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c I. Membrane Ultrafiltration: Industrial Applications for the Removal of Environmental Pollutants Michael J. Pardus Chief Chemist, Cerro Metal Products Bellefonte, Pennsylvania Introduction One factor limiting conventional lime 6nd settle technology in meeting more stringent discharge limitations is the effectiveness of the solid/ liquid separation. Gravity separation alone can rarely meet the discharge limits currently imposed on industrial dischargers; filtration is frequently required. A viable alternative to the clarifier/filter combination is membrane ultrafiltration (1). Ultrafiltration systems typically require less floor space than conventional systems and are adaptable to a wide variety of chemical treatments. Reviews of ultrafiltration technology and its relation to other membrane process are found in references (2) through (6). Ultrafiltration is demonstra-ted to be an effective treatment in both pilot and full scale operations, for the removal of oil, suspended solids, heavy metals and some organics from pretreated...industrial waste streams. presentation will review the general principles of membrane ultrafiltration This and describe a variety of industrial applications for removal of inorganic and organic pollutants. The Ultrafiltration Process Ultrafiltration is a membrane separation process utilizing a hydraulic pressure gradient to effect solid/liquid separation. mechanism is due to selective sieving through the membrane pores. salts and small particles ((0.1 micron) pass through the semi-permeable The primary separation Dissolved
16

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c

I .

Membrane Ultrafiltration: Industrial Applications for the Removal of Environmental Pollutants

Michael J. Pardus Chief Chemist, Cerro Metal Products

Bellefonte, Pennsylvania

Introduction

One factor limiting conventional lime 6nd settle technology in meeting

more stringent discharge limitations is the effectiveness of the solid/

liquid separation. Gravity separation alone can rarely meet the discharge

limits currently imposed on industrial dischargers; filtration is frequently

required. A viable alternative to the clarifier/filter combination is

membrane ultrafiltration (1) . Ultrafiltration systems typically require less

floor space than conventional systems and are adaptable to a wide variety of

chemical treatments. Reviews of ultrafiltration technology and its relation

to other membrane process are found in references (2) through (6).

Ultrafiltration is demonstra-ted to be an effective treatment in both pilot

and full scale operations, for the removal of oil, suspended solids, heavy

metals and some organics from pretreated...industrial waste streams.

presentation will review the general principles of membrane ultrafiltration

This

and describe a variety of industrial applications for removal of inorganic

and organic pollutants.

The Ultrafiltration Process

Ultrafiltration is a membrane separation process utilizing a hydraulic

pressure gradient to effect solid/liquid separation.

mechanism is due to selective sieving through the membrane pores.

salts and small particles ((0.1 micron) pass through the semi-permeable

The primary separation

Dissolved

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. .

membrane i n t h e l i q u i d phase w h i l e l a r g e r s o l i d s a r e r e j e c t e d and c o n c e n t r a t e d

( F i g u r e I ) . As a f i r s t approx imat ion t h e volume o f t r e a t e d wa te r p e r u n i t

membrane area ( o r f l u x ) i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e and i n v e r s e l y

1

p r o p o r t i o n a l t o membrane r e s i s t a n c e ;

F = P/R = [e(a-Z)Pp] / [8 (TA2)ud ]

where; F = l i q u i d f l u x r a t e

P = h y d r a u l i c p ressu re

R = membrane r e s i s t a n c e

e = membrane p o r o s i t y

a = pore r a d i u s

p = l i q u i d d e n s i t y

T = pore t o r t u o s i t y f a c t o r

u = l i q u i d v i s c o s i t y

d = membrane t h i c k n e s s

P r i m a r y f a c t o r s i n t h e des ign o f an u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n system a r e t h e h y d r a u l i c

g r a d i e n t , membrane p o r o s i t y , membrane p o r e r a d i u s , membrane t h i c k n e s s and

membrane d e n s i t y .

r e f e r e n c e (2).

D e r i v a t i o n ' o f t h e b a s i c f l u x equa t ions can be found i n

Pore s i z e s range f r o m 0.05 t o 0.2 m ic rons i n d iamete r depending on t h e

s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n . Pore s i z e c o n t r o l s t h e s e l e c t i v i t y and degree o f

separa t i on as w e l l as t h e permeate f l u x r a t e . From t h e f l u x equa t ion , i t can

be shown t h a t d o u b l i n g t h e po re d iamete r shou ld r e s u l t i n a f o u r - f o l d i n c r e a s e . .

i n t h e f l u x r a t e . The mo lecu la r d iamete r o f t h e p a r t i c l e s , o i l s o r greases,

t o be removed f rom t h e wastewater i s t h e l i m i t i n g f a c t o r i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e

r e q u i r e d po re d iameter .

s e p a r a t i o n i s by conven t iona l f i l t r a t i o n processes.

When t h e p o r e d iamete rs exceed 50 t o 100 microns,

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FLUID FLOW

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8.8 8 8 8

FILTER BED

FILTRATE flLTRATE

A. BARRIER FILTRATION B. CROSS-FLOW MEMBRANE FILTRATION

CONVENTIONAL BARRIER FILTRATION VS.

CROSS-FLOW MEMBRANE FILTRATION

FIGURE 1

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. .

. ... .. .

T y p i c a l h y d r a u l i c p ressures i n u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n systems a r e f rom 40 t o

100 p s i g . T h i s i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e membrane pore s t r u c t u r e and membrane

geometry. Systems a r e u s u a l l y des igned t o use t h e l owes t d r i v i n g f o r c e

p o s s i b l e t o min imize energy c o s t s and t o reduce t h e s i z e o f t h e pumping

equipment.

o f 600 t o 1000 p s i g .

I n comparison reve rse osmosis systems r e q u i r e h y d r a u l i c p ressures

Because o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y low pressures r e q u i r e d t o

e f f e c t separa t i on , u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n i s n o t a f f e c t e d by t h e osmot ic p ressure

e x e r t e d by t h e wastewater ( 2 ) . d

U l t r a f i l t r a t i o n systems a re opera ted i n a c r o s s f l o w f i l t r a t i o n mode. I n

c r o s s f l o w f i l t r a t i o n , f l u i d f l o w i s p a r a l l e l t o r a t h e r than p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o

t h e f i l t e r media. S o l i d s separa t i on takes p l a c e i n one s u r f a c e l a y e r o r p lane .

I n conven t iona l b a r r i e r f i l t r a t i o n , s e p a r a t i o n takes p l a c e th rough seve ra l

l a y e r s o f t h e f i l t e r media.

used i n c l u d i n g f l a t p l a t e , s p i r a l wound, h o l l o w f i b e r , and l a r g e tube

geometr ies ( 3 , 4 , 5 ) . Due t o a lower f o u l i n g p o t e n t i a l t h e l a r g e tube geometry

has become t h e p r e f e r r e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n f o r i n d u s t r i a l wastewater a p p l i c a t i o n s .

A v a r i e t y o f membrane c o n f i g u r a t i o n s have been

Wastewater i s pumped th rough t h e l a r g e membranes a t h i g h v e l o c i t i e s which

r e s u l t i n a t u r b u l e n t f l o w regime. The r e j e c t e d s o l i d s a r e f l u i d i z e d by t h e

t u r b u l e n t f l o w and scour t h e membrane su r face .

membrane s u r f a c e c l e a n and m a i n t a i n s acceptab le f l u x r a t e s . Optimum f l u x

r a t e s a r e observed when t h e s o l i d s . l e v e l s a r e ma in ta ined a t a c o n c e n t r a t i o n

o f 10,000 t o 40,000 mg/L ( 7 ) .

a re 200 - 400 gpd/ sq f t o f membrane s u r f a c e (6 ) .

The s c o u r i n g a c t i o n keeps t h e

F l u x r a t e s u s i n g advanced membrane des igns

Key components o f an u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n system a r e a p r e t r e a t m e n t u n i t

( t y p i c a l l y hyd rox ide neutralization/precipitation), a c o n c e n t r a t i o n tank,

process pump, membrane modules and f l o w and p ressu re c o n t r o l s ( F i g u r e 11).

The p r e t r e a t e d wastewaters e n t e r t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n tank and a r e c i r c u l a t e d

th rough t h e porous membranes a t a c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e b y t h e process pump.

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CHEMICAL ABOlTlON (ACID / BASE / PAC)

SLU D E RECl RCU U T I ON I I

WASTE WATER __c

- I I - - ‘ I REACTION

TANK

I 1

1

MEMBRANE MODULES

CONCENTRATION TANK

R

. I i i

FILTRATE SLUDGE - CLEANING - DEWATERING

SOLIDS I LDISPOSAL 1

TYPICAL ULTRAFILTRATION UNIT FIGURE 2

t PERMEATE

COUECTlON

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. .- . . . . .- . . -. . . -

. .

The a p p l i e d h y d r a u l i c p ressu re causes t h e l i q u i d t o permeate th rough t h e

pores w h i l e r e j e c t i n g t h e s o l i d s .

ad jus ted , i f necessary, p r i o r t o d ischarge. The r e j e c t e d s o l i d s a r e

accumulated i n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n tank. The s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d

b y blowdown t o t h e s ludge dewater ing system.

The permeate i s c o l l e c t e d and t h e pH

P e r i o d i c c l e a n i n g and backwashing ensure s a t i s f a c t o r y l ong - te rm o p e r a t i o n .

The membrane c l e a n i n g process r e q u i r e s r e c i r c u l a t i o n o f a s u i t a b l e c l e a n i n g

s o l u t i o n t o remove t h e i n o r g a n i c / o r g a n i c b8 i ld -up . T y p i c a l c l e a n i n g c y c l e s

a re o f 30 t o 60 minutes d u r a t i o n . D i l u t e h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d i s used f o r

removal o f meta l hyd rox ide s ludges f rom t h e membrane pores . H y p o c h l o r i t e

s o l u t i o n i s e f f e c t i v e i n removing o i l s and grease f r o m t h e membrane system.

The use o f an ac id /pe rox ide s o l u t i o n has been r e p o r t e d t o be e f f e c t i v e i n

removing bo th i n o r g a n i c and o r g a n i c f o u l a n t s (8 ) . Systems t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e

an au tomat ic backwash c a p a b i l i t y have been r e p o r t e d t o be e f f e c t i v e i n

reduc ing t h e f o u l i n g problems assoc ia ted w i t h h o l l o w f i b e r membrane

geometr ies ( 2 7 ) .

U l t r a f i l t r a t i o n techno logy i s n o t a new technique. UF s t u d i e s were

r e p o r t e d d u r i n g t h e l a t e 1800's. Recovery o f tramp o i l s by UF techno logy

has been w i d e l y used s i n c e ca. 1960-1970.

t r e a t i n g i n d u s t r i a l wastewaters was impeded by two f a c t o r s . F i r s t , e a r l y

membranes had r e l a t i v e l y smal l pores r e s u l t i n g i n h i g h o p e r a t i n g pressures

and low f l u x r a t e s . Secondly, t h e ' e a r l y membranes were f a b r i c a t e d f r o m

c e l l u l o s e d e r i v a t i v e s and c o u l d n o t s t a n d t h e extreme pH, c o r r o s i v e and

The use o f UF techno logy i n

. .

o x i d a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s .

p o l y s u l f o n e s , t h a t p e r m i t s use under r i g o r o u s i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s .

Advanced membrane des igns use an i n e r t polymer, e.g.

The advantages o f UF t r e a t m e n t techno logy a r e r e l a t e d t o i t s i n h e r e n t l y

h i g h e f f i c i e n c y i n removing o i l s and suspended s o l i d s . S ince IJF i s adaptab le

t o a wide v a r i e t y o f p r e t r e a t m e n t techn iques , t h e process can be op t im ized

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. . . . . . . . . . ... -. -

. .

for the removal of specific inorganic and, in some circumstances, organic

pollutants. The membrane establishes a positive barrier between the waste

and the external environment. The UF system is more resistant to upsets due

to sudden variations in the waste stream than conventional treatment systems.

The equipment is compact and requires little floor space. Since the membrane

modules are normally skid mounted, the units can easily be adapted to existing

systems minimizing the cost of. system up-grade. Maintenance and man power

requirements are less than or equal to conventional treatments. Coagulant 5

aids or other sludge conditioning chemicals are not required.

The temperature, pH and oxidation limitations of the early membranes has

been largely eliminated. Certain solvents at high concentrations may result

in damage to the membranes. Membrane fouling is the largest potential

problem.

the large tube geometry and high velocities through the membranes. Pre-

filtration is sometimes required to remove objects that may clog or puncture

the membranes. Control of pH is crucial as a rapid change in pH can greatly

Solids build up on the membrane surface is minimized by utilizing

intensify the plugging problem. This is most likely the result of

concentration polarization o f the membrane surface.

interfere with the operation of the ultrafiltration system; the surfactants

should be non-ionic or have the same charge as the membrane surface.

Surfactants can greatly

The

affect of surfactants is most likely due to changes in the charge distributions

on the membrane surface. Sufactant'mediated removal of heavy metals is

described i n the next section.

Removal of Heavy Metals

The use of ultrafiltration for removal of precipitated heavy metals has

Applications include removal of heavy grown steadily since the late 1970's.

metals from wastewaters from the following: industrial laundries ( 6 , 9 ) , brass

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- . . - . . . . . . . .. . - . . .

wire production (7,25), adhesives and sealant production ( 9 ) , chlor-alakl i

production ( l o ) , printed circuit bo.ard manufacture (ll?lZ), gallium-arsenide

chip manufacture (13) , electroplating (14 ) , and shipbuilding (15). The

treated effluent is typically of high quality suitable for re-use. Effluent

TSS of less than 0.5 mg/L are common. Metal removal efficiency is typically

greater than 90%. Table I summarizes some of the available data. With proper

pretreatment many heavy metals can be removed below 0.1 mg/L.

chromium, mercury, zinc, aluminum, lead, and arsenic have been demonstrated

Copper, i

to be removed below drinking water standards. Metal removal efficiency is a

function of the pretreatment of the wastewater. IJF has been used in conjunction

with hydroxide precipitation, sodium borohydride reduction, hydrazine

reduction and dithiocarbamate precipitation. Other chemical pretreatment

technologies, such as, sulfide precipitation, may be adaptable to the [IF

sys tern.

Metal-ion extraction using UF technology and water soluble starches has

been reported (26). Amination of naturally occurring polysaccharides produces

chelating polymers with the required properties for use in IJF systems. High

molecular weight (MW>10,000) is required to ensure adequate rejection of the

metal complex. Excellent water solubility is required to prevent membrane

fouling.

at concentrations of 10 mg/L.

Removal efficiencies of 98-99% were reported for copper and nickel

This modification of [IF technology may offer

advantages for recovering precious metals f r o m dilute wastewaters.

The use of charged surfactants in conjunction with (IF treatment has been

shown to remove a variety of ionic inorganics and organics and non-ionic

organics (28).

to be removed, is added to the waste stream.

or binds the counterion to the surface of the micelle.

A surfactant, whose charge is the opposite of the pollutant

A micelle i s formed that absorbs

The metal-bearing

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T A B L E I SUMMARY OF I J L T R A F , I L T R A T I O N REMOVAL E F F I C I E N C Y

METAL I NF*- E F F * X REMOVAL P R E T R E A T M E N T REF.

6,7,9,14,22,25 c u 200-900 . 2 99-1- OH cu 100-150 c.2 99-1. OH -1- SBH 11 c u 200 < 99-1- DTC 12 Ga 1500 4 2 99-1- S B H 13 As 3000 4.01 ' 9 9-1- S B H 1 3 Hg 10-50 4 . 0 0 5 99-1- OH 10,22 Cr +3 100-1000 ( - 1 - 1 . 5 99-1- OH 7 Zn 900 :. .1 - ,3 99-1- OH 7 A1 100 < .1 99-1- OH 22

Pb 1-10 < 0 1 90-1- OH w, 7 Cd N.S. c $01 -- N.S. 22

Ag 100 4 9 94- OH -I- HYD 1 5

N i 194 a 3 5 99.1- N . S . 24

* influent/effluent concentrations i n mg/L OH = hydroxide precipitation SBH = sodium borohydride DTC = diethyldithiocarbamate HYD = hydrazine N.S. = not specified

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micelles are rejected by the UF membrane and concentrated. The permeate is

collected for recycle or discharge. Removal of non-ionic organics, such as

o-cresol, is believed to be due to dissolution of the organic solute within

the interior of the micelle. Removal of calcium, cadmium, copper and zinc

ranged from 98.9 to 99.5% at concentrations of 400-500 mg/L.

removal of 99.4% at 900-1000 mg/L was also reported. Sodium dodecyl sulfate

was found to be suitable for removal of cations while cetylpyridinium

chloride was used for anionic species.

approach is its effectiveness in treating dilute wastewaters.

efficiency reportedly increases as pollutant concentration decreases.

Chromate

A 9ignificant advantage of this

Removal

Many of the early industrial applications o f ultrafiltration technology

were metals removal in the printed circuit industry. Ultrafiltration is now

utilized, however, to remove heavy metals from more traditional industrial

wastewaters. Treatment of rinsewaters from the manufacture of brass wire has

been demonstrated to be cost competive with conventional treatment technology.

The standard process flow for brass wire fabrication included heat treatment

o f the extruded coil stock, -chemical removal o f the surface oxides, and a

drawing step. The cycle was repeated until the desired size and hardness were

achieved. The heat treatment step, requ-ired 'to relieve internal stresses

generated during the drawing operation, resulted in the formation of surface

oxides on the wire surface. Removal of the surface oxides through the use of

acidic pickling produced wastewaters containing chromium, copper, lead, nickel,

zinc, suspended solids, acidic pH, and oil and grease. Evaluation of a variety

of treatment alternatives demonstrated that a combination of hydroxide

precipitation and ultrafiltration was cost effective in producing an effluent

that satisfied the regulatory requirements ( 7 3 5 ) .

installed in May 1986 and has demonstrated removal efficiencies of greater

than 99% for chromium, copper and zinc at influent concentrations of

The treatment system was

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.. 200-1500 mg/L.

90% at influent concentrations of 1-10 mg/L. Average effluent metal

concentrations were less than 0.1 mg/L except zinc which averaged less than

0.3 mg/L. Cost of the treatment system for flows up to 50 gpm was $173,800.

The system costs as well as operating and maintenance costs were competitive

with conventional treatment alternatives, e.g. lime, settle and filter, while

producing a higher quality effluent.

Removal efficiencies for lead and nickel were greater than

Treatment of acid mine drainage usingdcharged ultrafiltration membrane

has been reported to offer a cost effective alternative to conventional lime/

settle technology (21). Negatively charged, non-cellulosic membranes were

used to separate the ionic solutes, in this case heavy metals. The rejection

mechanism is reportedly dub to the repulsion of the co-ions by the fixed

charged groups on the membrane surface. The acid mine drainage was treated

with lime to a pH of 4.0 to 4.5 prior to IJF treatment. Removal o f iron and

aluminurn was greater than 95% at 30-100 mg/L, manganese removal was greater

than 89% at 2-10 mg/L and calcium removal was greater than 83% at 50-200 mg/L.

The advantages of the charged membrane system are due to reduced chemical

costs (lime), a reduction in the volume of solid wastes generated, and

improved permeate quality due to lower concentrations of calcium sulfate.

Ultrafiltration has been used in remedial action work by the Department of

Energy (DOE) in the clean-up of radioactive mine tailing sites in Pennsylvania

and the mid-west. (6). In this application the iJF system was used to treat

contaminated groundwater and run-off from the contaminated site while disposal

cells were constructed. The significance of ultrafiltration in treating

groundwater i s certain t o increase as the technology becomes more widely

accepted and recognized as a cost effective alternative for removing inorganics

pol 1 utants.

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.. Removal of Organic Pollutants

Removal of organics using 1JF technology is reported with the primary

applications being treatment of industrial laundries (6,9,20), adhesive and

seal ant wastewaters ( 9 ) , synthetic rubber wastewaters (9), removal of color

bodies (lignins) from Kraft mill effluents (16), treatment of latex paint

wastes (17) and removal of oil and grease from wastewaters and emulsified

oils (9,18,19). Treatments combining powdered activated carbon have proven

to be effective in treating some industrialswastes; however, pretreatment is

usually required to prevent membrane fouling. In these instances the

pretreatment typically is lime addition followed by clarification. The use

of silica as a filter aid has also been demonstrated to be effective in

reducing membrane fouling due to the presence o f organics (16).

efficiency for organics is variable depending upon the specific pollutant.

Organic solids removal i s usually greater than 99%. When [IF is used to

The removal

recover oils from water/wastewaters oleophilic pollutants may be removed

along with the oil. Reductions in total toxic organics would tend to

support this hypothesis (24)‘.- Other treatment technologies are probably more

cost effective in removing organics. When the IJF system is utilized for

removal of inorganics, modification o f the system to accomodate organic

removal by PAC may be less costly. ‘?able I1 summarizes some of the data for

UF treatment of organic wastes.

priority organic pollutants is limited. The combined UF/PAC treatment may

not remove organic pollutants to drinking water standards.

The available data for the removal of

The combined

IJF/PAC system may be suitable as a pretreatment to remove organic particulates

and oils that may foul GAC columns.

The effectiveness o f ultrafiltration technology in removing toxic

organics has been demonstrated in the treatment of washwaters from industrial

laundries (6,20,23). Existing technologies for treating the washwaters

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T A B L E I 1 SIJMMGRY O F REMOVAL OF O R G A N I C S BY U L T R A F I L T R A T I O N

P O L L U T A N T I N F * EFF* T R E A T M E N T R E F

oil & grease COD

T O C

TS S TTO oil & grease COD

TOC

T S S B O D 5 chloroform benzene perchlorethylene toluene ethyl benzene naphthalene to1 uene trichloroehtylene

2000-80,000

11,000

5780-34,500

, 200-9000 12-1425

200-1100

'3230-5000

1000-1400

852-1000 1300

3.3 2 . 5 9 . 1 5 . 2 3 . 1 1 . 5 1 . 0

0.036

L35-224

1400

380-918

< 2 - t 3 5 <. 5-233

L 1 0 - ~ 1 0 0

4 100

59-98

13-20 L 30 c.1 N . D .

N . D .

N . D .

c. 001

< ,001 < * 001

< ,001

none none none none none P A C

P A C

P A C

P A C P A C P A C

P A C PAC

PAC

PAC

P A C

PAC

PAC

8,18,19,24

19 8,17

8,17,18,19 24

6,20,23

6,20

20,23

20,23 6

6

6 6

6 23

23 23

23

he,

.

* influent/effluent concentrations i n m g / L .

N.D. = not detected, limits of detection not specified

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. .. .. . . -.

'.

consisted of coagulation and flocculation followed by dissolved air flotation

(DAF). High dosages of costly inorganic coagulants resulted in large volumes

of sludge. Incomplete removal o f suspended solids and toxic organics was also

reported for the DAF treatment of these waters.

recyclable effluent at competitive costs resulted in the development of a

system utilizing powdered activated carbon (PAC) adsorption and ultrafiltration.

A full scale system was constructed to process 180 gpm of washwater at an

industrial laundry in Florida (23). The washwaters are pretreated with lime

and settled prior to processing by ultrafiltration.

washwaters in an agitated tank with a detention time of 30 minutes. The PAC

mixture was processed through the ultrafiltration membranes where the PAC

and toxic organics were removed. Chemical and sludge disposal costs were

reportedly reduced so that the ultrafiltration system was cost competitive

The desire to produce a

g

PAC was mixed with the

with DAF. Volatile organics, such as toluene and

reported to be reduced to less than 1 part-per-bi

Conclusions

The ultrafiltration process is a demonstrate

trichloroethylene were

lion.

technique for the control

o f heavy metals, oils and greases,-and organic substances found in industrial

wastewaters.

system performance.

hazardous and toxic wastes (HTW), but does not inherently provide any

elimination of the toxic or hazardous characteristics. The residual wastes

Proper pretreatment o f the wastes is a key factor in optimizing

The IJF process serves to greatly reduce the volume o f

may require further processing for ultimate disposal.

the use of [IF in treating industrial wastes is expected particularly in the

areas of coil coating,

textile manufacture, and ground water clean-up.

Continued growth in

porcelain enameling, battery manufacture, dye and

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References

(1) Peterson, K., "Replaces a Clarifier," Prod. Finish. (February, 1985).

(2) Weber, W., Physico-chemical Treatment Processes, John Wiley 81 Sons: New York (1986).

( 3 ) Khatib, Z., "An Overview of Membrane Filtration," Chem. Process; 49(4) :87 (1986).

(4) Josephson, J., "Crossflow Filtration," Environ. Sci. Technol.; 18(12):375A (1984).

(5) Halverson, D., "Ultrafiltration Casebdok," Waterworld News 1(1):12 (1985).

(6) Tran, T . , Chem. Engr. Prog.; 81(3):29 (1985).

(7) Pardus, M., Material Substitution: The Effects of Waste Minimization on Effluent Metal Concentrations, M.S;.Thesis, Penn. State Univ. (Aug.1987).

(8) Personal communication with K. Sargavakian, Memtek Corp.

(9)

(14)

Treatability Manual, Vol. 111, USEPA,EPA-600/8-80-042~, U.S. Government Printing Office (July,1980).

Anon., "Mercury Recovery System Utilizes Ultrafiltration Technology to Minimize Metal Discharge," Chem. Process .(May, 1982).

Lopez, N. and J. Regan, "Chelated Copper Extricated by Membrane Filtration System," Chem. Process (Oct., 1984).

Personal communications- with G. Valentine, Triangle Circuits.

Anon., "Ultrafiltration System Removes Gallium, Arsenic," Chem. Process (Oct., 1983).

Christenson, E. and J. Delwiche, "Removal of Heavy Metals from Electroplating Rinsewaters," Intr. Conf.: Heavy Metals in the Environ., Sept., 1981, Amsterdam.

Anon., "Membrane Filtration System Removes Silver from Submarine Builder's Wastewater," Pollution Engr. (Aug., 1984).

Fremont, H. and M. Kleper, Proc. 35th Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue h i v . (1980).

Wykpizy, A., Proc 35th Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue IJniv. (1980).

Sonksen, M., Sittig, F . , and E . Maziarz, Proc. 38th Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ. (1983).

McTeer, P., Word, W., and K. Lewandowski, Proc. 39th Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ. (1984).

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.. . . - .

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(21)

( 2 2 )

Gils, G., Pirbazari, M., Kin, S., and J. Schorr, Proc. 39th Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ. (1984).

Bhattacharyyz, D . , Shelton, S. and S. Grieves, Proc. 38th Ind Waste Conf., Purdue Univ. (1983).

Customer Installation List, Memtek Corp.

(23) Gils, G., Environ. Progress 5(3):167 (Aug., 1986).

(24)

(25)

Draft Development Document for the Metal Finishing Point Source, USEPA, U.S. Government Printing Office (May, 1980).

Pardus, M. J., "Cost Effective Comp1,jance with the Pretreatment Standards: AESF/EPA Conf. on Pollution Control for the Metal Finishing Industry, 25-27 Jan., 1988.

A Case Study in Waste Minimization," Proc. of the 9th

(26) Chaufer, B., Ouiminga, S., Deratani,. A. and B. Sebille, "Metal Ion Extration by an Ultrafiltration Process with Modified Starch Derivatives," in Immobilization of Ions by Bio-Sorption, ed. H. Eccles and S . Hunt, Ellis Horwood Ltd. (1986).

(27) Ripperger, S., Schulz, G. and W. Rupa, "Membrane Separation processes in Biotechnology," Enka America Inc., Asheville, N.C.

Scamehorn, J. and S. Christian, "Removal of Dissolved Metals from Water Using Micellar-enhanced Ultrafiltration," Proc. of the 9th AESF/ EPA Conf. on Pollution Control for the Metal Finishing Industry, 25-27 Jan., 1988.

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