forearm

The head in natural alignment with the trunk, the eyes are focused

about a yard in front of the starting line

o “Set”

The runners raise the hips to the desired level and extends the knee

joints to the appropriate angle

Shoulders move slightly forward in front of the hands in order to

provide a horizontal component

o “Go”

Acceleration

Usually sprinters reach their maximum velocity between 60-70 meters

The main objective of sprinting is to accelerate over the longest possible

distance in the shortest time possible

The acceleration pattern is sets up by the clearance of the blocks with a

maximum force in a balanced positions

Speed is the product of stride length (distance between the touchdown of the

toes for each stride) and stride frequency

The average of stride length, 2.20-2.38m

Stride length vary because of individual muscle strength, leg length,

flexibility, speed of running, and any injuries

Velocity Maintenance

Once maximum velocity reached (50-70 meters), the runner can only maintain

maximum velocity for a few strides (about 15-25 meters) before fatigue cause

of gradual deceleration

Deceleration can be minimized by relaxation, conditioning, and concentration

on proper technique

Mental and Psychological Aspects

3.2.2 200 Meters

Runner must be able to run the curve efficiently and carry the speed for an

additional 100 meters

In order to cut down the distance run, the runner must run close to the lane

line as possible on the curve

This technically can maintain balance and fight the centrifugal force that

tends to push the athlete outward, the athlete should look inside, lean inside,

and drive outside arm across the body to help maintain balance

3.2.3 400 Meters

The runner must develop the ability to distribute his or her speed and energy

over the total racing distance in the most efficient manner

Need pace judgment and effort distribution skills

For the first 150 meters should be run in a relaxed and smooth manner while

trying to maintain rhythm and velocity with the least effort

Gradually increase the arm drive and stride frequency at the 200-meter mark

For the final 100 meters, the runner must stay as relaxed as possible and try

to maintain form and concentration

Success of this event requires maximum development of the anaerobic

endurance energy system

3.2.4 Relays

Relays require team work and timing

Employ two types of baton passes:

o Non-visual pass

not seen by the receiver, and it is used in sprint relays

Baton must be passed in a 20-meter zone

The outgoing runner has an additional 10-meter zone in which to

accelerate

Alternate hands, first and third runners carrying baton in the right

hand and the second and forth runners carrying the baton in the left

hand

Outgoing runner accelerate maximally into and through the passing

zone as the incoming runner hits the go mark

Visual or vocal cues can be used to initiate the pass

The more efficient technique – extended arm position with open-

palm, thumb down hand position because it provides a bigger

target, a natural hand-baton fit, better control and a longer free

distance between runner

The incoming runner uses an upsweep push into target hand of the

outgoing runner

The main objective is to keep the baton moving through the

passing zone at top speed

o Visual pass

A pass that is seen by the receiver and it is primarily used in long

relay

The outgoing runner should turn and go as the incoming runner

hits the go mark

The outgoing runner accelerates into 3-5 strides and turns about 10

meters into the zone and reaches back with the left hand, chest

facing the curb

The hand should reach high into the face of the incoming runner as

it provides a good target with the fingers extended and the thumb

open in the natural reaching position

The incoming runner places the baton into the target hand of the

outgoing runner and as he/she turns, he/she must judge the strength

and speed of the incoming runner

The outgoing runner has about 10 meter to slow down or speed up

to complete the pass

As it is completed and the runner is clear of traffic, the baton

should be switched to the right hand, and the runner should sprint

hard through the first turn and establish position

3.2.5 Hurdles

Requires outstanding sprinting ability, rhythm, flexibility, coordination,

balance, and efficient technique

The start is basically the same as for sprinting with an adjustment to achieve

the correct stride number to the first hurdle, 8 strides is the most common

pattern

The lead leg should be placed in the rear block in preparation for 8 strides to

the first hurdle

The takeoff distance from the hurdle is important to establish an efficient

flight path over the hurdle as the hurler’s size, speed of approach, and lead

leg action determine the proper takeoff distance for each hurdler

Hurdle clearance

o Depends on proper takeoff and lead-leg action

o Takeoff – high on the balls of the feet, highly flexed lead knee and large

split between legs as this lifts the center of gravity high into efficient

flight path over the hurdle while minimizing vertical forces

o Lead leg should not swing up with straight or locked leg, and should not

swing inside or outside

o Lead leg should be directly in front of the hip, with the toe straight up

o The take off leg is driven up and around to the side of the body in a

tightly folded position

o The toe of the takeoff leg is turned out

Arm action

o Most efficient technique – single arm action as it stimulates the running

action

o The lead arm is driven forward about shoulder level, with a bent elbow

o The takeoff arm swings backward for balance and rhythm

o The hurdler leans forward with the shoulders square

Landing

o Land on the ball of the foot with the center of mass (hips) over or

slightly in front of the landing foot

o Takeoff leg comes through with a high knee action and flows into a full

sprint stride

o The hurdler takes 3 sprint strides between hurdles, with the last stride

being shorter

Hurler should sprint through the first hurdle out of the blocks, between the

hurdles, and off the last hurdle through the finish line

3.2.6 Endurance Events

The main emphasis of the endurance training is on the development of the

aerobic metabolic oxygen transport system (the lungs, heart, and vascular

systems). There is a strong correlation between a high aerobic capacity and

success in endurance events.

Long Continuous Runs

The major part of endurance runners’ training programs where they build a

strong aerobic base first

The runs range from 3 to 10 miles for middle distance runner, and 10 to 20

miles for longer distance runners

These runs may average a pace of 5 to 7 minutes per mile for men and 6 to 9

minutes per mile for women depending on the level of competition and

fitness

Interval Training

Precise measurement of each phase of work is essential to get the specific

training effect to produce the developmental heart stimulus

The basic elements:

o The distance run – groups of 100, 200, or 400 m

o The recovery interval – 30, 60, 90 seconds. Heart-rate recovery of 120

beats/minute have also been used

o The pace of the run – how fast each interval is run depends on the

fitness of the athlete and the race pace desired

o The number of repetition – the number of times the run is repeated

depends on the planned workload

Fartlek

Fartlek alternates hard and easy running over varied and interesting terrains

It takes the athlete away from the confines of a track to a more natural

setting

Fartlek means “speed play”

The runner can develop speed and endurance at the same time in a fun and

stimulating environment

It is a flexible and wide ranging system

3.2.7 Jumping Events

Long Jump

Approach

The distance of the run-up is determined by strength, skill, conditioning, and

the acceleration pattern of the jumper

The main objective of the approach is to develop maximum controllable

speed at takeoff

Techniques that have been used to achieve this goal: gradual buildup, an

explosive buildup, or a two-to four-step walk-in to the first check mark

The key factors are a fast, relaxed, consistent stride pattern

Takeoff

An efficient take off action is one that allows the jumper to get lift at the

appropriate angle with a minimum loss of horizontal velocity.

The position of the takeoff foot and the center of mass at takeoff are the

most important technical considerations for successful jumps

A long/short stride pattern in the last two strides should be used as it can

lowers the center of mass on the next-to-last stride and catches the hips on

the rise in the final stride.

The takeoff action should be fast, with a short duration on the board

Flight in the air

Three types of in-the-air styles: the sail, the hang, and the hitch kick have

been used effectively, and each has its strengths and weaknesses. All styles are

basically used to counter forward rotation created at takeoff. They allow the

athlete to maintain balance and prepare the legs for an efficient landing.

Landing

The most effective landing position is with the feet as far as possible in

front of the center of mass (hips) without falling backward into the pit.

The landing action is initiated by extending the legs parallel to the pit or

slightly above parallel, with the toes up

The head, chest, and arms are thrust forward

The arms sweep down and back, then forward, as the heels contact the sand

At this point, the knees flex and allow the hips to move forward

The athlete can fall forward into a tight tuck position or execute a sit out

technique that employs a pivot to the side with a hip thrust that strikes the

sand with the buttocks near or past the feet

Triple Jump

Triple jump require the lower takeoff angle and three jumps of an even

distribution of effort and conservation of horizontal velocity on each jump

Te triple jumper must takeoff and land on the same foot in the first jump; on

the second jump the jumper must land on the opposite foot; and on the third

jump the jumper may land in any manner

The triple jumper may also posses good balance and a high level of legs

strength and power

Approach

The takeoff in the first phase is characterized by a single or double arm

action

The single arm action is recommended as it is more natural extension of

the run

The stronger leg should be used for this phase

First Jump

The jumper runs off the board with a single arm action and pulls the

takeoff leg tightly through under the buttocks to a thigh-thigh position in

front of the hips

The fore leg is extended slightly forward, and the ankle is cocked

The arms are simultaneously extended backward into a double arm

position

The jumper is now prepared to execute the second phase

Second Jump

Initiated by a forward swinging of the arms, an explosive firing and

pawing action by the extended takeoff leg and flexed ankle into the ground

under the body, and a forward drive of the opposite knee into a high-thigh

position

The jumper must hold this position as long as possible to achieve the

greatest distance possible in this phase

The jumper must again extend both arms backward, and the foreleg of the

lead leg extends forward, with the ankle cocked

Third Jump

Begins with the forward swing of the arms, the driving, pawing action of

the lead leg under the body, and the forward and upward drive of the

opposite knee.

The flight path and landing of the third phase is similar to the long jump

Usually used a sit-out landing technique because lack of momentum to

carry them over the legs in the traditional tuck position

High Jump

Two basic styles of high jumping that have produced the highest jumps are

the flop and the dive straddle.

Plant and takeoff

The jumper should plant the outside foot almost parallel to the bar, 0.9 to 1.2

m directly in front of the near standard

The jumper plants with the heel and rotates to the toe

The ankle and the knee extend fully to the toe for maximum drive

The inside knee is driven up and across the body at takeoff as it rotates the

body into a back-to-the-bar position

To ensure maximal takeoff force with the most efficient takeoff angle to

clear the bar, the lead knee must be driven away from the bar, and the body

must be perpendicular to the ground at the takeoff

Bar clearance

The jumper prepares to clear the bar as soon as he or she leaves the ground

From the back-to-the-bar position, the jumper drops the head back and lifts

the hips to clear the bar

Spreading the knees with the heels kept close together facilitates flowing

into this position

The arms and hands rest on the thighs

Once the hips clear the bar, the jumper drops the hips and lifts the arms and

legs to clear the feet (action-reaction)

The jumper lands on the shoulder and back in the pit

Pole Vaulting

The five phase of pole vaulting are as follow:

Approach

Approach that allows the greatest buildup of controlled speed should be

used.

The handhold should be slightly wider than shoulder width

Pole plant

The pole should be plant early and out in front of the body

The upper arm is extended as straight as possible overhead or slightly in

front of the head

The plant foot should be directly under or behind the upper hand at takeoff

Swing

The lower arm should be locked after the takeoff as it aids in the transfer of

linear velocity to angular velocity

The knee opposite the plant foot should be driven up, whereas the plant foot

is left hanging until the next phase

Rollback

The hips should be brought higher than the head and the knees flexed into

the chest

The vaulter should remain in the rollback position until the pole is well into

its recoil

Pull-up/push-up/push-off

This final phase start with a pull-up which should be done when the pole is

almost straight for maximum efficiency and greatest height potential

The push-up is done much like the handstand push-up

As the vaulter reach maximum height, the vaulter push-off, dropping the

legs and rotating around the bar

3.2.8 Throwing Events

Shot Put

The technique for throwing the shot is a putting action (elbow and forearm

extension). Two basic techniques are: the glide and the spin.

The glide

The thrower starts at the back of the circle facing the opposite direction of

the sector

The knees should be flexed and the trunk leaning forward over the right leg

The throw is started by driving the left leg in the direction of the throw

At the same time the right leg should begin a driving action

The landing and throw

o The right foot lands near the center of the circle, and the left foot

makes contact with the inside edge of the toe board

o The hips and the body begin to rotate in the direction of the throw

o The forearm and elbow of the right arm should remain directly behind

the shot

o The throwing arm extends explosively and chases after the shot, and

the wrist is snapped

o During the follow-through and reverse, the thrower should lower the

center of mass and extend the arms and legs to maintain balance and

stay in the circle

The spin

The thrower starts at the back of the circle and rotates into the power

position like the discus thrower instead of gliding

The remaining movements are the same as the glide so as the foot

movements

Discus Throw

The hand is placed on the discus with the fingers slightly separated and the

first joint of each finger curled slightly over the rim

The thumb rests on top of the discus and the wrist is slightly cocked toward

the little finger to lose contact with the discus

The thrower starts in the extreme back position of the circle and will

eventually complete one-and-three-quarters turns before the release

The beginning of the spin is usually preceded by a few preliminary swings

of the discus back and forth to establish a rhythm

The beginning position of the spin should be with the feet slightly wider

than shoulder width and the top part of the body rotated more than 180

degrees to the right

The spin is initiated by the legs and the hips as the weight is shifted to the

left

The upper body remains relaxed, and the throwing arm trails behind with the

discus at shoulder height

The right foot will be lifted off the ground and driven forward toward the

center of the ring to establish a new support as the weight continues to the

left

Before the right foot contacts the ground, the thrower will face the front of

the ring, pass through this position, and again face the back of the ring

Once the right foot contact with the ground, the performer pivots on this

foot

The left foot comes off the ground to eventually be placed at the front of the

circle a little pass the centerline

Once the left foot makes contact, the thrower enters the explosive part of the

throw

With the right foot now planted at the center of the circle and the left foot

planted at the front of the circle, the thrower explodes and accelerates the

turning of the upper body against the firmly anchored lower body

The discus at the beginning of this explosion should be about shoulder

height, then it is dropped to hip height, and release at shoulder height

Javelin

The most important aspect in javelin throw is the velocity of the release

that developed in the run-up, the torque created by the thrower’s body and the

transfer of these forces over the thrower’s plant leg. The angle of release is

dependent on the ability of the thrower.

Approach

The approach covers 33.5 to 40 m, with crossover steps in the final 5 or 6

strides

The crossover steps allow the thrower to place the body in a strong throwing

position

Plant

The thrower plants the leg opposite the throwing arm in front of the body

with a long last stride

The javelin is pulled back, and the shoulders are rotated back to create

torque in the body

Throw

The throw initiated by an explosive push by the rear leg that drives the body

over the plant leg

The shoulders and the arms follow the leg drive as they rotate into the throw

The final wrist flick and body follow-through further accelerate the javelin

at release

Grip

Varieties of grip are used, but for all of them the hand must be in contact

with the cord grip

The palm should face upward, and the thrower should pull straight through

the shaft to the tip into the proper release angle and direction

The final wrist and finger drive should be against the cord grip and through

the tip, to impart spin of the javelin and stabilize its flight

Hammer Throw

Hammer throw require a high degree of skill as well as balance, strength,

power, speed, and very specific motor patterns. The hammer is a rhythm event

thus it require many hours of drills to coordinate the balanced movements of the

body. The basic parts of the throw are preliminary swings, entry, turns, low and

high points of the swings and the release. The throw must be viewed as a whole,

linked by its various parts. Technique:

The thrower begins from a position facing the opposite direction of the

throw and toward the edge of the circle

Feet approximately shoulder-width apart, arms extended, and body weight

over the leg on the side of the hammer

The throw initiated with one or two preliminary swings around the head

while facing the starting position in the back of the circle

The thrower then accelerates into three-and-a-half complete turns with the

hammer

The hammer thrower attempts to build maximum velocity in the hammer

head during the turns

While rotating through the three-and-a-half turns, the hammer moves

progressively from a low point to a high point and reaches a final angle of

approximately 45 degrees at the release

3.3 Basic Rules

Events Rules

Running Events Starting blocks must be used for all races up to and

including 400 meters

Up to 400 meters, starting command is “on your mark,

set” and the gun fired about 2 seconds after everyone is

up and motionless

Races over 400 meters, the starting command is “set”

and the gun fired

2 methods of timing are considered official, hand timing

(manual) and fully automatic timing. Hand times are

recorded to the next tenth of a second. Add .24 seconds

to hand times to convert to fully automatic times

A false start is declared if the runner jumps the gun. A

runner is disqualified after the second false start

A competitor who cuts in front of another runner

without proper clearance of one full strides shall be

disqualified

In all races run in lanes, runners shall start and finish in

their assigned lanes

Hurdles All competitors must clear, within their lane, the

required number of hurdles

The hurdler may not run around the side of the hurdles,

trail the leg below the level of the hurdle bar, run out of

her or his lane, impede another hurdler, or deliberately

knock down a hurdle with the hand or foot

The entire body must pass over the hurdle

Relays The baton must be passed in 20-meter passing zone

The runner must remain in his or her lane and not

interfere with other team exchanges

The baton’s position, not the body of either athlete, is

the decisive point in determining if the exchange

occurred within the zone

The baton must be carried in the hand, and if dropped,

must be recovered by the athlete who dropped it

The last runner of the race must have the baton

High Jump A legal high jump is one in which competitor jumps

from one foot

The crossbar must be cleared without displacement

It is a failed attempt when, after clearing the bar and

landing in the pit, the jumper stumbles against the

uprights and displaces the crossbar

Pole Vault The crossbar must be cleared without displacement

either with the body or the pole

It is a failed attempt if the vaulter leaves the ground in

an attempt to vault and fails to clear the bar

A trial or failure may not be counted if a vaulter’s pole

breaks during an attempt to clear the bar

The pole may be of any material or combination of

materials, and it may be of any size and weight

The landing pad measured beyond the vertical plane of

the stopboard shall be a minimum of 4.88 m wide and

3.66 m deep

Long and Triple

Jump

The jumper’s shoe must not extend over the foul line

The jumper must leave the pit under control beyond his

or her mark made in the sand

The triple jumper must take off and land on the same

foot in the first jump, and any landing is permissible

following the final jump

In attempting a jump, it is foul jump if the jumpers runs

beyond the foul line extended

Shot Put and

Discus

Must start from a stationary position

Must not leave the circle until the implement has

touched the ground

Must not exit from the back half of the circle once the

implement has landed

The implement must land within the sector

The proper implement must be used

The shot must be held in close proximity to the chin, and

the throwing arm must not drop behind or below the

shoulder level

No tape is allowed on hands unless there is an open cut

or wound. Gloves are not permitted

There are no form requirements while throwing the

discus

Must not touch the tip of the stopboard or ring, or

outside the circle

Javelin The throw must land within the sector

The javelin must be held by the cord grip

A regulation javelin must be used

It shall be a foul and not measured if during the attempt

to throw, the thrower touches with any part of the body,

any surface of the foul line, the run-up lines, or the area

outside of the foul line or run-up lines

Hammer Throw The throw must land within the sector

During the throw, the competitor must not leave the

circle

The hammer must be legal

Gloves may be used

3.4 Safety Precautions

Proper warm up with a few flexibility and conditioning exercises prior to practice or

competition to prepare the body and prevent injury

Wear shoes that are suitable for the individual events and make sure they fit

properly

Take proper care of equipment

Use caution in all throwing events. Carry the implements back to the thrower and

make sure the throwing area is clear

Check all jumping surfaces for stability and firmness. Take special precautions for

wet, slippery conditions

3.5 Teaching Considerations

Teaching and coaching track and field require the basic understanding of the

physical and mental responses to training as well as a general knowledge of exercise

physiology and biomechanical principles need to be used as a guideline in planning

training programs. These guidelines should include the following principles:

Principles Descriptions

Specificity of

Training

Training should be specific to the requirements of the

event in terms of the development of strength, power,

speed, flexibility, and the aerobic and anaerobic

energy systems

Training Loads

The appropriate intensity, frequency, and duration of

training should be well planned

The principle of gradual progressive overloads should

be followed to allow for training adaptation

Individuality Each individual has unique ability and skills

A sensitivity to genetic and acquired differences

should be considered

Body size and composition and muscle type should be

evaluated

Individual temperament and tolerances should also be

considered

Adaptation to

Stress

Adequate rest and recovery cycles should be included

in the training to allow for positive adaptation

The “hard day, easy day” principle is a good policy to

follow

Overtraining can lead to injury, staleness, and burnout

thus athlete needs regular recovery periods, both

physically and psychologically

3.6 Class or Team Management

As to achieve the various training goals, management requires a careful planning.

The following tasks should be considered:

Setting individual and group goals

Designing daily, weekly, and monthly practice schedule

Providing for equipment needs

Staffing and teaching strategies

Proper selection and grouping of athletes into appropriate events

Testing and evaluation of performances

Motivational techniques and strategies

SELF-TEST 1Describe the basic rules of hurdles

What are the fundamentals skills of throw event? Explain all.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:Outline and discuss a training program for selected track and field events.

3.7 Conclusion

As a core sport in school, it requires every single teacher to at least have

knowledge of skill, basic techniques and rules of the athletic track and field events. This

is important to ensure teacher can administer student athletes for the school sport day.

Besides, teacher can guide and trained potential student to be a successful athletes. Since

athletic develop fitness as whole, teacher can help student to stay fit and healthy by this

activity.the correct technique help to reduce the pain of injury as well. Therefore, teacher

needs to have the basic skill and technique for this athletic track and field event.

CHAPTER 4

RECREATION – OUTDOOR

4.0 Introduction

Experiential education is learning by doing or by participating in an experience.

Through direct experiences with nature, people, objects, things, places and by actually

learning by doing, scientific evidence has shown that the learning process is faster, what

is learned is retained longer, and there is greater appreciation and understanding for those

things that are learned firsthand. Outdoor education is a form of experiential education

that is important in society today.

4.1 Outdoor Education

Outdoor education usually refers to organized learning in an outdoor setting.

Outdoor Learning has become a more contemporary term for arguably the same thing,

but it reflects well the distinction between discovery/active learning (which Ardroy

promotes) and didactic education, which is more the domain of mainstream education.

Outdoor education programs usually involve residential or journey-based experiences in

which students participate in a variety of adventurous, memorable challenges. The

community aspect of living in a residential environment for a period of time should not

be down-played either.

Definition of Outdoor Education

Outdoor education can be simply described as experiential learning in the

outdoors. The term ‘outdoor education’, however, is widely used to refer to a range of

organized activities, which take place in a variety of ways, in predominantly outdoor

LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you complete this module will be able to:

Explain and describe the basic of outdoor recreation

Be able to know the benefit of outdoor

Be able to know the values of ourdoor

environments. Outdoor education programs sometimes involve residential or journey-

based experiences in which students participate in a variety of adventurous challenges in

the form of outdoor activities such as hiking, climbing,  canoeing,  ropes courses,

and group games. Outdoor education draws upon the philosophy, theory, and practices

of experiential education and environmental education.

Outdoor recreation activities have been defined as those activities that:

are undertaken outside the confines of buildings (i.e., in the outdoors);

do not involve organized competition or formal rules

can be undertaken without the existence of any built facility or infrastructure

may require large areas of land, water and/or air;

may require outdoor areas of predominantly unmodified natural landscape

The outdoor education must encompass:

an educational element which stimulates personal and social development

an experience which includes themes of “outdoor”, “adventure”, and “education”

learning as an experiential process which utilizes direct experiences

an increased self and social awareness, plus increased awareness of community and

environment

4.2 Benefits of Outdoor Education

Health Benefits

Personal health, including psychological health, is one of the important outcomes

of outdoor recreation participation.

Psychological health can be demonstrated as:

Stress reduction–. Relaxation, rest and revitalization all happen as people

participate in outdoor activities. The influence of a natural environment, the

opportunity to escape the pressures of urban life and the sense of achievement that

occurs through participation all contribute to increasing the ability of individuals

to deal with the world around them.

Good self-esteem and positive self-image–. Achievement, stress reduction,

positive lifestyle options and choices all contribute to individuals’ feelings of

having control over their life and of success.

Life satisfaction, inspiration and self-realization–. Many individuals use outdoor

recreation as a major motivating force. Instead of describing themselves as a

teacher or a banker many people prefer to describe themselves as a rock climber

or a bushwalker. The personal rewards and satisfaction they achieve through their

participation mean that many participants regard it as an integral component of

their life, providing the impetus for work and participation in their community,

and the goal at the end of the week can all be provided by their activity.

Physical health can be demonstrated in all active people through:

reduced heart disease

decreased obesity

greater fitness

Environmental Benefits

Outdoor recreation participants have historically demonstrated their willingness to

preserve the conservation values of sites through substitution, maintenance and

rehabilitation projects arising through an active communication and consultation

process with landholders.

Outdoor recreation participants are likely to be highly motivated to assist in

conservation initiatives on a site to which they feel attached. Collaboration and

consultation with these groups and individuals are likely to result in successful

communication of and compliance with restrictions on sites with conservation

values that are incompatible with outdoor recreation use

Outdoor recreation activities based in natural environments raise the profile and

community importance of looking after these places, providing insurance for a

new and improved environmental future.

4.3 The Values of Outdoor Education

Promote active learning through direct personal experience and offer excitement, fun and

adventure within a framework of safety

Active learning and adventure outdoors can take place in a variety of environments:

rural and urban, local and more remote. Outdoor education, training and recreation

involve both young people and adults in a wide range of experiences, including

adventurous activities on land and water and activities with an environmental focus.

Methods used include skills-focused learning, problem solving, team building and

self-reliant journeys and activities, with residential experience an especially valued

feature

Challenging experience outdoors impacts powerfully upon a young person’s

intellectual, physical, spiritual, social and moral development

Use of the outdoors makes a major contribution to physical and environmental

education and enhances many other curriculum areas. It contributes to personal

growth and social awareness and develops skills for life and the world of work.

Qualities such as a sense of responsibility and a purpose in life are nurtured.

There is also a great deal of intrinsic enjoyment and satisfaction to be experienced

from participation in outdoor activities.

Building self confidence and self esteem is fundamental to any young person’s

development

Outdoor activities provide valuable alternative, often non-competitive, avenues

for achievement, as well as opportunities to develop independence and self

reliance. Through successfully facing up to the challenges which outdoor

activities provide, overcoming fears and apprehensions along the way, young

people make major strides in confidence, with implications for all aspects of their

development.

A positive attitude to learning is essential if young people are to make the most of

their education

Participation in exciting and enjoyable outdoor activities with teachers, youth

workers and peers reinforces a positive attitude to education and contributes

significantly to the general ethos of a school or youth group. Direct experience out

of doors stimulates and reinforces learning across many areas of the curriculum,

and the use of the outdoors encourages young people to take greater responsibility

for their own learning

Awareness of the needs and contributions of others and the ability to sustain effective

relationships, at work and in the family, are vital in today’s society

Experience in the outdoors provides rich opportunities for personal and social

development through carefully structured group work in challenging situations.

Trust, care, tolerance and the willingness to give and accept support are all

encouraged and anti-social behavior is challenged. Opportunities are presented to

exhibit and develop effective inter-personal behavior and to work co-operatively

and effectively in teams.

The purposeful use of leisure time is increasingly seen as making an important

contribution to a fulfilling lifestyle

Outdoor recreation introduces young people to a range of worthwhile leisure

pursuits which will enrich their future lives, and develops the skills and

knowledge essential for safe participation. Outdoor exercise contributes greatly to

health and fitness and continuing participation in outdoor pursuits encourages the

maintenance of a healthy lifestyle into middle age and beyond.

Our relationship with the environment is a key issue facing tomorrow’s citizens

Active learning and adventure outdoors introduces young people to the

environment in a way which develops understanding appreciation, awe, wonder

and respect. It fosters sensitivity to the environment, helps young people to see

themselves in a global context and helps to develop citizens with an awareness of

the need for sustainable use of the world’s natural resources

SELF-TEST 1Explain outdoor recreation education.

Explain benefit outdoor recreation.

Tomorrow’s successful citizens will possess the adaptability to cope with a rapidly

changing world of work and the responsibility to be an effective member of a

community

Challenging outdoor experiences promote the development of communication,

problem solving and decision making skills which have currency across a range of

occupations. They encourage a positive “opting in” and “can do” attitude. Young

people’s horizons are broadened, new challenges come to be relished rather than

shunned, and perseverance and determination are reinforced. Values and attitudes

developed in a context of shared endeavor help to form a sound basis for

responsible citizenship

4.4 Conclusion

Experience of outdoor education is both unique to the individual and equally just

as prone to development and change. Outdoor education is the blending of both adventure

and environment approaches into a program of activities or experiences. Through

exposure to the outdoor setting, individual learn about their relationship with the natural

environment, relationships between the various concepts of natural ecosystems and

personal relationships with others and their inner self. Outdoor education as one means of

assisting each student in developing an attitude of personal responsibility for our finite

and fragile environment. This quality need to be adding to the curriculum view of the

school teacher.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:What are the values that you gain in outdoor recreation activity? Explain in school based program.

CHAPTER 5

RECREATION – SAFETY

5.0 Introduction

LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you complete this module will be able to:

Explain and describe the importance of safety in outdoor

Be able know the principles of safety in outdoor

Be able to know the leadership function in safety outdoor

Safety management has been continuously developed and has emerged as a

distinct discipline. Many organization realize that the preventing or avoiding looses

improves the bottom line, but controlling hazards, managing risks and maintaining

proactive safety program are essential activities still overlooked by many top leadership

management. A well organized safety program plays a vital role in meeting the

challenges of providing effective patient care and other services within a safe

environment. Integrating safety into the care environment using a systems approach

remains the most proven method for achieving these desired results. The challenges

facing organizations include:

Making safety an integral part of job performance.

Understanding accidents and their relationship to cost, time and performance factors.

Educating all personnel on basic safety management concepts and principle.

Increasing involvement of staff and departments in the safety program.

Establishing a functional safety committee that can make a difference.

Implementing as effective system of information collection and evaluation.

Conducting safety related causation analyses.

Applying system safety orientation, training and education sessions.

Focusing on unsafe behaviors as well as hazard control.

Definition of Safety

Safety is the state of being "safe", the condition of being protected against

physical, social, spiritual, financial, political, emotional, occupational, psychological,

educational or other types or consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or

any other event which could be considered non-desirable. Safety can also be defined to

be the control of recognized hazards to achieve an acceptable level of risk. This can take

the form of being protected from the event or from exposure to something that causes

health or economical losses. It can include protection of people or of possessions.

Types of Safety

It is important to distinguish between products that meet standards, that are safe,

and those that merely feel safe. The highway safety community uses these terms:

Normative safety

Normative safety is a term used to describe products or designs that meet

applicable design standards and protection.

Substantive safety

Substantive or objective safety means that the real-world safety history is

favorable, whether or not standards are met.

Perceived safety

Perceived or subjective safety refers to the level of comfort of users. For

example, traffic signals are perceived as safe, yet under some circumstances, they can

increase traffic crashes at an intersection. Traffic roundabouts have a generally favorable

safety record yet often make drivers nervous.

5.1 Safety Management Principle

Accidents, injuries and loss events occur as a result of management deficiencies

and reveal the existing of managerial and leadership problems. The following actions

should be taken to minimize the likelihood of accidents:

Correct the causal factors to make better use of human and material resources.

Understanding that placing blame never addresses real safety problem.

Use analysis to help pinpoint system problems.

Improve safety throughout the organization by integrating safety programs into all

functions within the organization.

Improve organizational performance and the bottom line.

Determine ways to reduce the costs of accidents, insurance, equipment, hiring and

training.

Bolster worker morale and promote good public relations.

5.2 Management Efficiencies and Safety

Management deficiencies and inefficiencies lead to errors of omission and

commission. Management deficiencies set the stage for accident events. Most accidents

result in interruptions and the loss of someone’s time. Good management eliminates the

causes of accidents while poor management generates accidents. The occurrence of

accidents has a domino effect on the entire organization.

Safety Program Fundamental

Top management must demonstrate a total commitment to the organization’s

safety program. An effective program considers maintaining worker safety to be a

fundamental responsibility of the organization:

Workplace Analysis

Management must ensure that effective workplace hazard surveys are conducted.

Hazard information must be accurately analyzed to better permit the organization to

anticipate and prevent accidents.

Accidents Prevention and Hazard Control

Organizations should stress accident prevention and safe work practices to all

employees.

Actions should be taken to control hazards through the design of work areas or job

task itself.

When it is not feasible to eliminate hazardous conditions, the organization must

implement measures to protect individuals from unsafe conditions or unhealthy

exposures.

Employee Training

Training is the key to success. The mature of the training depends on the type, size

and complexity of the organization.

Training is also based on potential hazards, risks or exposures present

Coordinating Safety

Coordinating hazard control and safety activities that address behaviors can be

difficult for a number of reasons. Coordination can’t take place unless the cultural and

communication aspects of the organization are understood. The coordinating function of

management is the vehicle to change behaviors and expectations. Result occurs when the

culture is understood, communication is effective and coordination takes place.

Management commitment provides the motivating force for organizing and controlling

safety related programs. A clearly stated worksite policy regarding safety and working

conditions demonstrates the priority management has placed on safety in relation to

other organizational values.

Policy Statements

Good policy statements express a belief or philosophy. An understanding

philosophy regarding safety provides the foundation for an organizational policy

statement and a good policy statement provides direction for meeting established safety

goals or objectives. Senior leadership must approve the safety policy statement.

Developing a Safety Policy Statement:

Develop a safety policy that effectively expresses a belief or philosophy.

Publish the policy in writing, using clear and easy to understand language.

Be sure the policy is written using broad terms and that it focuses on long range

objectives.

Understand that effective policies support a proactive, not reactive and approach to

safety.

Remember that the policy must promote direct involvement by all organizational

members and departments.

Plan to use a well written safety policy for at least 5 years.

Understand the changing policies can create confusion with regard to the direction of

the safety program.

Don’t focus too much on compliance issues; instead promote safety as being the right

thing to do.

Recommended that the policy address the importance of off the job safety.

Allow senior management to publicize the policy.

Safety Environments

It is consists the buildings, equipment and people. A proper design and

management of the physical environment contribute to creating a safe and comfortable

environment of care that helps support and maintain patient dignity, promotes interaction,

reduces stress and encourages family participation in the care process.

Environment Safety Challenges

Establishing a multidisciplinary process or committee to resolve care environment

issues.

Appointing appropriate representation from clinical, administrative and support areas.

Identifying and analyzing care and environment issues in a timely manner.

Developing and approving recommendations for improvement as appropriate.

Establishing appropriate measurement guidelines with appropriate staff input.

Communicating issues to organizational leaders and improvement coordinator.

Coordinating environmental safety issues with leadership of the patient safety

program.

Basics Safety Environment Considerations:

Proper lighting.

Privacy.

Appropriate use of space that considers the clinical philosophy of care.

Security of person, property and valuables.

Orientation and access to nature and the outside.

Color schemes that enhance care.

Reductions and control of environmental hazards and risks.

Developing an environment that minimizes unnecessary environmental stress.

Leadership Responsibilities:

Publish a safety policy that expresses commitment to the program.

Establish realistic safety goals and expectations.

Provide the resources necessary to ensure achievement of these goals.

Communicate the importance of the program to staff members.

Assign responsibilities and authority as necessary to carry out the plan.

Hold the organizational members accountable for safety goals and objectives.

Personally communicate safety at every opportunity.

Establish an off the job safety related topics is to be discussed at all meetings or

training sessions.

Implement an effective education program for all third shift workers.

Encourage key department managers to personalize the safety message.

Promote safety as a proactive endeavor that pays off by improving the system

Safety Supervisor Responsibilities:

Analyze work areas to identify unrecognized potential hazards.

Maintain personal protective and ensure it proper use.

Provide job training on potential occupational hazards.

Be sure that workers know the protective measures to follow.

Reinforce employee training through continual performance feedback.

Enforce compliance with safety rule and practices.

Complete accident reports and conduct initial investigations.

Conduct periodic safety inspections.

Worker Involvement:

Appointing the employees to positions in the safety program.

Placing hourly workers on safety committee.

Requiring workers to report accidents and injuries immediately.

Providing quick responses to concerns about safety.

Assessing and correcting problems and hazardous conditions.

Training and educating workers on a recurring basis.

Successful Safety Programs

Safety programs developed to fit the needs of an organizational can be succeeding

if the plan properly managed.

Stress results oriented activities based on defined goals.

Investigate and analyze causal factors that result in loss.

Develop a management actions plan in addition to publishing policies.

Establish measurement criteria to assess program effectiveness.

Publish contingency plans to deal with potential problems.

Written Program Considerations:

Implement a program structure that best serves the organization.

Ensure that the program utilizes a systems approach that integrates safety.

Assign responsibilities and delegate authority to a qualified safety officer or director.

Establish lines of communication within the safety management function.

Develop comprehensive orientation, training and education programs.

Specifically address patient, worker, visitor and community safety objectives.

Stress accidents prevention and worker’s compensation cost containment.

Develop effective reporting, hazard identification and investigation procedures

Developing or Revising a Written Safety Program

Assessment:

a. Review statistics, claims, trends and severity or frequency rates.

b. Evaluate effectiveness and scope of current loss control practices

c. Talk with workers to reveal their feelings, perceptions and reactions.

d. Identify any other problem areas that impact loss control efforts.

Organizational Safety Policy Statement:

a. Be sure that a philosophy has been defined before publishing any safety policy

statement.

b. Obtain approval to issue the policy statement from the highest level in the

organization.

c. Write the policy statement using simple language that communicates to everyone

involved.

d. State objectives in broad terms in terms in the statement, as detail will be

provided in the written safety program.

e. Understand that an effective safety policy statement promotes integrated and

decentralized actions while at the same time it gave the organizational leaders the

right to act.

f. Don’t allow the written safety program to conflict with the policy statement

Assigning Authority and Responsibilities:

a. Find the authority for implementing a safety program in the codes, regulations

and organizational policy.

b. Appoint a safety officer, director or coordinator to lead the program.

c. Assign responsibilities and delegate authority to ensure program success.

d. Ensure that all employees understand their responsibilities.

Establishing Documentation and Training Procedures

a. Determine recordkeeping requirements for injury and accident report.

b. Obtain all required regulations, job procedures and safety regulations.

c. Publish written safety policies, job procedures and safety regulations.

d. Establish documentation requirements for all employee training sessions.

e. Develop concise and complete job descriptions for all employees.

Developing Evaluation Guidelines

a. Determine how frequently to evaluate the program for effectiveness.

b. Involve department heads by requiring periodic self inspections.

c. Advise departments that safety officers will evaluate each department on a

regular basis.

Establishing a Safety Committee or Proves Team to Oversee the Safety Management

Program

a. Take a proactive role to promote and oversee safety activities.

b. Be given the authority to cross departmental boundaries.

c. Take all actions necessary to accomplish program objectives.

d. Be structured to meet the needs of the organization.

Safety Committees

It does not require a specific type of safety committee but does require a safety

management proves to help develop, implement, evaluate and resolve safety matters.

Committees or other processes must have representatives from administration, clinical

and support department. Other suggestions include the following:

Make recommendations related to program improvement or revision.

Report safety related activities to upper level management on regular basis.

Maintain documentation of action and results of the management process.

Develop a process of coordination between various departments.

Reasons for Ineffective Safety Programs

Safety efforts focus on activities instead of behavioral elements.

Safety problems and issues are not addressed using a systems approach.

Senior leadership fails to define the organizational safety philosophy.

Safety education and training program focus too much on simply documenting

attendance.

Leaders fail to address or deal with turf kings and queens.

Effective accident investigation techniques are not implemented.

Root cause analysis methods are used only for patient safety not all safety events.

Safety Planning

It also requires a specific type of safety management plan that will provide a

physical environment free of hazards. The plan must address ways to manage staff

activities and reduce the risk of injuries at all campus facilities, as well as:

Outline activities that will reduce the risk of human injury.

Ensure the safety of grounds, facilities and equipment.

Provide readily identified and accessible emergency service areas.

Establish a risk assessment program to evaluate safety.

Provide for the appointment of a qualified safety officer.

Establish accident investigation procedures.

Require departments to develop safety programs.

Require safety training, orientation and education of all employees.

Examine safety issues raised by clinical departments.

Develop plans to promote worker safety.

Safety Committee Reports

A general report should be compiled after each safety committee or process

management meeting. Circulate these reports to applicable departments and members of

top management. Examples of performance topics include:

Safety deficiencies reported during the period.

Summary of causal factors that contributed to accidents.

Emergency preparedness drill, critiques and plan activations.

Status of the hazardous materials and waste management programs.

Data on important issues, costly trends or hazards.

Evaluation information on safety program effectiveness.

Summary of trends, problem areas or accomplishments.

Safety Related Definitions

Hazard; a condition or practice with potential for loss under certain circumstances.

Hazard control; the practices of identifying, evaluating and controlling hazards to

prevent or mitigate harm or damage to people, property or the environment.

Industrial hygiene; the art devoted to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation and

control of environmental factors or stressors found in the workplace. The

environmental factors addressed by industrial hygiene personnel include physical,

ergonomic, biological and chemical hazards.

Risk; the chance that loss will occur under certain conditions.

Safety; human actions taken to control reducer or prevent accidental loss.

Safety Management and Related Definitions

Management by exemption; a decision made by a manager that was reached by

reviewing only pertinent information instead of reviewing all available information.

Management by objective; a manager and subordinates agree on a predetermined

course of action or objective.

Bureaucratic organizational theory; a line organization that creates a hierarchy with a

chain of command.

Human needs; physiological, safety, social acceptance, self esteem and self

actualization.

Cost-benefit analysis; a safety evaluation of a situation that focused in the

comparative benefits of expenditure.

Overt culture; formal, expected, publish, visible or anticipated culture.

Covert culture; informal or hidden culture that exist in every organization.

Culture of trust; a culture where worker have a voice and choice (participate).

Turf king and queens; managers who view only their issues as being important.

Thinking outside the box; tapping the creativity, expertise and insights of people.

5.3 Safety Leadership

Top leader should provide the framework for planning, directing, coordinating,

providing and improving care, treatment and service to respond to community and patient

needs and improve safety of the participants. Senior leadership must provide the

foundation for an effective safety program by developing the organizational safety

philosophy. It is not unusual for written safety policies of the organizations to conflict

with the leadership philosophy; for this reason senior leader must clearly define the safety

philosophy before publishing any polices. The science and practices of safety strive to

prevent losses, including injuries from occurring. Related disciplines, such as risk

management and quality control, must support the organizational safety program. The

safety, risk and quality functions must integrate their actions to address potential risks

and hazards. The organizations permits and sometimes encourage each function or

department to build its own “dynasty”. This results in turf leadership that makes it

difficult to coordinate or communicate among departments. This is what to be keeps in

mind:

Safety performance requires planning, delegation and accountability.

Safety goals must be expressed in specific terms.

Safety becomes a value when people are allowed to have a voice and participate.

Safety leadership deals with motivating, inspiring and rewarding success.

Safety Leadership Basics

Keep work areas safe from risks and hazards.

Emphasizes the importance of safe behaviors.

Educate employees regarding safety performance.

Communicate clearly the organization’s safety goals and objectives.

Make safety part of every job or task.

Promote a total safety culture.

Keep all employees informed regarding successes and failures.

Reward safe behaviors.

Correct unsafe as disciplinary tool.

Never promote safety as simply a compliance issue.

Promote safety as the right thing to do.

Understand that attitudes are caught, not taught.

Emphasize good judgment and common sense.

Understanding the relationships of culture, communication and coordination.

Goals of True Leader

Develop a safety philosophy for the organization.

Plan and implement a comprehensive safety management program.

Communicate clear safety goals and methods of achievement.

Create an environment that allows the organization to meet these establishes goals.

Establish a framework for supporting quality patient care and services.

SELF-TEST 1What is safety outdoor? Explain each type

What are the fundamental of safety in outdoor recreation?

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:Safety very important, if you are the leader for outdoor program, what are the ways that you do to make sure the safety of your students ? Explain in school based program.

Focus on developing strategic operational plans.

Develop clear lines of authority, responsibility and accountability.

Present safety as a value to be used as a reference point for management decisions.

Develop the leadership skills of subordinate staff members.

Provide direction and adequate staffing for maintenance of all care services.

Implement processes to measure, assess and maintenance of all care areas.

Promote safety at every opportunity.

Present an off-the-job safety topic at every safety event.

Never adopt a “one-size-fits-all” safety mentality

5.4 Conclusion

When leading outdoor trips, the safety of participants cannot be guaranteed.

Safety management, or the practices used for protecting participants, is part of risk

management, or the procedures for protecting the adventure organization from liability.

Therefore, teachers need to understand the important of safety to be implemented in their

routine especially if outdoor education conducted.

CHAPTER 6

LEADERSHIP – MOTIVATION

6.0 Introduction

Motivation is very important to all people as a factor that initiate or factors that

starting, sustain or continue and stop our behavior. Motivation that people should have

before them starting to do something either it good or bad. It motivated them to do

something. The study of motivation is the study of the causes of human behavior.

Therefore, teacher need to apply motivation cues to the children to keep them motivated

either in their study or even co curricular activities and so as in their daily live.

6.1 The Nature of Motivation

The nature of motivation is a psychological explanation why we behave in the

ways we do. It also can be clarify as any internal condition within us that appears to

produce our goal directed behavior.

Definition of Motivation

Motivation refers to the factors or motives that initiate, sustain, and stop behavior.

Motives can be divided into primary and secondary motives:

Primary Motives

LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you complete this module will be able to:

Explain and describe the basic motivation function

Be able know the process of motivation

Be able to know how to manage motivation

Needs Cognition

Behaviors

Rewards/reinforcement

o Primary motive is a physiological drive such as hunger, thirst, sleep and so on.

o The action is thought to be innate.

Secondary Motives

o Secondary motive is reflecting social demands on the individual and include the

need for affiliation, recognition, autonomy, acceptance, and dominance.

o It is thought to be learned

Motivation also can be explained in terms of direction of effort and Intensity of

effort. The direction of effort refers to whether an individual seeks out, approaches, or is

attracted to certain situation while intensity of effort is refers to how much effort a person

put forth in a particular situation.

6.2 Motivation Process

People’s motivation can be based on an understanding of the motivational

theories. There are three categories of theories in the motivation process which is need,

cognitive, and reinforcement. The motivation process is composed of three main

elements. Our inner needs such as food, friendship and self-fulfillment and our cognitions

such as knowledge and thoughts about efforts that we might expand and rewards that we

might receive lead to various behaviors. They may result in rewards because the

assuming that the behaviors are appropriate to the situation. These rewards in turn help

Self-actualization needs

Physiological needs

Esteem needs

Social needs

Safety needs

reinforce our behaviors by filling our needs and confirming our knowledge. The process

also can work in reverse. Because lack of rewards, it may lead to unfulfilled needs, leave

behaviors unreinforced, and influence our thinking about where not to expend our efforts

in the future.

Need Theory

Need theory include Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s two-factor theory,

the ERG theory, and the acquired-needs theory.

Maslow Hierarchy of Needs

1st Level of Maslow Hierarchy Needs Theory – Physiological Needs

Need for survival or basic physiological needs such as food, water and shelter

2nd Level of Maslow Hierarchy Needs Theory – Safety Needs

Once physiological needs are met, we next concern ourselves with safety needs,

those that help us feel secure and free from threats

3rd Level of Maslow Hierarchy Needs Theory – Social Needs

Social or attention to relationships with others in order to fulfill our need for

belonging is another level in Maslow’s theory.

Here we try to satisfy our desire to affiliate with and be accepted by others.

4th Level of Maslow Hierarchy Needs Theory – Esteem Needs

Esteem needs, is the desire to have a positive self-image and to have our

contributions valued and appreciated by others.

5ft Level of Maslow Hierarchy Needs Theory – Self-Actualization Needs

The highest level of Maslow’s Needs Theory is self actualization needs.

Here we are concerned with testing our creativity, seeing our ideas implemented,

developing our talents, and trying new things.

Cognitive Theory

The cognitive element in the motivation process attempt to isolate the thinking

patterns that we use in deciding whether to behave in a certain way. Some of the

cognitive theories are expectancy, equity, and goal setting.

Expectancy Theory

The expectancy theory suggest that people will act based on their perceived

likelihood that their effort will lead to a certain outcome, and on how highly they value

the outcome. Therefore, the ‘work’ of motivation is within a person’s beliefs. In fact,

according to the theory, people developed three important motivation beliefs, expectancy,

which links behavior to outcome, and valence which also links behavior to outcome.

Effort Behavior Outcome

Expectancy Instrumentality

The expectancy theory (from Vroom, 1964)

• Expectancy

– People's perception about the likelihood that their efforts will enable them to

successfully carry out their behavioral goals.

– Can range from high to low

– E.g.: When a student is confident that if she studies hard she can expect to get a

good grade on the final.

• Instrumentality

– Perceived likelihood that a behavior will be followed by a particular outcome.

– Can range from high to low

– E.g. : There are other ways to achieve the good grade outcome (cheating, counting

on a lucky break, etc)

– The students must believe the behavior is instrumental in achieving the desired

outcome of a good exam grade.

• Valence

– Value the outcome holds for the person contemplating it.

– Can be positive (admission for graduate school)

Stimulus Behavior

Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Same behavior likely to be

repeated

Same behavior not likely to be

repeated

– Can be negative (missed evening with friends)

– When the students expect studying hard will directly lead to a good exam grade

and when she really wants to perform well on the exam so that she can secure

admission to graduate school, she will study hard for it.

Reinforcement Theory

• Behavior-can be explained by environment

• Behaviors having pleasant/positive consequences are more likely to be repeated.

• Behaviors having unpleasant or negative consequences are less likely to be

repeated.

• Stimulus : cue for behavior, followed by consequences

6.3 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

An application of the ideas in behaviorism is to say there are two broad classes:

intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

How reinforcement motivates behavior

• Intrinsic

– Behavior itself rewarding

– Not pursued primarily from some other benefit

– Comes from within the individual

– E.g.: Huda want to donate her fruit’s to the aunty because she is interesting and

helping another person.

• Extrinsic

– Which comes from the outside

– Reward is established artificially and usually given by an outsider (parent, teacher

or boss)

– E.g.: Azlan Ibrahim wants to score “A” in Mathematics because he will get a new

Nike sport shoes from his mom.

6.4 Managing Motivation

Based on these theories and concepts, advice is available for the recreation leader

on managing motivation. For example, here are some fundamental guidelines for leaders

in building motivation in recreation activity participants and organizational staff.

1. When trying to enhance motivation, consider both situational and personal factors

The result of combination of a personal and situational factor interacts to cause

to be people lack motivation.

2. Realize that people have multiples motives for involvement

People participate in a particular activity usually for more than one reason.

For example, you might lift weights because you want to tone your body and

also because your friends are avid weights lifters and you enjoy the camaraderie.

For example, from studies on exercise participation, the major cited include:

For beginning an exercise program:

Improve poor health

Weight loss

Fitness

Self-challenge

Feel better

For continuing an exercise program:

Enjoyment of program

Leadership

Activity type

Social enjoyment

3. As well, people often have competing motives for involvement

Need to choose when aren’t have enough hours.

For example, tonight we want to both lift weight at a fitness club and study for

tomorrow’s exam.

Recreation leader need to be aware of such conflicting interests as they can have

an important influence on participation.

4. Remember that people have unique motives

Can be unique to each individual

For example, in addition to the more typical motives for exercise listed, there are

also some rather idiosyncratic one discovered by research, such as extra

attention, critical comments from others, achieving control of mind over body,

and habit.

5. Motives change over time

Participation need to be motivated by the recreation leader.

Participation motivation in recreation is not static, but can be altered as a result

of the participation.

For example, from the list of exercise motives, motives for staying with a

Program are different from those that motivated participation in the first place.

6. Leaders influence motivation

It is the most important guidelines.

As a recreation leader, we have a critical role in influencing participant

motivation.

For example, a playground leader who is energetic and enthusiastic about the

games will, based on this kind of personality alone, influence the participant’s

interest in playing them. But, on the day the playground leader has a headache

and is not as cheerful, participants will likely be less motivated to play the

games.

6.5 Increasing Intrinsic Motivation

Particular recreation behaviors seek to be encouraged through the recreation

leaders by increasing the intrinsic motivation. There is some initiative for creating

perceptions of success.

1. Provide for successful experience

Lowering the basket for young basketball players

Will more likely increase intrinsic motivation for participating in these

activities

2. Utilize verbal and non verbal praise

Praises provides positive feedback and helps participants continue to

participate and strive to improve.

This is especially important for participants who are ‘second string’ or not

particularly skilled in an activity and get little recognition otherwise.

3. Mixed up participants in decision making

In making a decision, all of the members and participants need to allowed and

given a more responsibility to them.

Can enhance their perceptions of control and lead to feelings of personal

achievement.

6.6 Empowerment

According to the researcher, Bateman & Snell, 2002, empowerment is the

process of sharing the power with others. Empowerment works by changing beliefs

(from feeling powerless to feeling powerful). It helps people to feel that their

contributions have meaning that they are competent, and they have choices. As the

result from that, people take more initiative and preserve longer.

As leaders, empowering others requires to simplify our view of what we think

we can do. We will not be able to motivate them if we can develop a solid and wide

perspective on what others can do and how they can play a part. Based on Clawson,

1999, there are two factors which critical to this which is the basic underlying about

others and clarity in identifying the critical skills we desire in others.

First, in developing suitable assumptions about others, a powerful leadership

approach is to assume that people have talents, can learn new ones, and have a

basic desire to do well. These assumptions need to make as broad as possible.

We cannot empower people if our basic assumptions are that the people with

whom we work and lead are limited. The people will respond accordingly if we

able to imagine people as growing, learning, developing beings and are willing

to invest in that growth.

The second factor in illuminating what others can contribute is recognizing the

critical skills needed. Occasionally we view people only according to a narrow

set of abilities. For example, we see an athlete only in terms of her physical

skills, and miss altogether her intellectual, social, or other skills. As well, we

sometimes don’t define skills finely enough. For example, we see an athlete in

terms of her physical skills generally, missing the sub skills of learning, team

play, flexibility, commitment, and so on.

6.7 Other Motivation Strategies for the Recreation Leader

Readiness

Recreation leader must first know who the participants are and what their interests

and needs are.

It can be a matter of merge the right people with the right recreation.

Environmental stimulus

The physical properties of the environment in which the recreation activity takes

place can produce an almost automatic motivational response.

For example, if we lead people to a polluted pond, we will have to push them in to

get to swim. However, if we lead them to a crystal clear, cool and calm sweet water

spring, they will probably waste no time diving in head first on a hot summer day.

Participant motivation can be affected by the environment.

Status

The status of activity can motivate the participants in recreation.

Recreation leader are able to put badges, membership cards, mugs, uniforms,

patches, T-shirts, well maintained equipment, and other symbols which can serve as

motivators to participation.

Peer pressure

The power of peer pressure needs to be recognized and employ as a motivator to

recreation participation.

It can be a strong factor in energizing a people to join in the fun because of the

human need to be a part of the group, to interact with and be accepted by the others

Prizes and rewards

The motivational power of extrinsic rewards such as door prizes, gold stars, free

gifts, coupons, and certificates.

It is useful when the intrinsic rewards of the activity are not sufficient.

6.8 Conclusion

Recreation leaders have an important proficiency at all levels which is energizing,

giving direction to, and helping sustain behavior. The focus for the direct service leader is

SELF-TEST 1Explain briefly motivation process.

Explain the reinforcement theory of motivation.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:How do manage your student to be motivated? In school perspective for self confidence.

on recreation behavior. However, the focus for the top management and supervisory

leaders is on the work behaviors of the organization staff. Individuals must be adequately

encouraged and enthusiastic to commit their energy to recognize their aim to accomplish

both recreational and organizational goals. The direction and intensity of one’s effort is

the definition of motivation and the discussion of fulfilling our inner needs and

conforming our knowledge is the process of motivation which in turn results in rewards

that help reinforce our behavior. The motivation process is supported by the theories. The

two broad types of intrinsic and extrinsic is described the motivation, Recreation leaders

have a motivation strategies that are useful such as empowerment. However, all

motivating strategies are based on the fundamental guidelines.

CHAPTER 7

LEADERSHIP – PUBLIC RELATION

7.0 Introduction

Every organization, no matter how large or small, ultimately depends on its

reputation for survival and success. Customers, employees, and regulators can have a

powerful impact as they all have an opinion about the organizations they come into

contact with – whether good or bad, right or wrong. These perceptions will drive their

decisions about whether they want to work with, and support these organizations.

Effective public relation can help manage reputation by communicating and building

good relationships with all organization stakeholders.

7.1 Public Relation

Public Relation is the state of the relationship between organization and the

public. It is also a management function that classically focuses on long-term pattern of

interaction between an organization and all of its various publics, both supportive and

non-supportive. Besides, public relation is the management of internal and external

communication of an organization to create and maintain a positive image. Public

relations seek to enhance this relationship, this generating mutual understanding,

goodwill and support. In addition, its’ entails planning, research, publicity, promotion,

and collaborative decision making to help any organization’s ability to listen to,

appreciate, and response appropriately to those persons and groups whose mutually

LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you complete this module will be able to:

Explain and describe the basic of public relation

Be able know the process of motivation

Be able to know how to manage motivation

beneficial relationships the organization needs for foster as it strives to achieve its

mission and vision.

Furthermore, it can serve as a valuable resource for recreation leader. Recreation

leader should be able to develop and use resources both from within and from outside

their organization. Also, developing favorable opinions which reflect in what other thinks

regarding the action that the leader does. The community’s opinion of you, the recreation

leader, also has an impact on the image of the organization in the entire leisure services

field. As resources for recreation leaders, public relations should be seen as those

endeavors that maintain sound, favorable, and productive relations with others. Besides,

it involves establishing and strengthening goodwill which can yield positive public

opinion. For examples, when a participant leaves your facilities and is satisfied, that is

good public relations. When a parent concludes the phone conversation with one of your

staff feeling happy about the way the children’s programs are being handled, that is good

public relations. When you leave a favorable impression after your report to the board of

commissioners that is good public relations. Public relations are those continuous and

planned images that cause others to think well of you, your organization, and your

profession. We consider positive public relations to be desirable, but more than this the

recreation leader should consider it a vitally needed resource. As any human endeavor,

success depends largely on the light in which these endeavor are viewed by others.

Recreation leaders should develop skill in public relations for at least the following

reasons (Kraus, Carpenter, and Bates, 1981):

Creating a more favorable public image for organization may help to encourage

official support such as legislative action

Participant attendance at programs or in facilities may be enhanced

Volunteers may be easier to recruit

Public misunderstandings about your organization and its services may be dispelled

Financial donations for facilities, staff, or equipment may be more readily offered

Aptitudes for Public Relation

Personal communication skills

Imaginative and lateral thinker

Streetwise and worldly

Sensitive to widely different audiences

Sound judgment

Numerate

Well presented personality

7.2 “The Public”

There are many groups of public for the recreation leader. It is the leader efforts to

promote positive public relations that focused on those groups of people affected the

leader decisions and actions. For most leaders, these groups may be identified as the

participants, colleagues, supervisors, and the general public (Edginton and Ford (1985) :

Participants or client you lead have certain expectations of your leadership. They

arrive expecting you to be prepared, to be pleasant and clean, to know what you are

doing, and to treat them with courtesy and fairness. Beyond this they also have

expectations for a satisfying, enjoyable recreation experience under your leadership.

Public relations with participants’ means that you respond to their needs with

professional sincerity are courteous, make a special effort to help each one feel

welcome, and have a positive attitude toward them as a person.

Colleagues also place expectations on you. Good public relations with them mean

that they think of you as cooperation, thoughtful, and considerate. They have respect

for you. You do not gossip about them or criticizes them in an unfair and

unproductive way.

Supervisions that think highly of staff that is prompt, self-initiated, dependable,

honest, cooperative, and thorough. Good public relations require that you dot only be

these things but also communicate them through good work.

General public’s which all the recreation leaders represent both themselves and the

organization in the goodwill image. In fulfilling this image the leader should be

prepared to answer questions courteously and factually; assume a professional

appearance and demeanor; and to refrain from promoting personal political or

religious philosophies.

Participant, colleagues, supervisors and the general public are the primary

objectives of recreation leader public relations, but in certain situations there are other

important publics. These may include other recreation organizations, persons being

supervised, advisory and governing boards, legislators, special interest groups, and media

representatives. Regardless of which public, recreation leaders should base their public

relations efforts on an excellent performance. Beyond this, honest and continuous

communication of this excellent will help establish a good image and public opinion.

7.3 The Tools of Public Relations

The ultimate goal of public relation is to favorable influence opinion. In some

cases this may require only maintaining an already good relationship with the various

publics. In other cases the task may be to change public opinion in order to create a more

favorable relationship. Whatever the recreation leader’s specific need might be, the first

steps are to plan an approach. This is not only means that appropriate publics are

identified but also useful techniques or tools are selected. There are many tools available

for influencing public opinion. They may be combined under the topics of persuasion,

publicity, and advertising, yet they are all based on the principles of communication.

Persuasions: ~ Persuasion tools are used to make a conscious and deliberate effort

to manipulate others by appealing to emotions. This persuasive form of

communication usually provides only partial information and attempt is to make only

one side of an issue seem logical. In some situations persuasion is a useful public

relations tool. Specific ideas include the following:

The band wagon approach

The band wagon approach is that suggestion that everyone is doing it or believing it.

Getting children to be careful with fire in the woods by telling them that “Smokey’s

friends don’t play with matches” is an example.

Card Stacking

The technique of telling only half-truths is card stacking. Publishing a colorful

brochure about your organization in which you feature only the successful programs

is an example.

Loaded words

Loaded words are a persuasion technique used to add a subtle connotation to what is

being communicated. Calling someone an official rather than a politician or a visitor

rather than a tourist is more flattering and can help to persuade if manage well.

The testimonial

When someone you perceive should know something about skiing (such as a former

Olympic champion) recommends a particular ski resort, it is more likely that you will

also highly regard that resort. This is testimonial.

Repetition

Something repeatedly heard or seen makes an impression on the minds. Slogans,

billboard posters, and radio announcements done repeatedly can be persuasive.

When poorly managed or used in untimely situations, public relations through

persuasive technique can be unethical. They can also be overused or ineffectively

applied. There are circumstances, however, when persuasion is a legitimate and

useful tool. Speaker’s bureaus and audiovisual presentations are often appropriate

opportunities for persuasion.

Publicity – The technique is a spotlight that focuses a public’s attention on an

individual, organization, or an object such as product (Fazio & Gilbert, 1981).

Sometimes publicity can occur in an unplanned, coincidental way and potentially

create negative public relations.

Planned publicity

Planned publicity on the other hand, can be highly effective in creating a good

spotlight for you and your agency. The methods of accomplishing planned publicity

are as limitless as the imagination. Posters, bookmarks, open houses, exhibits, bulletin

boards, grand openings, ceremonies, organization tours, and a facility dedication are

common ways; but above all you need to make news happen. Publicity puts news

about you or your organization in the spotlight. For example, give an award and then

publicize the occasion through the appropriate media or publicize your organization’s

sponsorship of a college scholarship.

Logos and slogans

Logos and slogans can help publicize the efforts of your organization by serving as a

reminder. They usually appear on literature, signs, badges, patches, vehicles, and

equipment. When matched with quality services, symbols can remind publics of that

quality. Usually public service announcements are 10- to 60- second radio or

television spots or newspaper advertisement placements. The time or space is donated

by the medium in which it appears. If yours is a nonprofit organization, public service

announcements can be useful tools in publicizing your news. Other ways include

public affairs programs, new programs, and instructional programs

Advertising - Advertising is paid publicity. To use this public relations tool the

recreation purchases the use of desired media. Usually the advertising includes space

in a newspaper or magazines or air time on radio or television. Advertising has some

advantages over publicity; it can reach particular audience targets, and it will appear

exactly as submitted without being edited. The greatest disadvantage is cost. As a

sample, a small town daily newspaper may cost and advertiser $1,000 or more for a

full page with no color. For organizations that can receive dollar returns for

advertising investments, this money may be wisely spent. Private, commercial, and

tourism agencies are common users of this public relation tools.

Corporate image advertising

Corporate image advertising promotes the image of an organization in the broadest

sense. It also has a positive carry-over effect on public perception of the entire

profession.

Advertorials

Advertorials are spaces or time purchased to present some point of view, usually in an

attempt to stir action or consciousness related to social or political issues.

7.4 Nine Steps of Strategic Public Relation

Phase One: Formative Research

Focus on the preliminary work of communication planning, which is the need to

gather information and analyze the situation.

Step 1: Analyzing the Situation

Your analysis of the situation is crucial beginning to the process. It is imperative

that all involve such as planner, supervisors, key colleagues and the ultimate decision

makers that are in solid agreement about the nature of the opportunities or obstacle to be

addressed in this program.

Step 2: Analyzing the Organization

This step involves a careful and candid look at three aspects if the organization.

Firstly, its internal environment such as the organization mission, performance and

resources. Secondly, its public perception that is reputation. Thirdly, its external

environment such as competitors and opponents as well as supporters

Step 3: Analyzing the Publics

Identify and analyze the key publics such as the various groups of people who

interact with the organization on the issues at hand. Besides, strategic planning for public

relations provides an objective technique for setting priorities among the various publics,

helping you to select those most important on the particular issue being dealt with.

Furthermore, this steps includes an analysis of each public in term of their wants, needs

and expectations about the issue, their relationship to the organization, their involvement

in communication and with various media, and a variety of social, economic, political,

cultural and technological trends that may affect them.

Phase Two: Strategy

This phase is deal with the heart of planning. In addition, its making decisions

dealing with the expected impact on the communication as well as the nature of the

communication itself.

Step 4: Establishing Goals and Objectives

This step is focuses on the ultimate position being sought for the organization and

for the product/ service. It is also help to develop clear, specific and measurable

objectives that identify the organizations hoped for impact on the awareness, acceptance

and action of each key public. In addition, a good deal of attention is given to objectives

dealing with acceptance of the message because this is the most crucial area for public

relations.

Step 5: Formulating Action and Response Strategies

A range of action is available to the organization, and this step was considered on

what you do in various situations. This section includes typologies of initiatives and

responses.

Step 6: Using Effective Communication

Dealing with the various decisions about the message such as the sources who

will present the message to the key publics, the content of the message, its tone and style,

verbal and nonverbal cues, and related issues.

Phase 3: Tactics

A various communication tools are considered and the visible elements of the

communication plan are created.

Step 7: Choosing Communication Tactics

This inventory deals with the various communications options. Specifically, the

planner considers four categories that is face-to-face communication and opportunities

for personal involvement, organizational media (controlled media), news media

(uncontrolled media) and advertising and promotional media.

Step 8: Implementing the Strategic Plan

To develop budgets, schedules and prepare to implement the communication

program. These step turns the raw ingredients identified in the previous step into a recipe

for successful public relations.

Phase 4: Evaluative Research

A final phase in strategic planning of public relations that deals with evaluation

and assessments. It also enabling us to determine the degree to which the stated

objectives have been met and thus to modify or continued the communication activities.

Step 9: Evaluating the Strategic Plan

Indicating specific methods for measuring the effectiveness of each recommended

tactics in meeting the stated objectives.

7.5 Conclusion

Public relation is an essential and integrated component of public policy or

service. The professional public relation activity will ensure the benefit to the citizens, for

whom the policies or services are meant for. At its best, public relations not only tell an

organization’s story to its publics, it is also helps to shape the organization and the way it

works. Through research, feedback communication and evaluation, the practitioner needs

to find out the concerns and expectations of the public’s and explain them to its

management.

SELF-TEST 1Why public relation important for leader people?

Explain the tools of public relation scope.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:Explain the 9 steps in public relation. Relate it to you as a teacher in school.