Medieval Warfare Review Worksheet Please Describe The

Medieval Warfare Review WorksheetPlease describe the relative advantages and disadvantages between mounted knights and infantry, and between light infantry, light cavalry, and heavy cavalry during the Middle Ages:

o Knights Advantages:

Speed Height Shock power Intimidation factor Mobility Heavily armored Few other weapon systems that can consistently take out an armored knight

Disadvantages: Vulnerable to distance weapons (long bow etc.) Costly to train and armor Useless in siege warfare

o Infantry Advantages:

Better tactics than mounted knights Can hold the line Can take down knights with discipline Less expensive Pike weapons

Disadvantages: Fatigue

o Light Infantry Advantages:

Less expensive to outfit Defensive against light cavalry (shooting missile projectiles/longbow/crossbow)

with accuracy Better tactics Longbow and cross bow (distance advantage)

Disadvantages:o Heavy Cavalry

Advantages: Stirrup

Disadvantages: Heavier (harder to move) Most expensive

o Light Cavalry Advantages:

Guerrilla warfare (superior mobility over heavy cavalry) Compel heavy cavalry to fight Better horsemen

Disadvantages: No stirrup

o Heavy infantry --> defend --> heavy cavalry Heavy cavalry --> attack- --> light infantry

Light infantry --> defend --> light cavalryLight cavalry --> attack --> heavy cavalryLight cavalry --> attack --> heavy infantryLight infantry --> attack --> heavy infantry

Please identify the institutions and individuals who attempted to regulate war during the Middle Ages, and describe the means (how) using examples

o Church of Augustine Christians should fight Christians Justification in war Justification before war

o Church Pax Dei

War as illegal on certain days/times No war against pilgrims, nuns, priests, merchants Not on Holy Days or during Lent

Tregua Dei Treaty of God Framework to enforce peace

Crusades to move the fighting outside of Europe Not real attempt to limit warfare, but just to move it abroad

Aquinas and idea of 'just war' Leaves out what to do about non-combatants and non-Christians

Attempts failed because they had no way to enforce codes of conduct (warfare was endemic in Middle Ages)

Set a precedent that war is bad and thus, we should try to avoid ito Chivalric code

Knights supposed to protect the helpless Failed code because knights did not know or follow this conduct

o Feudalism limited warfare Hierarchical society where only Lord is allowed to declare war

Prevent war because only one person that can decide upon war Failed because everyone claimed the right of the feudal Lord

o Royals enforced taxes and limited warfare to battlefield Levy and raised taxes in an attempt to centralize armies (instead of private armies)

Not effective, but later on would become more effectiveo Petition for King of France for recourse during Hundred Year's War

Please account for the English victory at Agincourt in 1415Please account for the prisoner massacre

o King Henry was afraid that French solders would grab weapons on the ground (discarded from fallen soldiers) and attack them from the rear

Thought French 3rd line was going to attack and the prisoners would break outo Heard there was an attack on supply chain in the rear

Taken too many prisoners because battle had gone unexpectedly well More prisoners than healthy soldiers

o Spite, fear of uprising, and control

Intimidate French army = control and quell the remaining French prisoners to cooperate and surrender

o As inefficient as the chivalric code was in conducting warfare, some knights did buy into the idea of 'just war'

Foot soldiers and bowmen were drags of society (gone to fight for mercenary reasons, and to avoid jail time back home)

Step to killing prisoners was outside what was supposed to happen because these prisoners were valuable

Please account for why men fought at Agincourto King Henry the 5th's honoro Fighting on the side of angels (God's blessings) - fighting for Godo Got a certain amount of alcohol before battle on English side o Henry 5th was a great leadero Fought for peers and for each othero Perks of war (booty and loots)

Medieval Warfare Chapter 1

The Centrality of War to the Middle Ageso Middle Ages spanned from 500 to 1500 (1000 year period)

Fall of Rome in 1492 to beginning of early modern period at the end of 15th century 2 parts: Dark Ages and Middle Ages (5th to 9th century is Dark Ages)

o War/warfare suffused all aspects of Medieval society, but not the case in later societieso Invasions from 7th century to 11th century,

From south the Moslems From east the Magyars From north the Vikings

o Crusades when Europeans fight back (12 major Crusade battles) Look to recapture the Holy Lands

o Dynasties and rudimentary states fighting (local conflicts over land, marriages etc.) each other throughout

o Warfare in Middle Ages is different from modern period Architecture

Landscape of Europe is littered with castles and old fortifications from the Middle Ages

Defense Place to regroup to strike an offensive blow

Armaments survive Used in jousting tournaments

Cultural phenomenon Poetry and manuscripts of Middle Ages

Mounted knight as central character Sir Thomas Malory's King Arthur Don Quixote

Today, literature is not concerned with the archetypal character like the knight

Medieval warfare was part and parcel of the social institutions Feudalism: grant of land in exchange for military service

Structure of society Upper echelons of society

King, Duke, Marquis, Baron, Earl, Knight (all mounted knights) Right and prerogative of the feudal lord to wage war

Church sanctioned the idea of a 'just' war Land grant at the heart of military service

The Knightly Aristocracyo Social stratification is important in upper echelons of society

How does it affect battlefield reality? Theoretically, one is supposed to fight with social equals on the battlefield Mountain knight had a great disdain for foot soldier and his weapons (cross

bow, long bow etc.) Vulnerable to these weapons Social deference

Mountain knight hated the infantry men who used spears (axe or pike) Discipline in a medieval army is uncommon Matter of economics

Cost a lot to be a knight Need an entire team (shield bearer, esquire, scouts, foot soldiers, groomsmen

etc.) Advantage of knight was shock power, speed, height, and distance Mythical ideal of knight

Live up to chivalrous ideals, but never did Siege warfare

Knights dismount and fight as common infantry (totally useless)o Equipment and status

After breeding, war horse is a fierce animal Stands 6'6'' at the withers, 2000 lbs Allowed for height and speed advantage when mounted upon

Knight and horse were armored Warhorse wore leather and then armor Knight would carry a lance, a shield, and be armored initially in the first part of

the Middle Ages in chain mail (deflect piercing from weapons) Lance was 15 to 20 feet long

Stirrup was a very important tool Can't wield a 15 foot lance without the stirrup to balance Raise saddle gives mounted knight even more height Did the stirrup invent the elite, or did the elite already exist?

Elite is predicated upon this stirrup Probably was an elite before that, and earlier elite adapted the stirrup

o Heavy versus light cavalry Difference is the stirrup

Light cavalry doesn't have stirrup or cavalry Who had the fighting advantage?

Came down to strategy and geography Light cavalry could use guerilla warfare (come down on heavy European

cavalry and never defeat it, but harass it and starve it out) Not head to head because mounted knights were armored

Home field advantage had to count for something Heavy cavalry could inflict damage in close quarters

o Armor Jousting tournaments were used for training

Individual identity (great honor, financial reward) War becomes a means to an ends because it paid

Knight was primary battlefield weapon, but he is increasingly becoming less and less important as the cavalry becomes more and more important

Hidden contributions of foot solider (siege warfare came to an end one way or the another because of infantry)

Chain mail evolved into coat mail (Battle of Hastings is an example, bayeaux tapestry) Used till 12 century Then get plate armor

Shields disappear and make way for plate armor No need for a shield anymore Deflect piercing (long bow and cross bow)

As long bow and cross bow becomes more prevalent, armor becomes less flat (so that arrows glace off, flat surfaces can be penetrated)

Armor just gets more and more expensive First arms race

Going back and forth, one side with advantage and then the other side gets another advantage etc.

Offense to defense push-pullInfantry

o Infantry was regularly defeating the mountain knights Swiss pikemen English long-bowmen

o Matter of money Edward the 1st invades and conquers Wales

Gathers together an army of 1,000 knights and 30,000 men Foot soldier plays a big part Wales is mountainous and thus, infantry soldiers are more efficient and

useful Infantry flush the French guerrillas, and knights would hunt them down

Infantry are less expensive to arm than mounted knightso Infantry have better tactics than mounted knights

Discipline is a prerequisite o Infantry not successful in completely moving the mounted knights off battlefield

Social preconceptions because knights are still social, economic, and political leaders Gunpowder allowed for the removal of the knights

Fortificationso Use

Defend territory Place to regroup for an offensive counterattack Later, place where local politics would be administered from Even later, in Middle Ages, place of feudal ceremonies (like jousting tournaments)

o First, response to invasion and threats Motte (keep) and Bailey

Keep made of wood and hay Could be easily burned down

Next, made square keeps out of stone and thus, could not be burned Arrows can glance off from stone Can tunnel below one of the corners to damage the structure (compared to

round keep)o What land is valuable to defend?

Land alongside rivers (transportation means)Ending Notes

o Medieval technology threatened the status of the knight Use of longbow, pikes, and organization of men to hold lines against knights

Challenge knights' superiority on battlefield Fortifications in armor

Prefer infantry in siege situation Knights remain the primary focus of medieval warfare despite the advances in

fortifications, technology, and strategyo The feudal order was very hierarchal in nature

Medieval Warfare Jones Chapter 2

Types of Warfarea. Defensive

o Europe under siege (500 to 10th/11th Century) North: Vikings

Invaded France, Mediterranean, Volga River, Sicily, Constantinople, Eastern part of Roman Empire

Greatest successes in Normandy and Sicily where they established colonies

Magyars coming from Hungary Battle of Lechclad: 50,000 Hungarians soldiers on horseback and many

knights Used numerical superiority to gain advantage Discipline broke down Germans took advantage of that

Moors Better part of Siberian Peninsula and Toulouse, into Southern France by

8th century Mongols

After Genghis Khan's death, threat recedes b. Expansion

o First half is defensive, second half Europeans are pushing backo Tutonic Knights

Wars with Slavs and Pagan tribes Mini crusades with goal to Christianized the Pagans and the Slaves of Eastern

Europe Due role of conquering and Christianizing

Killing and plunder commonplaceo Reqonquista

Spanish Christian forces push Moors out of Spanish Peninsulac. Crusades

o 11th to 12th centuryo 9 major Crusades

Most were failureso Battles between European knights and Arabs that controlled Middle East at that time

Second Crusade: Battle between King Richard Lion Hearted (Kingdom of Heaven movie)

Control over logistics and battle chains and could harass Western knights to giving up

d. Rise of Organized/Regulated Waro War was endemic and also accepted

Who had the right to wage war? Everybody claimed the right Investiture: right to appoint the next Pope (Holy Roman Empire thought

it was their right, and Cardinals thought it was their right) Petty conflicts also

Dukes looking to increase their power (regional wars) Duly constituted authority contested Hanseatic League of Northern Germany

War was accepted as morally right Natural part of human society

o After 12th century, greater organization and strategy Knight is supposed to be a public servant and live with chivalric ideals

Make sure there is peace in the land Hired gun of institutions who can actually do something to regulate

(Church and State = monarchy)

Early Middle Agesa. From Roman to Christian Empire

o End of Roman Empire, lose peace (lose Pax Romana)o The absence of power is like the absence of air (a vacuum), something is going to rush

in to fill in that void Beginning of Middle Ages, the Church fills this space

How will Christianity govern warfare? Christianus Sum Non Possum Militaire

I am Christian, I cannot be a soldier in the military St. Augustine outlines the idea of what just war is, and what unjust

war is Augustinian Code that governs war in the abstract sense

b. Augustine and Just Waro Augustinian Code condones certain types of violence and outlaws other types of

violenceo Jus in Bello (justification in war)

Fighting well Confining destructiveness Treating POWs with respect Not employing torture

Rejecting the notion that everything goes Says nothing about non-combatant

How a Christian soldier fights a Christian soldier, not how a Christian soldier fights combatants, Pagans, Muslims, or Jews

o Jus ad Bellum (justification before war) Just cause, like self-defense Comparative justice is the idea that the destructiveness that you cause by

going to war is going to right a greater wrong Duly constituted authority to declare Right intention Probability of success

World War I, everybody expected to win that war! Last resort

c. From Bellum to Werrao From civilized Roman warfare to Germanic tribes concept of what war was

For Germanic tribes, Werra meant enrichment About plunder and tribute Enforcing one's authority on subject people Few hundred men Little regulation Slave combatants and make them acknowledge your power

Bellum means war

Later Middle Agesa. War Enriched

o After Europe defends itself, it branches out and becomes more prosperous Get trade and prosperity Cash component 1200-1348: high prosperity Idea that war is bad, should regulate No central authority

Secular powers are non-existentb. War Controlled: Ecclesiastical

i. Pax Dei Peace of God in 989 Declares war as illegal on certain individuals at certain times Priests, nuns, pilgrims, and merchants are protected (most non-combatants)

Protect people from war Illegal to declare war on Sundays and during Let Rules did not work

ii. Tregua Dei Truce of God in 1027 Institution of peace Counsel of bishops consider an ideal or ethics for chivalry Created manpower/framework to put priests in all the courts of Europe, to be

there to educate the young nobles in the idea that war is bad Church can only work in the subtle means of background

iii. Crusades

Regulate war or control fighting Twofold purpose

Christianizing the Middle East Doing work of god

Getting soldiers out of Europe Keeping men out of harm's way

Most practical way to regulate warc. War Controlled: Feudal

i. Chivalry Failed code that knights were supposed to help the helpless Unknown and lost on knights themselves

d. War Controlled: Royal Stylei. Taxation, Salaried Service, and Administration

Merchant community is doing well Buy into the idea that merchants should pay taxes on their income to

the monarchy who can then hire permanent, standing armies National armies that are paid regularly

Feudal system is not enough Need to pay knights regularly to limit the violence

More efficiencye. Aquinas and Just War

o Aquinas brings about what 'just war' is Must be officially declared Only government can undertake Spoils are allowed, but only in the context of war

o No more successful than Church or Augustine Church's efforts provided precedents for future generations to build upon

Original idea that war is wrongThe Hundred Years War

a. Controlo 1337-1453 between English and French over dynastic considerations (end of Middle

Ages)o Battles are overrated

Siege warfare and occupation of land and territoryo French win this war because they have the local population on their side

b. Non-Combatantso Civilians suffering the most over this hundred year periodo Both sides plundered what they needed from the land

English used scorched earth tactics to ruin morale of community Instilling fear

c. Regulationo All regulation is a total failureo People don't expect much (very fatalistic)

Petition the King of France for recourse English plundered harvest etc. Counseling King to do something Some institutional recourse was progress

Scope of Renaissance Warfare

Cross Against Crescenta. Perpetual Global War

o Warfare had an increasing mathematical or scientific outlooko Borders are still very fluid in the 16th century because the monarchy is weak

Sovereignty resides with one individual and with death/marriage, the borders change all the time

o States strengthened once they controlled semi-professional modern armies Had right to wage war

b. Military Advantage of Westo Christian West against predominant Muslim empire

Seen by both sides as a religious, legitimate war All about controlling trade routes and land

o Ottoman Empire is unified under one ruler and Christian West is constantly in fighting amongst themselves

Christian West not acting in a unified way Interstate competition

Ottoman Empire is one unified empire which cooperates with other areas Europe has political, ethnic, religious, and dynastic rivalries Sharpens these states and creates an entrepreneurial war mentality

Ottoman Empire gets lazy, while Europe gets competitive and innovativeo Up until 16th century, Spanish had most success

Driven Moors out of Spain back to North Africa Under the guise of the Hapsburg would continue the fight for the West versus the

Ottoman Empire Fought in Balkans and Mediterranean

o Fact that West wasn't defeated was a miracleo 1530s = Ottoman Empire expanding into Europe

Besieged Vienna twice (failed both times) Treated its subject peoples in a very fair way (home rule)

Leave local elite in place, but just make sure to pay taxes regularly Europeans never learned how to control conquered people well enough to

earn their allegianceo Under guidance of Spanish (Hapsburg Dynasty, dynastic family that controlled Spain, Holy

Roman Empire, and Netherlands) Spain collecting gold and silver across the Americas to finance war

o Technologically, both sides are equalo Military revolution plays out differently in Europe

Result of Italian Wars and bette fortifications Europe (with money and fortification design) built fortifications across the Balkans

which the Ottomans could not penetratedc. Battle of Lepanto, 1571

o Most climatic naval battle o European navies vs. Ottoman navies

European navy comprised of subjects from Genoa, Venice, and Holy Roman Empire (Spain) = Holy League

Ottoman: 230 naval ships

Lasted 3-5 hours Ottoman lost 80 ships and had 130 captures

1800 European cannons vs. 730 Ottoman cannons Faster more mobile ships Better tactics and better leadership Decisive blow

o The decisive victory meant little in the longrun Holy League is formed under the direction of the Hapsburg, and they unite to fight

and actually win Bicker about the spoils and cannot take any long-term advantage of defeating

the Ottoman navy Spanish wanted to focus on North Africa, and Genoa and Venice wanted

to focus on regaining Cyprus Ottoman quickly rebuilt their navy and removed the European temporary

advantaged. The Dividing Line

o Spain signs treaty with Ottomano Ottoman keeps all land until 1595o Both sides realize that they cannot displace enough power to move the other opponento Once it stops expanding, it doesn't have the land to reward it's armies with

Spoils cease, and get in-fighting o Ottoman Empire eventually referred to as 'the sick man of Europe'

 Habsburg vs. Valois (The Italian Wars)

a. Dreams and Fears of Universal Dominationo Conflict: France is scared that Hapsburgs will control all of Europe

Lead by Valois family Battle between 2 dynastic families with famous holdings

b. The Italian Waro 1494-1599, fight intermittently over 60 year periodo Each city state has to take on a relation with a greater power in order to survive

Fight between city states become proxy warso Hapsburgs win

French sign treaty that France will never interfere again French side with Soulaman the 1st of Ottoman Empire

Put together a naval force to capture Monaco and Nice o Significant advances in terms of military technology (guns and artillery)o Significant advances in tactics (infantry square)o Combined arms (suns, muskets, and artillery)o Hapsburgs become the most powerful empire in Europeo Infantry is the most preeminent formation on the battlefield

Highly complex in terms of maneuverso Artillery makes its first appearance on battlefield

Artillery is mobile Will increasingly be responsible for death

o Siege warfare changes

Dealing with city states which are fortified towns Fortifications are increasingly getting better

Siege tactics have to get better as fortifications get better

 Catholic Against Protestant

a. Internal Wars of Religiono Wars are civil wars in that the fighting never spills over into wars between states

Never had a Catholic state fighting a Protestant stateo Northern Italy and Netherlands, Hapbsurgs prefer to see it remain Catholic

15th and 16th century: ground zero points for military technology and evolution of tactics and the evolution of fortifications

o 17th century that we see interstate warfare over religion (30 years war) States fighting each other because of religion

o Dynastic wars, East vs. West wars, and religious wars intermingled with each other French allied with the Ottoman at one point

 War and State Formation

a. Rising Cost of Waro How did governments adjust to the rising cost of war?

Fear of bankruptcy Army size increased --> supply increased Taxes increased over century by a factor of 4 Matter of borrowing

Reached their credit limit because they would default Credit lines got tight and banks/banking families would not lend out money =

often led to peace Dynasties led a borrowing plateau and weren't able to carry out war

To raise more money, monarchies had to go to their Parliaments Medieval hangovers that would become important institutions

Because of war and cost of war, reached limit of monarchical autonomy Had to go to Parliament to get new funds (equation of power

changes) Government begins to grow as a function of supporting the war New arrangements for war (local court

b. Lengthening Reach of Governmento Modern state emerges

c. New Splendor - Weak Monarchieso Dynastic court still at center, but increasingly esoteric

Court became les pertinent for day to day governance issuesRenaissance Warfare

Renaissance Overviewo 1450-1600so Age of discovery and rediscover (looking to the past from scientific literature to military

science)o Age of great works of art

o Age of economic expansiono Period when the modern or early modern state apparatus will emerge from the politically

dysfunctional apparatus of the Middle Ages Origins of the modern state

Gunpowder

a. Conventional vs. Revisionist Viewso Cannons arrive in siege battlefield sceneso Gun powder makes it way into Renaissance warfareo Reduction in aristocratic powers because of these battlefield changes

Not as powerful militarily as they were in the Middle Ages Benefits the Kings/feudal Lords/States because they can now employ semi-

professional standing armies Theoretically, a State can employ a semi-professional standing army (but

not really until the Napoleonic era) Scales power balance out in their favor (gotten rid of old exchange of

land for service) Merchant community says you can tax us for protection

o Conventional: gunpowder is at the heart of all these changes in the battlefield King having the most power because he controls the army

o Revisionist: cannot have such broad social, economic, and political change because of a mono-causal explanation

More going on than just gunpowder entering the scene Scientific advantages New ways of thinking of God Age of exploration and discovery (Europeans going abroad - Magellan ) Inventions like printing press (information can be easily disseminated)

Gunpowder invented in China, and had no such effect on economy or politics Fighting class in Europe was most esteemed whereas in China, warrior

class was lowest Slice up causal pie in many ways, but gunpowder is most important as a cause

of changesb. First Cannons

o Europeans learned to build cannons from the Chinese Through Silk Trade Route across Asia, Mediterranean, and then Europe

o Replace catapults as siege weapon of choice Cultural fascination with things that go 'boom' in European courts Cheaper gunpowder Iron cannonballs replaced stone cannonballs towards end of 15th century General technological progress that underlay cannon technology

First cannons in mid 14th century were made of leather and wood (worked one time)

Technology transfer from bell-making to cannon making Time was dictated and run by bells of Church

o By 16th century, cannons become mobile Not only used in siege warfare, but also in battlefield

Otherwise, had to float instruments in

o Growing importance of cannons can be summed up in the phrase "ultima ratio regum," meaning "the final arguments of Kings"

Kings controlled armies in Renaissance period Kings with most cannons became the most powerful

o Political progress, religious backing, cultural enthusiasm = military advancesc. First Responses

o Thick Walls Built thicker walls for defense

o Layered Towers Out towers to counteract the appearance of the cannon Push cannon as far away as possible Return more fire to sieger

o Outworks and Moats Moats and ditches pushing the besieging army further and further

o Angle Bastions/Star Fort The trace italienne Angle bastion as part of fortification design More points from which to fire back out into the attacking army Flanking fire Fire double the rate of fire onto a single point

Infantry

a. Old-New Style Infantryo Comes to prominence on Renaissance battlefieldo Cheaper to outfito Have great drill and discipline

Getting pikemen drilled and disciplined to the point where they will not break their pike squares

b. Ancient Rome and the New Reformerso Francis I

Army in 1534, calling it the first modern style army Calls up 7 battalions and uses this to continue the war with the Hapsburgs

Does not hire out mercenary, all from French regions Did not want to hire out

Focused on infantry instead of mounted knight Mounted knights are officers

Recreated Roman phalanx by putting infantry in the middlec. Machiavelli

o Writes in The Prince how the state and military should combine to create a virtuous 'new Rome'

d. Tactics of Aeliano William of Nasa

Dutch military thinker and political leader Brings a particular ancient military strategist to the battlefield (Aelian, Greek

but lived during time of Roman Empire in Roman century) Aelian was a strong believer in infantry and drill Soldiering should be a full-time occupation

State should have a full time standing army e. Infantry Square

o Drilling is important because if you can get your pike square to be drilled and disciplined so that it won't break, there will be a more effective fighting unite

Different from mercenaries because mercenaries tend to ebb and flow and as long as they are getting paid, they fight valiantly but without discipline

Mounted knights would not fight with discipline but instead, would search for bounty and glory

f. Swiss Pikeso Called the 'hedgehog' (men in middle with their pikes up, and men surrounding them)

No way to dislodge ito Tend to be mercenaries and that will cause a problem for the newly forming states of

Europe because they go to the highest bidder Not dependable because one team might be out-bid

o Highly trained and disciplined mercenaries (movement towards national army)o Most formidable battlefield unito Replaced by Spanish tersio

g. Development of Written Drillso Drill and discipline comes with handbookso Information is disseminated across the armies across Europe

Need to be able to read New officer class has to be literate Different from mounted knights that didn't have to be literate to be

effective Foot soldiers can remain illiterate during Renaissance period

Had to think about logistics and how to deploy troops most effectively

Survivals and Extinctions

a. Crossbow and Longbowo Still find them on the field, but will get replace by arquebus

Crossbow is deadly and more accurate than the early musket, but it is more expensive and it takes longer to reload

Longbow requires too much intensive trainingb. Arquebus and Musket

o New tactics have to be developed to integrate the new technology Put gunners in the outside column to protect the pikemen

Gunpowder technology was not offensive, but defensivec. New Caesars and Old Men at Arms

o Mounted knight is still present, but gunpowder and pikes changes his role Becomes the new officer and studies warfare instead Emerge from lance-carrying men at arms to cavalry (pistol and sword to

replace armor and lance)d. Pistoleerse. Emergence of an Officer Class

Conclusiona. Renaissance Rethinking

i. Man at arms evolves into early modern officerii. Infantry becomes drilled and disciplined

iii. Warfare takes on a scientific, mathematical aspectiv. State is increasingly gaining control over armies (semi-professional army) and

legitimate war resides with the stateRenaissance Army Review Worksheet

Describe the typical composition of both armies (the fighting units) Renaissance: gunners

Describe the moment of Engagement: Mounted knights charge (no discipline) and relegate infantry unit to secondary status Knights rebuffed by pike square Renaissance army counter with field artillery and move pike square forward As pike square advance, medieval army bowmen advance Pike square advance into medieval men at arms Renaissance army send in officer class/pistoleers to clean up

Start with missile fire Medieval attack pike squares, renaissance cannons attack archers Archers stand no chance again cannons Pistoleers

Describe the results and explain why Technology Drill and discipline

o Pike squares do not break and charge forward Renaissance army is larger and much better funded than medieval army

17th Century Warfare

Varieties of war in the 17th century (Chameleon War)o Century dominated by warfare

1669 and 1770, only 2 years with no war But warfare is not endemic

Fighting warfare climaxed in first half of century during Thirty Years War (1618-148)

Destructive, high death rates, villages destroyed, spread of diseaseo Style of war depended on the circumstances, and circumstances tended to the extremes

Eastern Europe: war wasn't dominated by the state Light cavalry, bowmen on horseback Undertake war of plunder against neighbors as nomadic peoples At night, speed was imperative for the Tartars and the Magyars who needed to

avoid the Polish and Russian army (Kossacks) Fluid in that potential allies and adversaries were always changing because

there were no rules of engagement

No state apparatus to enforce and control the area (not enough finances to maintain a standing army that could enforce the law in such a large area)

Western Europe: war was more formalized Fighting of the Spanish-Dutch War

Highly developed state apparatuses Begins as a religious revolt Fighting adheres to certain rules of engagement

Very formalized in terms of declaring war because of states and power (states look to control violence by being able to stop and start war)

Local Catholics and Protestants united for a while against the Spanisha. Land Warb. Sea War

Found in Mediterranean Rules of engagement were to capture the enemy ship and steal as much plunder Very informal Anglo-Dutch war: no land fighting, just highly formalized naval engagements

Highly regulated by states involved Navies are really expensive, and only a hand few of European states can

project their power through naval force Before 17th century, navies were powered through oars or wind but by the

17th century, all navies were powered by the wind (power was no longer a part of naval warfare)

Innovations and Limitations: 1600 - 1648a. New Drills and Discipline

i. Maurice of Nassau (Prince of Orange) By beginning of 17th century, land war had become inconclusive

Defensive stalemate because of weapon systems and fortifications Fortresses were superior to the tactics/technology used to

besieging a fortress Offense had become a bit jumbled

No one figured out how to put together a competent army 45 mutinies which prolonged warfare

Maurice saw that firepower will break this stalemate on the battlefield Guns not pikes would win, and pikemen should be there to protect the

gunmen instead (not the reverse like before) Tactical innovations: comes up with something called the 'deep square'

Alternate between pikeman, gunman, pikeman, gunman…etc Use pikemen to protect gunner from any cavalry charge when

gunner is reloading How well this worked depended upon efficiency and training

ii. Gustavus Adolphus King of Sweden, one of the leaders of the Protestant forces in Thirty Years War Introduces new recruitment methods and a more intense drill discipline

regime than Maurice Required that all villages provide 1 man out of 10 to the Swedish army

for 10 years of service

Central government had to pay for uniform and equipment and in return, the soldier would get land and a pension

Instead of 10 x 100 in deep square (as opposed to 25 x 25 in traditional pike square)

Puts leftover men in reserves and can eventually move them to the battlefield when needed

More flexibility on battlefield Big on combined arms

Had field artillery unites, cavalry, and infantry = all equal in terms of importance, but each one had specific roles on the battlefield

Crosstrained so all soldiers were capable of being used anywhere on the battlefield

b. Financial and bureaucratic limits Tactical changes require more men and larger standing armies

Requires money and supply and a firm control over logistics Cannot get around supply problem States try to ask the right questions and start to come up with the right

answers as a result of the Thirty Years WarThe Thirty Years War (1618)

a. From Religious to National Conflict Replay of what happened in the Spanish-Dutch War

Protestant vs. Catholic Catholic: Spain with a centralized bureaucracy, Holy Roman Empire Protestant: Sweden, Netherlands

Started as a religious war but at a certain point, national interest overtakes the religious rational for the war

Because the war was so destructive and had threatened the very existence of these states

National interest takes precedence over religious interest at the time States put own interest over religious interest

b. Peace of Westphalia Civilian casualty rate was 30%, mortality rate ran 15%-20%, disease and famine

(scorched earth policy) Treaty called for religious toleration inside the Holy Roman Empire Legal precedent for religious toleration

Define borders with a large army to defend borders State has to get bigger in order to pay for and administer new larger standing

armiesEmergence of Standing Armies

a. Size Reach unprecedented sizes Louis the 14th will have the biggest army in the late 17th century (300,000 standing,

trained, professional army) Succeeds in expanding French borders

b. Bureaucracies Need new methods for recruiting and training Had to be able to exploit resources Monarchy sold offices that had rights to collect taxes

Crown is selling a right, not really giving anything up States increasingly control and organize violence States that have strong armies push war away into weaker spaces

Pushes war away to the borders to allow peace to exist inside the country 2 individuals that make this possible for Louis

Michelle D'Atelier and Marquis Loureve Create a centralized structure for the army Made the highest ranking officers directly accountable to the state on a

full time professional basis Payment was a direct function of the central government

Oversaw the logistics of warc. Space of War/Space of Peace

Obstacles to Offensive Wara. Dispersion

No one had formulated an effective defensive structure Decisive victories hard to find States have become reluctant to engage in mass battle

Reluctant to put all eggs in one basketb. Fortressesc. Supplyd. Weaponry

Military Revolution Worksheet

Who put forward the Military Revolution thesis? What is the thesis in a nutshell?Michael Roberts ; Parker extended it by focusing more on military change in relation to European domination (evolution of the State); change in tactics, strategy, larger armies, and impact on society; firepower causes everything to change essentiallyCannons:How did the development of cannons force changes in fortifications (trace out the evolution of fortresses)Redesign fortresses to resist bombardment; trace itallienne (return double the rate of fire that the besieger can lay on you), bastions, moats, etc.; no longer have vertical fortresses; geometric designs; first built thicker walls; pushed besiegers away to give a return fire advantage; warfare becomes more scientific; open field battles aren't as important as siege warfare What was the effect of improved fortifications for siege warfare?Longer to take fortresses down, use more men and more artillery; sapping and mining (underground trenches); starved out defenders using strategic attrition; mounted knights are gone and are replaced by pikemen and musketeers What was the impact of gunpowder on battlefield formations?Changed the pike formation, more long and thin, more vulnerable had to be well trained and there face-to-face combat Describe the progression (types) and the problems of early guns.

Too long to reload; too heavy to transport by land; not mobile enough; easier to train with and cheaper; really inaccurate; experiment with leather guns, but attempts were unsuccessful; lit fuse matchlock bad because it would go out and would have to relight, a fuse exposed to elements, rains a lot, not dependable --> wheel lock, combustion was internal as the wheel turned, it propelled the musket ball --> flintlock, most efficient because it uses steel and a flint to create a spark inside an internal chamber; pikemen ushered off battlefield because he is merged into musketeer with the fixed bayonet (can resist cavalry charges both ways) Tactical Changes:What's the biggest battlefield change in terms of who reigned supreme?No longer relied on brute force; recruited from overseas Is cavalry still used in early modern warfare, and how?Used it more for scouting than on the battlefield; had trouble supplying and feeding the cavalry; infantry replaced cavalry; bred war horses; use of cavalry changed in early modern period; instead of using lance and armor, used pistols; geographic distinction, still used heavily in Eastern Europe, full of vast spaces while West has siege warfare and the horse does not do much in siege warfare; Poles develop lance units Who introduced changes into infantry tactics, how was infantry deployed, what was the goal, did it work, and what was the effect?Maurice of Nassa created the new pike formation of the volley technique/deep square in unison, maximize outgoing fire and minimize incoming fire; Gustavos thins out the line to make them 3 deep because of the training What are some of the logistical problems?Have to supply large armies, outfitting them with weaponry, getting food for all soldiers; difficult to shelter, especially during winter campaings; had to pay troops on time; dispersed at the end of the campaign season but now have to continue to pay and train them (doesn't end); desertion; transport with road conditions Military Revolution and Naval Warfare:What was method and object of classical naval warfare?Classical technique of ramming and boarding using galleys moved by oars; slaves and convicts manned the oars; then got naval guns What was the problem with this arrangement, and the solution?Had to get really close to the opposite ships; couldn't broadside because the oars are on the side; stick cannons where oars previously were What were the keys to early modern naval warfare, the difference between winning and losing an engagement?Firepower and speed/maneuverability, larger ship sizes without increasing the size of the navy; smaller crew sizes; faster ships to maneuver around Who were the big winners in the early modern naval arms race?English; Dutch with the frigades, money, design, and sailing culture; FrenchPrivateers:

What were they?Private war ship; state supported piracy Why did states sanction them?Prosperous; told to raid Spanish treasureships and enemy merchant ships in order to destroy their economic power Why ultimately did states see the institution as a bad idea?Not capturing battleships but rather, were plundering; hard to control once at sea; bad reputation; eventually people stopped trying to attack the individual ships, they attacked the home country Naval Changes and LimitationsNaval recruitment remained a problem, why? Often times, conscription was not enough and thus, convicts were often recruited. What about solutions? What was the long term effect?Administrative Success and State Limitations:Who was at the forefront of administrative changes, and why? What's the big problem, and the solution?The Critics:What do critics say about the MR thesis?Parker Extension:How was the West-initially so small and deficient in most natural resources-able to overcome this situation through military and naval power and conquer global empires?

War in the Age of Reason

17th Century Lessonsa. Frequency

o Had Europeans learned anything from endemic warfare of 17th century? 18th century warfare characterized as being less frequent because of: diffusion

of weapon's technology across continent and burgeoning state apparatus (can control warfare)

Leads to tactical strategic stalemateb. Decisiveness

o War that was fought was indecisive (rarely was an opponent defeated in an absolute way)

c. "Civilized"o Did not intrude on the civilian population like in Middle Ages and 17th Century (30

Years War) New Weapons -will define and constrain 18th century tactics

a. Socket Bayonet

o Came into use in the 1690s and became more wide spread in 18th centuryo Bayonet that you attach to outside of musket barrel, can both fire musket and can use

it as a pikeo Combines light infantry of musketeers with heavy infantry of pikemen

Lead to end of pikemen in 1703 (French) and 1704 (British) Creates greater tactical flexibility

b. Flintlock Musketo Much greater rate of efficacy

Fired properly between 75-85% of the time, while the wheellock was about 50%

o Introduction of prepackaged paper cartridges (2-3 shots a minute vs. 1 shot a minute)o Greater fire power

c. Artilleryo Not as dramatic in weapons technology changeso Swedish introduce more rapid reloading (quicker reloading because of fastening

mechanism)o Prussians introduce a new screw (greater accuracy)o Greater efficiency and accuracy

d. Rifleo Limitations of 18th century warfareo Better than musket because it is way more accurate

Musket is extremely inaccurate because it has a smooth barrel, the musket ball round will come out of smooth barrel and picks up a spin and could go anywhere

Rifles more accurate because they have a groove barrel and can thus, set the spin on the musket/bullet for greater accuracy

o Europeans do not adopt rifle technology because Rifle did not support a bayonet (musket barrel longer than rifle barrel) 18th century rifle took a minute to load vs. a musketeer who could shoot out 3

rounds in that same given time Took an expert to fire vs. musket is easily learnable Cost more than a musket

e. Breach Loaded Rifleo Limitations of 18th century warfareo Holy grail of rifles that could be rear-loaded and with semi-automatic fireo Can load bullets from rear of rifles (took minute to load) down a grooved barrelo Have the efficiency of the best muskets in terms of firepower, and have accuracy of

rifle

New Armies & Tacticsa. Russian

o Move to the East in 18th century where Russia and Prussia become major playerso Rise of Prussia and Russia were not mutually exclusive to the demise of some of the

Western powers (balance) - Spain and Netherlands were not first rate powers any more

Population: both had very large and efficiently used populations o Rise of Russia comes at the expense of Sweden

Peter the Great, the Czar of the 18th century Foundations for the military reforms that he undertakes were already

put into place by his predecessor, Czar Alexis Hired foreign officers from the West Installed Western technology (tactics, new gun/artillery/naval

systems) Builds a very large standing army (professional, standing, Western style)

Created 29 Western style regiments that were permanent and trained

Used a new recruiting system based on Swedish system of Gustavos Adulfos

1 in 20 households donate a son in 1705 Raised an army of 45,000 additional solders End result: 200,000 men in standing army

Inspired the naval build-up When Peter dies in 1725, Russia has 34 legitimate ships

Was a great enthusiast Encouraged rest of mobility to go through military training

Built engineering schools for officer class Built military schools

All made Russia a viable military stateo Difference with West:

Geography, vastness of space Adds to problems of state interface (hard to deploy armies)

o Fastest growing b. Prussia

o Most prominent of the new players between Prussia and Russiao Frederick the Great/II

Predecessor who laid the foundation stones for his new and improved army/state

His predecessor had done more of the work than Alexis for Peter Frederick I and Frederick II essentially

Successes: 1740s takes land from Austrians in Celacia (?) Wars, and during Seven years war against Louis XV of France, Catherine Great of Russia, and Maria Theresa of Austria

Had great timing and great luck! Was a decisive leader

o Essentially evolves to support its army (state set up to finance and organize and army)o Superior army because:

Decisive leadership Highly trained and disciplined Superior recruiting system (invents national guard system) Oblique order:

Maneuver with speed to catch opponents off guard Catch opponent from flanks Not a frontal assault Becomes less effective once opponents plan for it

Maurice and Gustavos returned offense to preeminence on the battlefield

c. Tacticso Rooted in weapons technology of that timeo Defense finds itself superior because by combining the musketeer and the pikeman

into one individual, that unit could go from a defensive position with firepower and cavalry power

o Stalemate on battlefield Break the stalemate through maneuver (like oblique order) or deception

(Duke of Marlbaro) Deception: using diversionary tactics, draw off opponents defense to

one side Malpaquet against British and French

The Seven Years War

a. Prussia v. Everybodyo Climatic war of 18th century warfare, first world waro Takes place in multiple theaters

Fighting in North America (American-Indian warfare), Caribbean, Africa, India, Philippines, Europe

o Not decisive defeats o Prussia survives

Prussia should have been crushed, but saved by Frederick Miracle of the House of Brandenburg

Prussia starts this war against British councel Reason for the war is Prussia's rise, and this makes Austria and

Russia nervous (conspire) Frederick employs a 'strike-while-the-iron-is-hot' mentality

Prussia and Germany have terrible geography Good strategy to maneuver

o Overseas war between British and French and their navies/colonial marine units Did have decisive outcomes (British win and displace the French from building

an empire)b. Bourbons v. Britain

o Bourbans (Kings of France) vs. Britain with Spain involved British blockade part of French navy, knocked out of the war, British capture

sugar islands/Canada because they control the seao Not decisive, because all the major states survive

Prussia survives intact Russia loses bid to destroy Prussia but secures itself a high seat British score a decisive victory over French and lay the groundwork for their

empire Austria and France (losers) use defeats as a point to reform their militaries

Persisting Problemsa. Logistics

o Desertion (horrible conditions, drills etc.)o Supply (transport system was not dependable)

o Sickness (exposure to the elements)o Barracks

Start to separate military society from civilian society Done to keep the soldiers together so they can constantly drill, keep an eye so

they won't desert, stay warm in winter and not die of exposure to the elements

Helpful to civilian relations Stop using local resources and pillaging Keep men off the streets

b. Recruitmenti. Voluntary

Highly effective because: Motivation for common man: pay, a job, the possibility of enrichment,

plunder, boredom, venture, change of scenery Motivation for officer: new group in society looking to make their life

enriched, respectable job, petty nobility send sons to officers, sons of soldiers aspire to be officers

Motivation for foreigner: religious dissenters, states not keen on arming their own people and thus liked to employ foreigners

ii. Conscription British navy used press gang (drunk too much at pub, and wake up on a ship) British tied regiments to certain counties

Give local nobles power to create militias Prussians used cantoan system

All men registered at birth in what is equivalent to selective service Serve 3 weeks each Spring in militia after 18 Highly drilled and highly disciplined (national guard concept)

25% of recruits were rejected for physical inferiorities (enough people to get the job done that could even take the best)

Russians had Peter the Great's system Austrian system was very diverse (10 nationalities) and thus, no system was in

place yetc. Military Life

Warfare and Militarized Society

o Limited in aims and impact on civilians Balance of power and diplomacy: it is better to Civilian participation went down in terms of pain quotient

Civilians paid for it though (taxes increase)o Absolute decisiveness

Russians defeat Sweden, Hapsburgs

Test 1 Review

Battle of Lepanto: The7th October 1571 Battle of Lepanto was the most climatic naval battle between the European navy and the Ottoman navy. The battle lasted 3-

5 hours. The European navy consisted of subjects from the Holy League, like Genoa, Venice, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire. The Ottoman navy lost 200 galleys and some 30,000 men. Ultimately, the Ottoman navy lost because Europeans had faster more mobile ships, better tactics, better leadership, and were able to give a decisive blow. However, this decisive victory meant little in the long run; the Holy League eventually wins under the direction of the Hapsburgs, but they cannot take any long-term advantage of defeating the Ottoman navy because they bicker about the spoils. As such, the Ottoman Empire quickly rebuilt their navy and removed the European temporary advantage.

Battle of Agincourt: keegan, howard (casualties agincourt also); jonesTook place on October 25, 1415 in France. Henry V led the English to victory. He claimed land on French soil, and campaigned to capture it. The men fought because of honor, alcohol, and because Henry was seen as a great leader. Longbowmen took out cavalry; many men fell in the mud trying to charge. Henry ordered the men to kill the prisoners. He worried that they would grab weapons scattered on the ground and regroup. He did it for fear, to control the situation (French were still amassed), and for intimidation. Men were cautious at first, because they wanted the ransom that could be gained from hostages. Only the most illustrious prisoners were spared. The English were heavily outnumbered but won.

Flintlock Musket: howard a little (firearms, 16, 60-61,76,78), weapons; jones 269-270The earliest musket mechanism, preceding the matchlock and wheellock, introduced about 1630 during the military revolution. The flintlock rapidly replaced earlier firearm-ignition technologies. It continued to be in common use for over two centuries after being a product of weaponry evolution. Also, it happens to be one of the arms used by infantry soldiers, but adopted slowly by the standing armies due to its imperfection at its early development stages. Eventually, the army would adopt them; therefore causing changes that would revolutionize warfare.

Longbow: howard; jones 157A weapon typically used against mounted nights from a distance in attempt to avoid their lances and prove their attacks effective on the battlefield. This weapon is widely used in medieval warfare by foot soldiers, and attests to their mobility (superiority) against the mounted knight at war. It will normally allow its user a fairly long draw, at least to the jaw. In spite of the French’s gradual conversion to firepower and usage of gunpowder at war, the British remained closely attached to the longbow withstand the musket’s inaccuracy. English use of longbows was

effective against the French during the Hundred Years’ War, and most famously at the Battle of Agincourt.

Peace of Westphalia: The Peace of Westphalia was a treaty that called for religious toleration inside the Holy Roman Empire during the time of the Thirty Years War (in 1618). When the civilian casualty rate was 30%, the mortality rate was around 15% to 20%, and when disease, famine, and destruction with the scorched earth policy were prevalent, the Peace of Westphalia was a legal precedent for religious toleration. It defined borders with a large army to defend these borders, and the state had to get bigger in order to pay for and administer new standing armies.

Trace Italienne: The character of warfare developed in early modern times with the presence or absence of the trace italienne in a given area. First seen in the mid-15th century in Italy as a response to the French invasion of the Italian peninsula, this star fort design evolved in the age of black powder, when cannons dominated the battlefield. From a system of vertical defense, which could be rapidly demolished by gunfire and taken by storm, the next best fortification system was the trace italienne, with bastions that bristled with guns. Traditional medieval age fortifications were vulnerable to damage by cannon-fire. In contrast, this star fortress was a flat structure comprised of many triangular bastions specifically designed to cover each other, and included a ditch. This fortification system was so important because the development and constant refinement of defensive systems based upon the trace italienne helped to fuel an expansion in the armed forces of the major European states. For example, ravelins, hornworks, crownworks, and detached forts were added to the original trace italienne to create a complex symmetrical structure.

Privateering: howard 51;martin lender great britain privateering, 79,116,145-146,147In simple words, privateers are private warships recruited (letter of marquee) to capture merchants and used to destroy neighboring countries’ economic power. Basically, they were hired pirates (recruited civilians who were recruited by the government). The primary object was to harass the enemy, but it was often practiced as a retaliatory measure. After the defeat (1692) of the French fleet by the Dutch and English, France commissioned privateers, who preyed upon English commerce. Private ownership distinguished the privateer from an ordinary warship; letters of marque and reprisal (commission issued by a government) distinguished it from a pirate craft. One reason why they were sanctioned is due to sinking ships rather than capturing them to be used as a bargaining chip by responsible nations (for their captivity).

Renaissance: jones 191-192/202/204-207

The Renaissance was the period from 1450 to the 1600s. It was the age of discovery and rediscovery, in that many looked to past knowledge from scientific literature to military science. It was the age of great works of art, the age of economic expansion, and the period when the modern or early modern state apparatus emerged from the politically dysfunctional apparatus of the Middle Ages. It produced the origins of the modern state, and gunpowder makes it way into Renaissance warfare. Renaissance rethinking includes changes like: man at arms evolves into the early modern officer, infantry becomes drilled and disciplined, warfare takes on a scientific, mathematical aspect, the state is increasingly gaining control over armies (rise of the semi-professional army), and legitimate war resides with the state.

Frederick the Great: keegan, howard; jones 305, in general jonesHe was the leader of Prussia during the mid 18th century. He was a great military leader, very decisive, and made the army highly trained and highly disciplined. He took part of Austria in the Silesian Wars and led Prussia in the Seven Years War. One of his tactics was the oblique order, which was overloading one side of the rank, then outflanking the opponent.

Maurice of Nassau: keegan; jonesIn 1599, Maurice of Nassau secured funds from the States-General to equip the entire field army of the republic with weapons of the same size and caliber and, at about the same time, his cousin John began work on a new method of advanced military training: the illustrated drill manual. He thrived, alongside count Louis of Nassau, to impose drill and discipline in the Dutch army, which later made it a standard, in order to fight to group the Dutch army and have it fight in unison. The “volley fire” technique they propose calls for superior courage, proficiency and discipline in each individual soldier. The goal is to use firepower so one line is always firing, and minimize incoming fire. The key was to practice. Thinks firepower will break stalemate in the battlefield.

Feudalism: howard (9-10He was the leader of Prussia during the mid 18th century. He was a great military leader, very decisive, and made the army highly trained and highly disciplined. He took part of Austria in the Silesian Wars and led Prussia in the Seven Years War. One of his tactics was the oblique order, which was overloading one side of the rank, then outflanking the opponent.

Jus Ad Bellum: Jus ad bellum, meaning justification before war, was part of the Augustinian Code which condoned certain types of violence and outlaws other types of violence. Under this code, war had to have a 'just cause,' such as self-defense. The idea of comparative justice was paramount under this rule, meaning that the destructiveness that would be caused by going to war must be able to right a greater wrong. Other tenets of jus ad bellum included duly constituted authority to declare war, right intention, probability of success, and that war must be the last resort. Similar to jus ad bellum was jus in bello, meaning justification in war.

Gustavus Adolphus: keegan, howard; jones 224/226/232-233/239/240, in general jonesWell-renowned Swedish commander who was the main figure responsible for the success of Sweden during the Thirty Year’s War and led his nation to great prestige. He stressed on drill and discipline while training his army. His armies were very well trained for the day, so that his musketeers were widely known for their firing accuracy and reload speed. He was also known as an able military commander. His innovative tactical integration of infantry, cavalry, artillery and logistics earned him the tile of the “Father of Modern Warfare”.

Hundred Years War: howard; jones 171/173, in general jonesTook place from 1337 to 1453 in northern France and Belgium. It was between the English and the French over land. It was mostly siege warfare and occupational territory switched often. Noncombatants were the ones who suffered the most, primarily from scorched earth tactics and plundering. It was regulated by a petition to the King of France, the church consoling the King, and by having the French population on their side. It featured new tactics and weapons, and was essentially the end of the old feudal style of war. No one really won, but the French were able to keep the English off of their land.

Seven Years War: howard, martin lender french indian war Lasted from 1756 to 1763 and is considered the first real world war. It was fought

between by the English and Prussians v. France, Russia, Austria, and Sweden. Prussia started the war as a preemptive strike against Austria and Russia, who were both concerned with Prussia’s rising power. Prussia struck first to deny their enemies a base, to gain resources, and to get land to move around. Prussia didn’t receive a victory, but managed to hang on even though they were vastly outnumbered and being attacked by all sides. England did secure a victory over the French by taking out the French navy. Without the navy, they were unable to get supplies overseas, and England could take control of Canada and the sugar islands.

Thirty Years War: howard; jonesLasted from 1618 to 1638 and was between the Spanish and Holy Roman Empire (Catholic) v. Sweden, Some parts of HRE, and Netherlands (Protestant). It began from a desire to practice religion freely, but led to a general political war between countries. It is notable for being highly destructive and causing disease and famine, particularly among civilians. Ended by the Treaty of Westphilia.

Chivalry: In the Middle Ages, chivalry was a feudal method of controlling war. Chivalry was a code of conduct that knights were supposed to follow, and the basic tenet was for the knights to help the helpless. However, this code failed because the recommended behavior was unknown and lost on knights themselves. Chivalry under the feudal host consisted of every man charging for himself, concerned as much with personal honor as with victory.

Pax Dei: The Pax Dei was an ecclesiastical form of control over war. Meaning Peace of God, in 989, the Pax Dei declared war as illegal on certain individuals at certain times. Most non-combatants were protected under the Pax Dei, as were priests, nuns, pilgrims, and merchants. Some of the tenets of the Pax Dei included that it was illegal to declare war on Sundays and during Lent. However, as great as the idea was, it proved ineffective in controlling war.

  Causes: Please identify, describe and analyze the causes for war from the Middle Ages to the Early

Modern Era in European history. Your analysis should explain why the causes for war changed over time. Use examples from the lectures and readings to illustrate your points.o Defensive :

From 500 to the 10th/11th century, Europe was under siege. In the North, the Vikings invaded France, the Mediterranean, Volga River, Sicily, Constantinople, and the Eastern part of the Roman Empire; the Magyars from Hungary attacked from the East; the Moors invaded the better part of the Siberian Peninsula, Toulouse, and Southern France by the 8th century; the Moslems were a threat from the South; and the Mongols were a prominent threat.

o Offensive : Middle Ages

While the first half of the medieval warfare consisted of Europeans defending, during the second half, Europeans are pushing back.

o Land/Expansive : The Hundred Years War from 1337-1453 was all about gaining control of land. The

English and French fought over dynastic considerations at the end of the Middle Ages. Siege warfare was commonly used to gain occupation of land and territory. Eventually, the French win this war because they had the local population on their side.

o Honor : Middle Ages

The Battle of Agincourt was started because of the issue of honor. Men essentially fought at Agincourt because of King Henry V's honor, as he wanted to regain what was rightfully his.

o Power and Control : Middle Ages

The Middle Ages saw a lot of fighting as a means to gain power. Petty conflicts were common, with Dukes looking to increase their power through regional wars. Dynasties and rudimentary states fought over local conflicts over land, marriages etc.

Renaissance During the Renaissance, these rivalries continued. The Ottoman Empire was

unified under one ruler, but the Christian West was constantly in fighting amongst themselves. There was a lot of interstate competition, and Europe was experiencing political, ethnic, religious, and dynastic rivalries.

The Italian Wars (1494-1599) between the Habsburgs and the Valois revolved around the fear of universal domination. France was scared that the Habsburgs would control all of Europe. Lead by the Valois family, this battle was between two dynastic families with famous holdings.

17th Century Warfare During this time, Eastern Europe undertook wars of plunder against neighbors as

nomadic peoples. The Tartars and Magyars pushed away the Polish and Russian army (the Kossacks).

18th Century Warfare The Seven Years War from 1756 to 1763 was fought between Prussia and England

and everybody else in Europe. Considered the first real world war, Prussia started the war as a preemptive strike against Austria and Russia, who were both concerned with Prussia's rising power. Overseas, this war had decisive outcomes as the British won and displaced the French from building an empire.

o Religion : Middle Ages

The Tutonic knights went to war against the Slavs and Pagan tribes. These were essentially mini crusades with the goal of Christianizing the Pagans and Slavs of Eastern Europe. The knights wanted to both conquer and Christianize, and killing and plunder became commonplace during this time.

During the Reconquista, Christian forces pushed Moors out of the Spanish Peninsula.

During the 11th to 12th century, religion was still a catalyst for war, and the Crusades were impacting Europe. With 9 /12 (??) major Crusades, European knights and the Arabs that controlled the Middle East at that time were going into battle. The goal was to Christianize the Middle East in order to do the work of God. Europeans fought back to recapture the Holy Lands.

Renaissance During the Renaissance, the Christian West fought against the predominant

Muslim empire. These wars were seen by both sides as legitimate, religious wars, but were actually all about controlling trade routes and land.

During the Renaissance, there was also fighting between the Catholics and the Protestants.

17th Century Warfare

In the 17th century, interstate warfare over religion was evident in the Thirty Year's War (1618-1648) with states fighting each other because of religion. This war actually transitioned from religious conflict to national conflict. Between the Protestants and the Catholics, the Catholics comprised of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, while the Protestants consisted of Sweden and the Netherlands. Though this started as a religious war, at a certain point, national interest overtook the religious rationale for the war.

The Spanish-Dutch War in Western Europe began as a religious revolt. Local Catholics and Protestants united for a while against the Spanish during this time.

o Eventually, dynastic wars, East vs. West wars, and religious wars all intermingled with each other.

Respectable Army Worksheet

Martin and Lender argue that three myths emerged from the Revolutionary war and continue to shape our understanding of the war. What are they?o A ruthless, tyrannical Britain started the waro Colonial citizen soldiers were steadfast from beginning to end (militia)o Won in a steadfast manner (militia was united) assured a virtuous post-war America

 Deconstructing the origins of the warFrom the perspective of the battles at Lexington and Concord, it is easy to see the British as the aggressors "invading the peaceful countryside." This model is founded on a longstanding distinction (in the anglo-colonial world) between what a standing army represented and what citizen soldiers represented. What do M + L say about this paradigm?o Standing army represents power, political structure (well trained, "regulars")

Represent power of a centralized state, tyranny, and powero Militia represents a free army where everyone fights for themselveso Existence of a standing army represents tyranny, threatening property, liberty, and life

As for the origins of the Revolutionary War, how do M + L explain its origins? Did the British have tyrannical designs?o Each nation didn't understand what the other nation was doing in regards to how they ruledo British didn't necessarily have tyrannical designs, or initiate the war because of that; o 7 year's war is the cause of the American War of Independence

British, despite lack of help from colonial allies, win 7 years war Peace of Paris = end up with Canada and give up sugar islands Need to administer large territories and decide to tax colonists to protect and administer

the newly won territories As soon as London starts to ask something of the colonists, political hackles go up Pay off debt, move forward with new cost of governance, no taxation without

representation  

Did American citizen-soldiers display moral commitment, virtue and steadfastly fight to the end?At first, the call to arms was taken up and popular confidence was riding high. Why? What underlay this enthusiasm?o People believed that militia could stand up to the regularso Public virtue and moral commitment was high at that timeo Colonists were successful initially, and that led to popular confidenceo Belief that they had virtue/moral courage/righteousness on their side that would see them

through victoryo Believed that God was on their side

What were the early results of these citizen soldiers against British regulars? How do M + L explain these results? o British were unprepared, used the experience of 7 years war, took opponent lightly

The war posed a number of problems for the colonists. What was the biggest among then? Was the solution hypocritical? As for the British, they had their own problems, what do M + L see as the largest? By the end of 1776, the question becomes who precisely survived to fight another day, and why? As this reality dawns on the political nation, how does it play out in the continental congress? On paper, this looked great but what was the problem? But who were they getting, and why? Were the Colonists united in the war effort in a way that would ensure a virtuous post war America?Desperate years of 1778-1779 begin to yield an answer. Food and clothing shortages led to soldiers dying of starvation and exposure, but there was little public reaction. M + L argue that there was widespread indifference towards the army. What type of evidence do they use to support this claim? In addition to pary and pension, what else angered officers and soldiers alike? How does growing animosity play itself out? What about French participation, what did it mean in light of the standing army vs. citizen-soldier debate? What's ironic about Franco-American alliance? What about the British southern strategy? What happens? What conclusions do M + L draw?

Scope of French Revolutionary Warfare

Introductiono What is revolutionary warfare

Link between social and military and political developments is what distinguishes revolutionary warfare

Social, political, and military linko Causes of French Revolution

Fought for dynastic control Increasingly constrained by balance of power Imperial conquests (France and Britain) - empire building Social developments Directly emanates from political and social change in France Causes of French Revolution in 1789

Royal absolutism and a growing hatred by the French public for growing absolutism

Manifested itself in the Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette Enlightenment

Political ideas about democracy and the rights of man (contrary to royal absolutism), equality, no class distinctions get disseminated throughout 18th century

Louis XVI: I am the State Taxes

Heavy tax burden linked to large standing army that France maintained Extravagance of court of Louis XVI

Food Trace riots to food/grain shortages (high prices) Bad harvests and prices for grain went up

Heart of problem is really in political system, where dysfunction exists Rigid social structure that inaccurately represents the power of the

various classes Estates: clergy 1%, nobility (royalty) 1% , and everybody else (more

than bourgeoisie) 98% Represented equally in the French Parliament, the Estates

General (1/3 each) Clergy and nobility do not pay taxes, paracidic classes that do

not represent the French nation Third estate votes themselves into power and creates a new

constitution for the state of France

The Old and the Newo Fear of Revolution

Monarchies tended to fear their own populace more than they did their enemy State thinking was predominated by control of the domestic population

Training put a natural break on how wars could be fought Resources, physical and human

o Impact on battlefield Slow movement in ancienne regime fighting Little surprise

All courts new the suppliers and had spy networks and knew what the other courts were doing through contractors and suppliers

Could track what opponent were doing if you knew what various suppliers around Europe were doing

High desertion rates characterized 18th century ancienne regime Diminish with new regime No patriotism or belief in the nation

Change in warfare was limited in 18th century No impetus for change on the state side and therefore, technology did not

change that much Some gradual improvements (rate of fire, prepackaged musket cartridges)

Battle formations/equipment of 1690s is the same as the 1780so Idea of the nation

Gathering steam Best example is British nationalism (Henry VIII) in 18th century

Created by Protestantism, profit, and hatred of the French British were Protestant and continental Europe is largely Catholic Everybody profits from the empire (Scots especially) General hatred (6 wars from 1688 to 1815 between British and French)

Largely imperial battle Revolutionary war was a battle for survival

British navy was protecting the empire and winning battles, the French army was losing battles, seen as very expensive, tied to a very unpopular king

Little esprit de corps in French army (sea power) Third estate was paying for expensive military failures Cohesiveness in Britain, but French nation lacked this

When revolutionary army began, French army was completely unreliable French army did not come to support of King because of his failed policies and

lack of fundingRevolutionary France to Europe

o "Enemies at home, conspiracy abroad" How this draw the rest of Europe into war

Other countries in Europe had no intention of squashing the French Revolution (Britain, Austria, Prussia, Hapsburgs, Russia) because it would reflect the weakness of their own system

Have to save a fellow monarchy from falling to social and political rebels Give revolutionaries time to gain traction

Has great capacity for violence Rich get out Enemies at home, conspiracies abroad

Revolutionaries become paranoid and felt as though if you weren't on their side, you were against them

Those that opposed the revolution fled and were abroad conspiring to undertake a counter revolution

Louis XVI was incompatible with the revolution (obviously, he is against the French Republic as a monarch)

Temperament did not work well Not as dynamic as Frederick the II would have dealt with it better by

defending the old regime by rallying support (rest of nobility also joined the third estates) to defeat the revolutionaries, or could have co-opted and worked with the revolutionaries to create a different outcome

Decides to flee, and gets caught just around the Southern Netherlands border

Feeds into the fear that foreign involvement (foreign governments are going to attack and squash the revolution)

1791s, revolutionaries had turned more radical as it looked as though there would be a foreign invasion to restore the old regime (Prussia and Austria are threatening to invade)

o Poor communication - war inevitable? French revolutionaries and old powers have little other choice than war with things

getting out of control Both sides misread each others intensions Revolutionaries thought Prussians would stay out Austrians never thought they would have to fight because they thought the

revolutionaries would foldo Revolutionary mentality and radicalization

Us versus them mentality War of ideology - good versus evil Revolutionaries fighting for an idea, and anything that compromises that idea has to be

eliminated (big change!)First Coalition

o Old army defeated Alliance between Prussia, Austria, Britain, and Russia against France Up until 1850s, more and more coalitions become created First coalition: Austrians and Prussians

Invade France and soundly defeat the French revolutionary forces Not the turning point When Prussian leader, Duke of Brunswick, threatens the French revolutionaries

with execution if they follow through in their plans to execute Louis Rallying the revolutionaries and other French men to the cause

Foreign power dictating what French can and cannot do = pisses revolutionaries off (more patriotic fervor)

Battle of Valmy in September 1792 Austria-Prussians find a new revolutionary army Forces that had been defeated created a new revolutionary army

Old professional army and mass volunteers (100,000 volunteers)

Take an oath of loyalty and take up the old army's slack with enthusiasm

Credit to French officer class was able to marry up the old with the new (armies and tactics both)

Austria-Prussian army outnumbered 2 to 1

Used deception and maneuver to outflank the Austria-Prussian forces

Use mass enthusiasm Real victory came with outflanking and out maneuvering Clean-up with mass enthusiasm and mass charge and Austria-

Prussian forces retreat French forces/new recruits "Vive la natione"

Goethe in 1792: witness the birth of a nation Revolutionaries believed that the entire course of history was

at stake to bring about the end of limited warfareo Mass enthusiasm

Direct new mass enthusiasm out of old and new armieso Two views of war

French fighting a different war than their enemiesRevolution Exported

o War of liberation Threat of invasion over because Austrians and Prussians pushed out Committee of National Safety of Robespierre

Hotheads, psychopaths, and conmen running things quite well Organized and efficient about how they used resources and supplied the armies Always one step ahead of the coalition forces French revolutionary army fighting revolutionary warfare

Coalition fighting the wrong wars and proved ineffective at adapting Kept plugging away because they were constrained by their political

systems Revolutionary armies were not constrained and had much greater

resources and patriotism (and propaganda) Unified army that eventually would be trained, and coalition

forces were not as unified as the French revolutionary army Release the million man army was to unleash anarchy inside of France

French revolutionaries decide to export their wars abroad "War of Liberation" and use it to plunder and conquer the rest of Europe In part justified because now the British and Russians are looking to form

a second coalition with the Austrians and Prussianso Mass en levee

Levee of human resources State starts to conscript once mass volunteers are no longer available

What's Newo Tactics

No more maneuvers, no more military art, but fire, steel, and patriotism Must exterminate (not the balance of power warfare of the 18th century) Not a new philosophy Revolutionary warfare allows the state to use ALL resources and plan the economy

around fighting Plans are made for fixed rationing for entire population Revolutionaries nationalized entire economy for war effort

Revolutionary army drive out Austrians and Prussians, so never have to go to these extremes during the first coalition

Not much new with the French Weaker cavalry (more trained higher positions fled) Less trained Relied on mass bayonet charges Weapons technology: everyone is using the same weapons

Problem of motivation! French soldiers can engage in mass bayonet charges and will die for the idea of

the nation Not as big of a problem with desertion (mitigated to a great extent) Offshoot of not having to worry about desertion, motivation, do not have

to employ savage disciplinary tactics, French revolutionary officers could trust their troops

Allowed troops to improvise, work independently, and be more mobile

New units were compact and mobile Notion of meritocracy prevailed

In old regime, aristocracy was prevalent Officers were promoted on the battlefield, and those that failed were executed

Men that sought decisive outcomes on the battlefield through the ranks to undertake risky stratagems in battle

o No limit warfare

Napoleonic Warfare

Warfare was limited in the 18th century because:a. Unwillingnessb. Balance of power diplomacy - states were unwilling to lose everything (most important)c. Diffusion of weapon's technologyd. Problems with supply/logistics

What are the new possibilities with revolutionary type warfare:

a. Mass mobilization - men AND resourcesb. Ideology is the driver/motivation - seeks the destruction of the enemy, goal is more

political How does revolutionary warfare play out on the battlefield:

a. Mobile and trustworthy (play off of each other)Officer class - officer that gets promoted through the ranks is one that seeks a decisive outcome

For and Againsta. Biographical Sketch

i. Not a man who inspired neutral feelings (either loathe or love and admire him)ii. Rose to prominence in 1796 in French Revolutionary Army during the War of

Liberation into the Italian Peninsulaiii. In 1789, he would become the first Council in the Directory (Convention is the ruling

government before him) - man to undertake a coup d'etat

1. Backing of key revolutionaries (Talirand and Abbesays?)2. Became first Council of the three

iv. In 1802, he crowns himself Emperorv. Born in Corsica in 1768

1. Son of a poor noble2. Went to military school in Paris, and was not a great student (finished 42nd

out of 59)a. But, excelled in math, history, and geography (all influence his military

career)b. Murderer or Liberator

i. French see him as a hero who brought glory to the nationii. Liberator of Europe or Corsican usurper?

iii. Did not undertake campaigns of genocide 1. Absolute defeat of the enemy in order to ally with the country or dominate it

iv. Code Napoleon1. New legal and civic codes of law that he exported to the continent along with

his war of liberation2. Clearly written and accessible 3. Solved problem of standardization - brought unity for legal system4. Put everybody on the same footing (all citizens, no second-class citizens)5. Last intact till 20th century

v. Poles saw him as a liberatorvi. Prussians and Austrians saw him as a conqueror

vii. Russians saw him as an invader viii. British see him as a constant threat

c. Innovator or Opportunisti. Revolution needed him as much as he needed the revolution

1. He needs the revolution because there is no way for a son of a poor Corsican noble to rise to become the emperor of France in the ancienne regime

a. Revolution provides him with the biggest army2. Revolution needed him because by 1799, it had hit a stand-still

ii. Argue that he had no military philosophy1. Saw himself as an opportunist

d. Heir of Absolutismi. Student of military history and studied Frederick the Great (idea of decisiveness)

ii. Colleagues saw him as a man with great contempt for 18th century warfare1. Led with personality and charismatic force2. Invents idea of theater command

The Campaigna. Offensive: Calculated and Deceptive

i. Implored troops to move swiftlyii. Sought the destruction of the enemy in order to force the enemy in a peace treaty

which left France the unquestioned victor1. New tactic (not 18th century)2. Did this with information (calculated odds, used a scientific approach with the

deployment of artillery and how he would deploy his divisions in battle in order to protect each other, wanted to reduce the roll of chance in battle)

3. Employed deliberate deception (movement to gain confusion)

b. Speedi. Can gain time and create time with speed

1. Not used in terms of forced marches2. Used it at the moment of battle

ii. Motto was not to lose a single dayc. Coordination

i. If any one division was failing, the other division could lend supportii. Artillery, cavalry, and infantry

d. Unity of Commandi. Getting the greatest amount of men to a single point on the battlefield required great

unity of commandii. Nothing is more important in unity of command, thus when war is waged against a

single power, there must be one army e. Centrality of Corps D'armee System

i. Self-contained mini armies1. Were fast2. Could forge for themselves3. Flexible4. Could provide relief when and where need to other divisions that had taken a

hitii. Had a staff of 3,500 officers

f. Centrality of Psychology and Meritocracyi. Was a great motivator

1. Paid close attention (knew names of 3,500 men on general staff)a. Had a great memory and could put names and faces togetherb. Talk to men personally and inspire them over time

ii. Understood power of incentives1. Plunder

iii. Meritocracy 1. Seeking officers that wanted a decisive outcome

The Battlea. Narrowing Front, Cavalry Screen, and Swift March

i. Narrowed the front in their individual unitsii. Cavalry screen to camouflage position in order to hide and deceive

1. Get enemy to move their troops2. Hide what the army was doing

iii. Requires unity of command, discipline, and organizationb. The Offensive

i. Attacking at a single point is not the same thing as a costly frontal attackii. Hit opponent at full weakness and

iii. Creates an impression of weakness, to encourage enemy to attack (at Australitz?)iv. Difference with ancienne regime:

1. Emphasis on artillery2. Reemergence of role of cavalry as prominent (not preeminent)

c. Grand Attacksd. Genius in application, not in invention (theater command level)

The Nationa. Conscription

i. French were devoted to Napoleonii. An aspect of militarized society, mobilization of human resources to the battlefield

iii. A way to avoid declineiv. Better at recruiting/conscripting, and organizing and equipping armies than the

revolutionariesv. Two key developments:

1. Better road system in 18th - 19th century2. Industrial revolution

vi. Conscription had its limits1. 1800 in 1814, he conscripted 2 million men (7% of a population of 30 million)2. 1914 to 1918, he conscripted 8 million men (20% of a population of 40 million)

vii. Extreme early example of mobilization b. The Idolization of the Armyc. A Militarized Society

i. Conscriptionii. Officer class was the new aristocracy

1. Perceived and treated like heroes with great wealthiii. Troops were also feted (better paid and better fed)iv. Government shut down presses as a form of censorship (those that opposed

Napoleon)v. Government sponsored military parades that were welcomed by public

vi. News of victory read aloudvii. Propaganda became a regular arm of the military (recognized importance of morale

on the homefront)1. Used in a systematic way to control public2. How it was used:

a. Used to castigate the enemyb. Suppress disagreeable newsc. Promulgate the infallibility of the French armyd. Spreading rumor purposely

i. Plant false rumors about hypothetical invasions and try to get feedback as to what public opinion was to any such plan

e. Using theater, art, and music to promote the French nationf. Commission playwrights that espoused the benefits of the revolutiong. Artists commissioned to create music/sculptures of revolution and

famous generalsSeeds of Failure

a. Megalomaniai. Defeats Prussia in 1806, when limits of the possible elude him

ii. Becomes obsessed with bringing the British to submit to his will (to bear)1. This brings him to fighting on the far corners of Europe (peninsular fighting

between Wellington and French general)iii. Loses sense of realism, and battles start to become more violent (Eylau)

1. No more quick victories with minimal casualties2. Eylau fought in snow storm, 40,000 casualties, each side lose about 30% of

their troopsb. Mounting Lossesc. Limits to Foraging

d. Declining Quality of Recruitsi. Pushed conscription to the maximum limit

ii. Less well trainediii. Became dependent on artillery

1. Not as much emphasis on speed2. Artillery cannot move as fast as infantry or cavalry

e. Emulationi. Opponents didn't shockingly emulate his tactics

ii. Austria was incapable (too multi-national, no unity that would allow for , quintessential old regime state with divisions and old monarchy government)

iii. Prussians eventually take the lessons, but not at that time immediately (employ some of the lessons)

iv. British didn't, chose to fight at sea because they had the best navyv. United States adopt his principles in 1817 (West Point)

vi. Sheer weight of numbers screwed him over1. Could have had substantial gains if he had stopped while at the top2. Compromise wasn't in his nature3. Restored mobility with reemergence of cavalry4. Brought decisiveness to the battlefield

War and Nationalism

1. Peace Settlement of 1815 and the "Restoration"2. A Century of Peace 1815 - 1914

a. Five great powers: Prussia, Britain, France, Russia, and Austriab. Infrequent Wars

i. No warfare between Europeans between 1815 and 1884, 1871 and 1914c. Limited Wars

i. War was limited in size and scopeii. All five great powers are intact till 1914

3. Why Peace?a. Traditional Explanations

i. Exhaustion1. Just wanted to be done with war

ii. Fear of Change / Revolution1. Five powers saw what revolutionary changes could be brought about

a. Recasting of social order etc2. Saw war as an agent of change

iii. Moderate Peace Settlement1. Did not give the French the excuse to follow the policy of rebaunchness (a

policy seeking to retain lost lands or disputed lands)a. No war reparations

iv. Buffer Zones1. State of Belgium did not exist before 1789

a. Created by the victors (4 great powers)v. Security Alliance (Balance of Power)

1. Joined together to fight a future aggressor (a future France)vi. Systemic

1. European states saw that it was more reasonable to keep the peace than go to war

b. Other Explanationsi. The European Concert

1. Five main powers of Europe come together to prevent a future aggressor (like France or Germany)

ii. Insulation in Europe form conflicts outside1. European politics was insulated by colonial conflicts stayed in the colonies

a. One naval hegemony (British navy) insulated Europe from outside conflicts because it wasn't going to allow anything to infiltrate

b. Operated on a rule of law and principleiii. Resort to intermediary bodies

1. Belgium

4. First Shocksa. Eruption of Nationalism

i. In 1848, there is widespread revolution across Europe (urban and capital cities)ii. "Springtime of the People"

iii. Reaction:1. To the monarchical prerogative (return of Monarch)2. Reaction to growing nationalism (public schools, greater transport, unification

of language, patriotic, national identity is developed, people see themselves as a part of the nation)

a. Nationalism is patriotic AND about liberation (getting rid of ancienne regime, allowing civic equality to exist in terms of governance and the Napoleonic Code)

b. Nationalism as a force for liberation and violencec. 1815 forward, all revolutionary-nationalistic type movement would be

suppressed ruthlesslyi. Later, governments start channeling the energy from this as a

means to better compete with rivals (reintroduce the concept of competition among European states)

1. Economically: Prussians take it upon themselves to build up their economic base

2. Otto Van Bismarck: "Iron and Blood"b. Iron and Blood

i. Otto Van Bismarck:1. Emotion (blood) from nationalistic fervor with the means to do something

(the steal)2. Decisively solving problems with force is an offshoot of nationalistic fervor

c. Difficult Survival of Congress Europei. Concert of Europe survives

1. Cremian War did not spill over into a European span war2. Weakened structure for peace

a. Destroyed buffer zones5. Second Shocks, Weltpolitick

a. The Old Imperialism

i. Old imperialism goes hand in hand with isolation from outside conflicts idea because of the British navy

ii. Europeans had colonial conflict, but it was looked at as a game1. Not as deadly serious, competitive

b. The New Imperialismi. After 1870s, during Race for Africa

ii. Conflicts become more competitive1. Less of a game when all the land is carved up and there is nothing left2. Preemptive strikes as a defense mechanism

iii. Weltpolitick - German concept that poses how well can I complete?1. Concept of competition2. Pie never gets bigger3. If you lose, I win

iv. Game changes from balance of power in Europe to competition for power outside of Europe

c. End of European Insulation from World Conflicti. Europe is at its zenith in terms of cultural, economic, and political concerns

6. Third Shock: Unregulated Competition in Europea. Instability in 1910b. Growing naval arms race between Britain and Germanyc. Science: Darwinian thinking

i. Survival of the fittest mentality is at the heart of Germany's Weltpolitick7. Clausewitz: On War

a. Writing in response to the French Revolutionb. Literary editors are as much a part of creating this Clausewitzian revolution (how

Germany sees itself in the world)c. Take the lessons of revolutionary warfare and apply them in a way sans the political

revolutionary principlesi. Want to adhere to a traditional land bound society (Prussian junkers, old

aristocracy)ii. Have an extremely militarized society too

iii. Predates Bismarck (iron and blood) and tries to combine the scientific (military) with the irrational (the emotional)

iv. Shares the same objective that destroying the enemy is the goal (revolutionary warfare)

1. One step ahead: destroying the enemy is one step, but is meaningless without an object in mind

a. War is the continuation of policy by other meansb. War is an arm of the government, another policy toolc. War is morally neutral, not ethical or unethical, but rather, something

the state doesd. 2 German literary agents

i. Protestant Apocalypse into regeneration of the German will (Phoenix dying and coming out stronger)

War and Industry

REVIEW:

1. What kept the peace?o European Concert: five main powers of Europe come together to prevent a future

aggressor (like France or Germany)o Insulation from outside conflicts

British navy was absolute hegemony o Intermediary bodies

Belgium Danube River treaty General diplomatic agreements North German Confederation

2. Why did barriers to peace fall away?o Rise of aggressive nationalism

States found the use of force effective to put down revolutionso New imperialism as states start to compete for fewer and fewer lands

Competition increases for colonies German policy of Weltpolitik (competition)

o Unregulated competition in Europe Aggressive actions on the continent with respect to annexing territory

Germans annexed other 38 members of North German Confederationo Darwinism gives Weltpolitik an intellectual basis from which to work

Naval arms race between British and Germany

1. The Conditions and the Means of Waro Industrial Revolution

Scale of production is ramped up to make more machines of waro Population increase related less to the Industrial Revolution than to the Agricultural

Revolution of the 18th century to feed more peopleo Imperialism brings food products from abroad back homeo Changes in weapons technology

Changed means of war Affected society

o Ivan Bloch Polish financier by day, and an amateur military historian by night Published treaties in 1897 (much was wrong) Theorized that the next general war would be impossible

Insane to undertake a general European wide war because it would destroy the societies that were involved

Believes from weapons technology that the next war would be so destructive as to destroy societies

But also, European economies were too interdependent to allow for a European wide conflagration

Right and wrong Next war was impossible because rational war would take over - WRONG Would destroy societies involved - RIGHT Economies being too interdependent - WRONG

a. Economies learned how to be self-sufficient2. Weapons

o Rifles Advantages

Better than muskets because they have a board barrel that impart a spin on the bullet that allows the bullet to go wherever you aim in a consistent manner

Muskets have smooth barrel and thus the aim deviates Rifle and the tight spiral it imparts as Tom Brady, and the musket and smooth

barrel and the unknown direction as Matt Castle Been around since 18th century Took too long to load (3 shots with musket vs. 1 shot with front-loaded rifle) Changes: rifle becomes muzzle loaded Mid 19th century, can fire a rifle as fast as a musket, but rifles are more

accurate Breech-Loader

Do not have to stick bullet down barrel, but can put cartridge down center of gun and can continuously shoot bullets out of cartridge

Means a weapon that is much more accurate than musket, and can fire at a greater rate than the musket

a. Do not have to reload Self contained cartridges near the firing chamber Rifle can be fired from a prone position, and no longer have to stand up to

reload the rifle (compared to musket) First example is German Dryse gun in 1840s (Mauzer gun)

a. British have Enfield weaponb. Americans have Springfield

Smokeless Powder Introduced in 1880 Don't give away position Long range sniper becomes very important Provides infantry with greater tactical advantage

o Artillery Breech-Loading, Recoil System

Changes are less dramatic and came later in the century Scale of production has ramped up, but quality doesn't change until 1880s Breech-loader provide speedier and more effective shots Recoil system allow for artillery to be fired continuously without having to be

reset or recoileda. Can harness barrel to lead to greater efficiency and accuracy

Smokeless powder gives protection to infantry Rifled artillery barrels still muzzle loaded

High Explosive Shells New tactics and strategies Allow for indirect fire where a person's task is to blow one spot away

completelya. Do not see what you're firing at

Breech-loading, recoil system and high explosive shells come together

First manmade weapon that can go into the stratosphere Germans working on Big Bertha

Lethality In 1880s, the casualty rate due to artillery was 2.5% In 1994, the casualty rate due to artillery siege was 20-25%, and open field

battle, artillery was responsible for 13% of casualties WW1 1915 and 1918, 60% of British casualties were due to artillery fire

o Machine Gun First consistent one in 1883 invented by an American (2 greatest inventions -

machine gun and barbed wire) Hirum Maxim had trouble getting a patent so he left to Britain Maxim gun uses the energy of the fired shot to reload the next shot (self-

sustained)a. Can fire 600 rounds/minute

Provides defense with a decisive advantage Tactical perspective

3. Communicationso Railways - Uses

Human transport begins in 1830s First rail line between Liverpool and Manchester (steamed locomotive) Unlike machine gun, army planners immediately recognized the value and use of RR Can deploy troops farther and faster than ever before

Once deployed, they were much fresher than if they had to walk Could then use that RR to provide support for the troops (food, medical,

weapons, boots etc.) to keep them supplied o Sustained Use of RRs

Germans during commercial building thought they would run RR to the Rhine River and western Germany to stop a potential French invasion

In 1848, Continental governments used it in an ad hoc way to deploy troops to a revolutionary area

Sustained use in 1859, when Austrians, French, and Italian engaged in brief war Used in American Civil War

o Vulnerability of RRs Rail line to bridges to rail cars to rail stations were all vulnerable to attack,

particularly sabotage by partisans 19th century example during Franco-Prussian war where Germany had

invaded northern France and the French blew up rail lines to prevent supply from Germany

Army responses to such situations, response involved killing of civiliansa. Brought civilians into warfare in a way that they hadn't been in wars

beforeb. Brutal repression of the civilian population

Russians built smaller gauge rail lines and would not accommodate the wheel base of Western state cars

o War Planning and RRs British planners create a land ship rotation type thing Heart of war planning is getting to the battlefield first

General staffs were growing nearly exponentially in Germany, France, Austria, Italy, and Russia

Creating time schedules, logistical schedulesa. Maximum number of men onto one point in the fastest amount of time

= mobilizationo Telegraph

Communication tool important to war planning in 1832 Railroads and telegraphs linked not just in time, but also share proximity

Economies of school Near each other and built at the same time Suffer the same vulnerabilities (lines cut, blown up, communication can be

down etc.) First used in Cremian War Send orders and receive information so general staff can direct the war from a

distance, do not have to be there Best use for long term communication

o Telephone Battlefield communication remains a problem

4. Battle Fleet Revolutiono To Steam and Steel

Between 1850 and 1900s, navies of the Western World + Japan changed dramatically

Improvements Old wooden ships that were sail powered and wind driven were replaced by

steam power, steel weapons Transition in 1837 By 1850, have iron hulk boats with propeller drives Increased armor and guns on ships

Anything after 1880 is steam and steel powered vessel Navy did not welcome this change

o Fisher, Tirpitz, and Cycle of Innovation Fisher = British admiral and Tirpitz = German admiral Pushed this new technology seeking faster, stronger vessels with bigger guns One would develop guns with high explosive shells, then so would the other - always

competing and matching improvements British had come to the determination that the greatest threat to their national

security was the German navy that could control the North Sea and blockade Fisher said that they needed a new navy and ship design

Dreadnoughts, precursor to 20th century battle ship British no longer grew enough food at home to supply their competition Naval budgets were increasing quite a bit (60%) In WWI, British have 15 dreadnoughts and Germans have 13 dreadnoughts

a. French, Americans had 8 dreadnoughts, and Japanese had 5 dreadnoughts

Parliament declares that 2 navies, 1 to control the North Sea, and one to protect trading lines

Were submarines, but could not go under water for too long and could see the torpedo coming

Good for breaking a blockade, but not for sinking ships and spyingo New Strategies

5. Dimensions of War, 1914o More mobile and more destructive than ever beforeo Militarized society o Military revolution of 16th and 17th century played an integral part in giving Europe the

technology to conquer the rest of the world, but dramatic change in 19th century Eventually use that technology to destroy themselves

The Age of the Armed Horde

1. Explain main causes of 19th century peace2. Explain how barriers to war fell away, were knocked down3. Describe 19th century techno-industrial development and their affect on warfare, strategy, and

tactics 

1. Conscriptiona. Notes

i. After 18th century, no one could un-invent mass politicsii. Great Reform Act: anybody that is a land holder of moderate means could vote

b. US Civil Wari. First to combine mass politics and mass warfare

c. Prussian Armyi. Best example of the combination of mass politics and mass warfare

ii. Developed the first mass political army that was in line with the needs of modern weaponry

1. Von Moltke the Elder a. Chief of the Prussian General Staff b. Oversaw Prussian victories

2. Long enveloping maneuvers 3. Superiority of defense of weapons4. Frontal assaults5. Mobility of railroads

a. Introduces manpower reforms into German army and general organizationi. Combine the army with the reserves

1. Each year, the army conscripted 40,000 Germans for 3 years, then a reserve pool for 20 years

b. Expanded officer class from aristocracy (junkers) to meritocracyi. Goal was military efficiency

6. General staff becomes increasingly professional (merit corps)a. Organization and logistics to a new levelb. Made plansc. Issued ordersd. Supervised the execution of orderse. Oversaw intelligencef. Oversaw supply and logisticsg. Oversaw personnel operations

h. Speed of mobilizationd. Others

i. French opposed conscription because it would bring too much of a levelizing effect to society

ii. Most powers used universal conscriptioniii. Growing closeness between army and societyiv. Changes social make up of society

1. Pursuit of middle-class, officer class2. Arms Race

a. Notesi. Need for readiness

b. Manpoweri. One way countries displayed how ready they were

ii. Would up conscription levels to build size of armyiii. Repercussions of conscription:

1. France: after the advent of railroads, conscription, and national education turned peasants into Frenchmen

a. Levelizing effectb. Railroads offer mobility to move for work or pleasec. Educational systems imparted a national jingoistic history where citizens

were taught to love and take pride in their country while hating their neighbors

d. Conscription that bring men together for 3+ years, speak common language, and build comradery

c. Navali. In Germany, naval arms race with Britain was political, social, and cultural mission

1. Solved industrialization question2. Get junkers on board3. Way to avoid a revolution (government sells naval buildup to junkers and

working class; if working class has a big navy, they will not think about miserable conditions enough to revolt)

4. Global arms race was a means to global influenced. Economic

i. Tax senseii. Development from later 19th century is growing role of privately held companies

1. Military industrial complex (US Steel etc.)iii. Absolute spending was the increasing rate 1880-1940 that concerned observers

1. Not absolute numbers, but growing rate2. Military budgets often increased 3-fold

e. Countries Conscriptioni. French - left opposed, right accepted

ii. British opposed conscription because it was too expensiveiii. In Germany, conscription was battled out between government or reightstags

(political crisis)1. Keizer had control of direct taxation, and parliament (reightstag) had control of

indirect taxation2. Keizer and ministers have more money than parliament

3. Politics

a. Army as Political Institutionb. Political Crisesc. Military Interference in Politics

4. Militarisma. Prestige of Army

i. Tied in with imperial raceii. Military was seen as guardians of national virtue and national identiy

iii. Bernardhi wrote that war was a Christian virtue (Germanic notion)iv. Middle class in Germany idolized the military

b. Idealization of Warc. Military Permeation of Civilian Lifed. Impact of Conscription

5. Anti-Militarisma. Socialists and Pacifists

i. Largely ineffectualii. Pacifists and socialists fought within in each other as much as they fought outside

iii. International socialism which was the strongest point against growing militarism eventually collapses

b. Attempts to Regulate Warc. The Insurmountable Nation State

Warfare 1914 – 1918

1. Characteristics of Modern Warfarea. Extended Theaters and 3D Fighting

i. No natural law that prohibits the actions in a super-national way1. Only actor that can determine what is right or wrong with respect to warfare

is the nation statea. Nation state can only enforce these with its citizens

ii. London Conference: naval powers to decide on what was legal when it came to blockading other nations' shipping

1. Some sense of progress in late 19th century - early 20th century2. Only shipping that pertained to military activity was open

iii. World War I was both an archaic war house and a gross misreading of events1. New conceptual basis for warfare had evolved in 19th century and developed

further in WWIa. Generals in charge followed the old methods that repeatedly failed,

especially with trench warfare and stalemate situationsiv. Not different:

1. Not the first large scale destructive war that encompasses Europe (compared to Thirty Year's War)

a. WWI combined to battlefield while Thirty Year's War affected more civilians

v. Different:1. Extended theaters

a. Fighting in 3 theaters: Western front, Eastern front, Middle East, and Africa

2. 3D fighting

a. 2D fighting is width, depthb. 3D fighting is width, depth, and height (with airpower and underwater

UB)b. Intelligence

i. Time and space issueii. How it is collected and how it is disseminated were important issues

iii. Human resources = spiesiv. Acoustic resources = radiosv. Take raw data and ascertain what enemy targets and plans are, and develop tactics

around thesevi. Information intelligence used to synchronize land and air forces (engage a combined

arms effort)vii. 3 C's: command, communication, and control

1. Need intelligence and good informationc. Newness of Modern War

i. Extended theaters, 3D fighting, and critical role of intelligence1. Later 20th century war leaders understand these2. Misunderstood and understudied in 1914

a. Lots of mistakes, unnecessary deaths, and no quick victories 2. 1914

a. Schlieffen Plan and 2D Linearityi. 2D flat plane, and vertical element was not present (no air forces)

ii. Schlieffen plan: German plan to attack France1. Germany's answer for being in the wrong place 2. Alfred von Schlieffen's plan was revised 10 time at least3. Germany surrounded by French in West and Russians in East

a. Germany was geographically challenged, and knew they did not have the resources to fight a 2 sided war

4. Decided to knock French out first and then Russiansa. Question of geography (Russia farther away and would not be able to

mobilize as quickly)5. Long enveloping move by Napoleon before

a. Come through Belgium and envelop the French army6. Failures: outran supply lines (soldiers at front got too far ahead of the

supplies), unrealistic time tables (wanted only 40 days to knock out France), British expeditionary force slowed down the German advance up in Belgium

a. 5th army comes INSIDE of Paris, instead of outside to envelop Paris (afraid of being too far away from 4th army and thus, not being able to get help from them if needed)

b. Stalematei. War evolves into stalemate after Battle of Marn (Schlieffen plan fails and French are

regrouping)1. Germans make a tactical retreat and set up a line of defense

ii. Neither side can outflank each other = stalemateiii. Western front 350 miles long

1. Trenchesiv. Fighting in East was fluid and mobile

1. Trench warfare was not feasible with the vast distances

3. The Search for a Breakthrougha. Tactical Problem

i. New weapons give defense the advantage (machine gun, long range artillery with high explosive shells, all hard to displace)

1. Can puncture opponent's lines with enough lives2. Can never get a break out, but can get breakthrough

b. Indirect Firei. Allows one to hide artillery at depth of miles from the front line

1. Opponent has no idea how far or where on the field your artillery isii. British and French launching attacks

iii. Had to locate German artillery and had to eliminate this artillery if wanted breakthrough

iv. British and French unable to do this because: poor calibration of guns, poor communication, doctrinal laziness (reliance on tried and true, tested doctrines and unwilling to adapt), and everybody expected a short war (not 4 years, everyone thought it would end by Christmas 1914 in the vein of quick and decisive 19th century warfare)

1. Numerous bloody battles achieved very little2. Coordination between artillery and infantry

a. Creeping barage c. Predicted Fire

i. Firing at a target one has identified, and can get a result backii. Battle of Cambrai

iii. Possible because of: aerial reconnaissance, better calibration, better communication (radio)

1. Pilots go up, take photos, then recalibrate2. Better planning and execution of attacks

a. Start to restore mobility and maneuverabilityd. Cambrai, 1917

i. Predicted fireii. British lined up 1000 artillery pieces in secret

iii. Had precise data and had aerial reconnaissance1. Time a creeping barage to allow the infantry to have some cover

4. Airpowera. 1914: Reconnaissance

i. Linear trajectory of not growing in importance until the endii. Ongoing air battles

b. 1917: Infantry Supporti. Cambrai had pilots as bombers and used for coordination to find where German

troops were strong/weak, where trenches were abandoned etc.ii. British and French develop aerial warfare with infantry support better than the

Germansc. 1918: Parachute Units

i. Americans added a bit with airpower in terms of tactical developmentii. Parachute drops combined infantry with airpower

1. Not a big part of any battles5. Tanks

a. British first to envision tanks

b. Necessity is mother of inventioni. 3 years of stalemate

ii. Landship that would protect its occupants and allow for a breakthroughiii. Churchill was a big promoter of the tank

c. Problem was that army was not accustomed to it at first, the infantry particularlyi. Infantry saw tank as shield

d. Problems: unreliablee. Germans saw little use in the tank (trying to maintain a defensive position, while British

and French are on the offensive)6. The Birth of Modern Warfare

a. British Offensive at Hameli. Example of tanks, airplanes, artillery, creeping barage, good information being

exchanged between artillery men, infantry, and aerial reconnaissance = combined arms

ii. British and French moving more so than Germans1. British and French do not win the war because they are tactically better or

more effective at deploying troopsa. Win because morale collapses in German army

b. Maneuver Supported by Firepower or Firepower Supported by Maneuver?i. Chicken and egg type scenario

ii. Information supports all of it

The Scope of WWI

1. Long War, Wide Wara. In Time

i. Longer than expected (lasted from summer of 1914 to 1918)1. Most thought it would be over by Christmas

ii. Greeted with mass enthusiasmb. In Space

i. Schlieflen plan failed and there was a stalemateii. None of the combatants were willing to compromise at the major level

iii. French make war home and abroadiv. Americans (under Wilson) believe that absolute victory is the only desirable

outcomev. War spreads to Middle East, Ottoman Empire joins, war spreads to Africa, war

spreads to Asia with Japan entering1. Fighting mostly going on in Europe and decided on the Western front

2. Mass Wara. Mass enthusiasm for the war (euphoria)

i. Believed war was inevitable (Germans: war was natural and was put off because of systemic warfare previously)

b. Public demonstrations for the warc. Politicians were not overly sanguine about the ward. Some resisted mobilizations, stock markets fell/bond markets rose, financiers lobbied in

vain to work with the interdependence

e. French developed 'union sacree,' a speech by the PM in France telling French society to put aside their differences

f. Germans saw this war as a matter of spiritual fulfillmenti. Quest for authenticity to reveal the real German soul

g. 12 million men mobilized in uniform at start of war, 30 million men mobilized by war's endi. British saw 5.5 million men enter armed services

h. British and French turned to their empires to recruit meni. British recruited from Australia, NZ, India, Canada, and African colonies (1.5 million

British imperial subjects end up fighting)1. Segregated imperial army in a racial way

i. Germans did not use colonial subjects for wari. Impractical, because they didn't have that many subjects to begin with

ii. Racial ideology (Germans used imperial subject as scare propaganda, "Africans are invading the country, we need to stay together and fight")

j. Scope was unprecedented in history3. Violent War

a. Military Lossesi. POWs were largely treated with international rules of war (not tortured, protected

by laws of war)ii. Losses were unprecedented

iii. July 1st 1919 = 20,000 British soldiers die, 60,000 casualtiesiv. Verdonee = German battle of attritionv. Overall, 10 million dead, 20 million wounded by war's end (16.5% of French army die

and 12.5% of British mobilized army die and 15.5% of German mobilized army die)b. War of Civilians

i. Morale1. War came to home-front2. Goal of attacking home-front was to demoralize army

a. Germans send zeplins/blimps to bomb London3. About control too

ii. Annihilation1. Armenian genocide = Young Turk movement to create a state of Turkish

people against the Ottoman Empire4. Crusading War

a. Morale at the Fronti. Inability to find a breakthrough, political will to fight the war to a bitter end

ii. Combatants learn to control their home fronts and economies that would allow them to fight for four years

iii. In Germany, morale held to the end and then collapsediv. British have steady moralev. Men keep fighting because of patriotism, duty to one's fellow soldiers, hatred

towards enemy/press/systems, and confidence of the outcome (everybody believed that they would win)

b. Morale at Homei. Coercion

1. Likewise high moralea. Due to state coercion or spontaneous support?

2. Mass enthusiasm for the war sustains morale at home in early days

3. Increasingly though, states got stronger and more coercive, and were able to use propaganda and censorship to limit the news that reached the home front

a. Defense act gave them power to censor4. Italian morale disintegrates 5. Churches all supported the war (all nationalistic)

a. Only Vatican disapproved of the warb. Socialist organizations all went nationalistc. Everybody believed the war was about peace and that this war would

create democratic peaceii. Spontaneity

5. Economic Wara. Mobilization or Resources

i. Approximated total war ii. Matter of creating government ministries to oversee labor, propaganda, scientific

effort, and all other logistical ventures1. How to direct resources of country towards war

b. Human Resourcesi. State becomes an HR department

ii. Coming from age that states pursued laissez-faire policiesiii. Women entered the labor force

c. Economic Warfarei. Not as revolutionary as women entering the work force

ii. British blockade Germany effectively (tried and true methods)1. Germany cut off from overseas suppliers2. Chloric intake was as much as a Big Mac (eating turnips only)3. Smuggling through mutual countries to offset effects of blockade

6. Revolutionary Wara. Demographic Consequences

i. 10 million dead, 20 million casualtiesii. Created loss generation in Europe

1. Germany: male to female ratio imbalance2. Collapse in birthrate between 25%-50%3. Dead, those that are in a mental asylum due to shell shock, and not being born

= loss generation4. No baby boom followed the war

b. Social Consequencesi. Brought about the fall of Europe as a superpower in terms of politics, economy, and

military1. Rise of US and Japan

ii. Rise of communism and fascismiii. Hyperinflationiv. Deference between classes found itself leveled (levelizing effect)

c. Military Consequences

Warfare 1939 – 1945

1. Fall of France, May - June 1940

a. German and French plansi. Ghost of WWI determined plans and mistakes

ii. French built Naginal line 87 lines of fortresses 1. Connected underground forts designed to fight a defensive war against the

German invasion2. Underground railroads could move supplies and ammunition3. Could house soldiers in this line (protected underground)

iii. French fighting wrong wariv. Germans tried to go through the Ardennes forestv. 10th May 1940: Germans invade Netherlands and Belgium

1. Faint to get French to respond 2. Germans sent 1,800 orchestrated tanks (bridged built)3. French had no response because the French war thinking was a World War I

decision-oriented mentalityvi. Fighting in Northern France for 4 years

1. Not totally absolved with experiences of World War I2. Germans used the same strategies in Poland 8 months later

a. Mobility returned to warfare(blitzkrieg tactics)vii. Germans drive north to the coast

1. France has committed its 50 regions to defending the Balkan border2. Germans come around and envelop the entire French army

b. Breakthroughi. Both sides made major mistakes

ii. French should have known that a new style of warfare was underway (had evidence in Poland 8 months previous)

iii. French had same technology and rough equivalent to Germans1. Had mechanized infantry, tank divisions, 2. Falsely believed using these tools would be too costly which lead to no

counterattack3. Defeatist mentality

iv. Germans are afraid of overstretching their supply lines1. Allowed men to get away (free French fighters and British expedentiary force)

v. British off the continent and French defeated by June 19401. French give Northern France to Germany2. Southern France called Vichy France

c. Encirclementi. German success is because of war of mobility and maneuver

ii. Blitzkrieg warfare = lightning warfare1. You will move your troops with such speed that opponents will not be able to

set up a coherent defense2. Opponent has to panic instead of choosing to set up a coherent defense

d. Why?i. French lost because of leadership

1. Fighting with mentality of WWI2. 8 months of phony war where there wasn't any fighting

a. French society divided during that periodb. Not unified in the fight against Germanyc. Fascist elements (corporative states)

ii. France part of Third Reiche. Armistice

2. Operation Barbarossaa. Why?

i. German invasion of Russia (principality of Moscow)ii. 3 reasons

1. Race wara. Eliminate the Jewish population in Eastern Europe and Russiab. Eliminate the Communists and Marxists in Eastern Europe and Russiac. Gain living space for the Third Reich (German race)

i. Removing Slaves and Jews2. Economic war

a. Plunder and economic gain from grain (Yukraine), oil (Black Sea and Middle East), and general war materials

3. Diplomatic reasonsa. If Germans invade Soviet Union, then they believed Britain would have

to concedei. Germany would control all of Europe

b. If can occupy Soviets with land war, then it opens up Pacific theater for ally Japan

b. German and Soviet plansi. Germans recognized that Russia had the advantage of time and space

ii. Open with a long range strategic bombing operation to soften up Soviet industryiii. Soviet plans were centered on appeasement

1. Stalin believed the Hitler would agree to the Ribbentrop-Molotov treaty2. Appeasement and disbelief informed Soviet war plans

iv. Stalin had a terrible habit of purging the army and officer class1. Done so in 19382. Best members executed and replaced with political hacks

v. Soviets did not understand the new blitzkrieg tactics1. Set all equipment up on front line with Germany and abandoned the whole

advantage of spacec. Balkan interlude

i. Operation Barbarossa is May 15, 1941 but gets delayed to June 15, 1941 because there is a coup in Yugoslavia

1. British coup planned by allies to install a British government in Yugoslavia2. Took about a month, and brought it closer to harsh conditions of winter3. Churchill was behind the coup plan

a. Obsessed with soft underbelly of Europe (plan at Calipally to Balkan interlude to whole idea of attacking Germans in North Africa instead of Europe)

d. Invasioni. Operation Barbarossa and subsequent war between Germany and Soviet Union is

the largest land war in history1. Covers 2,000 square kilometers2. 85% of German casualties come on the Eastern front3. Russo-German war is another name for WWII

ii. Stage 1: unqualified German success

1. Poor Soviet communicationsa. All isolated (no idea where reserves regroup or where secondary

defensive lines might be set up)2. Germans had air superiority3. Soviets unprepared for blitzkrieg4. Soviet personnel captured5. Germans took advantage of sheer speed and surprise

iii. Stage 2: Operation Typhoon from November-December 19411. Germans stopped for 3 reasons:

a. Soviet resistance solidifiesi. As artillery guns are present in Moscow and Leningrad

ii. Reserves that get called up after the initial Soviet army gets captured and citizens

iii. BATTLE OF STALINGRADb. German tanks cannot operate in cold winter conditions

i. Take away advantageii. Germans have supply lines removed

c. German army moralei. Einsatz gruppen were death squads that were taken out of the war

mount (round out Jews and take them away to execute them)ii. Ukrainians saw Germans as liberators

iii. Lost an ally2. Lasted 3 weeks3. Final push to capture Leningrad4. Fails

iv. Stage 3: 1941-19431. Stalemate with either side pushing one way than back another way2. Not really stalemate3. Germans were stuck fighting a multi-front war again, and did not have the

resources to do thisa. Front in East, fighting in North Africa, and having to defend Europe

v. Failure of Typhoon was turning point in war3. Total War: Sea Power

a. Advantages of Sea Poweri. Whale (Britain) vs. the elephant (Germany)

ii. Ability to exploit colonial markets and iii. Ability to cut opponent off from outside marketiv. Ability to influence neutralsv. General immunity to a land invasion

vi. Major disadvantage is that it cannot defeat a major land power without a major ally that is a land power

1. Soviets are strong land power to Britain's naval power2. Cannot defeat land power with navy, can make life very difficult

b. Blockadesi. British make life difficult with blockades

ii. Need access to raw materials and agricultural imports1. Blockading Germany from these outside resources was harmful2. Unlikely that a blockade will end the war, and it does not end the war

iii. To end the war, one must defeat the land power on the landiv. To counter blockades:

1. Substitute goods (instead of cotton, use polyester etc.)2. Use neutrals3. Use counter blockade measures

c. U-Boatsi. Germans use U-boats to open trade and hurt British shipping

ii. Germans use wolf pack strategy1. Send out multiple U-boats looking to maximize the tonnage sunk

iii. British response was to employ a convey system with armed escortsiv. Technology that counteract the U-boats was on the horizon

1. Sonarsv. British used an eye in the sky to find signs of U-boat activity

1. Atlantic gapa. Most sunk tonnage occurringb. Hang out where aerial reconnaissance could not find them, and sink

ships therevi. Important because Britain does not grow enough food

1. Deny access to high seas and thus, have to concedevii. German U-boats sunk 12.5 million tones of British shipping

1. British built 20 million tones of shipping with which to bring in food and supplies

viii. Neither side could have a total victory with blockading or U-boats1. Needed a victory on the land, not only on sea

4. Total War: Air Powera. Strategic Bombing

i. Not enough to find a decisive outcomeii. Goal to destroy Germany's economy

iii. Limited results of WWIiv. British strategic bombing of Germany was response to Germany's failed invasion

attempt (inflict pain)1. Only option to strike Germany through air2. 40% of British war effort went into strategic bombing

v. Bombing raid and raised the city to the ground (Clone)1. Example of strategic bombing working2. Usually would miss target by miles and thus, not effective

a. Information was faultyb. Radar was in its nascent stages

i. Good at detecting incoming planes, but not good at finding thingsvi. Berlin air raids

1. Failure2. 15% of British planes that went up did not come back down

vii. Use ground camouflage to hide factoriesviii. America involved, better because they bombed in the day in order to see results

1. Riskier strategy, but more effectual in damage2. Downside was that Americans lose 20% of bombers sent up

ix. Germans get better at knocking out planes, Allies getting better at sending planes up = stalemate

x. Allied strategic bombing destroyed 9% of sub-ports and regular ports, 30% of railroads, 25% of cities, 12% of fuel depots, and 9% of airfields

1. British that bombing and air superiority gained spear-headed the D-Day effort (softened up Germans' fortress for this)

a. Bolstered morale at home just seeing the army/air force do something to Germans

b. Made the D-Day invasion less costly2. Americans argue that strategic bombing had limited strategic value

a. Underlying this debate is a great amount of guiltb. Destroyed 3.5 million German homes (Nazis not the only ones making

war on civilians)b. Early RAF Attemptsc. Escalationd. Objectives vs. Impacte. Conclusions

i. Air and sea warfare played an auxiliary roleii. Needed a land victory to win the war

Scope of the Second World War

I. Timea. Expectations

i. 50% longer than WWIii. 4 years of WWI vs. 6 years of WWII (1939-1945)

b. War Plansi. Similar optimism for a short war, particularly with the Germans

1. Blitzkrieg, short lightning warc. Growing Resolve

i. As the war drags on, the resolve for absolute victory hardensii. Defeat is unthinkable for Hitler, Stalin, Roosevelt, and Hirohito

1. Roosevelt pushing for unconditional surrender of Austria, Japan, and Germanyiii. Sides prefer absolute defeat to any muddled outcomeiv. Hitler orders retreating German army to destroy city of Parisv. No negotiated peace

vi. Difference between WWI and WWII1. No negotiated peace2. Germany and Austria don't surrender unconditionally in WWI, but do

surrender unconditionally in WWIIa. Both were occupied by the victorious powers (Germany not by end of

WWI)3. Allowed for stab in the back with Hitler and Nazi party

II. Spacea. Why This War Was Truly Global

i. More so than WWI, WWII is more globalii. Fighting in Seven Years War that spans the globe but fighting was peripheral to the

outcome of the war (Frederick the Great decided that)iii. Western Front determined outcome of WWI

iv. Things changed in WWII1. Fighting in China between China and Japanese2. Europe and Poland3. Eurasian land mass4. Americans with Pearl Harbor5. Pacific theater with Australia to Japan

v. Outcome was independent of Europevi. Difference: independent nature of fighting

III. Numbersa. Soldiers

i. December 1944, British had about 2.2 million men under arms1. Significantly less than number they had under arms in 1918

ii. Germans had 9.5 million men under arms1. Double what they had in WWI

iii. US in 1944 and 8.8 million men in armed services1. Only 1 million in combat position who were actually fighting2. Rest of the men were part of the world's largest supply change from

information to materials to allocating resources to basically running the wariv. Nature of war changes dramatically

b. Battlefield Deathsi. Violence to soldiers is comparable in WWI and WWII in Europe

1. Slightly higher death rate per annumii. Battlefield in WWII was less violent in some particular ways in Europe (mainly West

Europe)1. Pre-war declarations about not using things like poison gas, chemical weapons2. Red Cross allowed to operate on both sides

iii. 30,000 German soldiers killed in the invasion of France1. 2.8 million Germans die because of the failure of Operation Barbarossa and

the fighting with the Russiansiv. Fighting in Pacific was even more intense

1. Japanese culturally did not accept the notion of surrender, not an option2. Battle of Okinawa has more casualties than the two atomic bombs on

Hiroshima and Nagasaki3. British, Americans, and Germans captured by Japanese and thus seen as sub-

human (no integrity if captured)a. To surrender would be to say you are a coward and an unworthy

adversary b. Jews, Slavs, and Gypsies as subhuman based on Nazi ideology

v. Prisoners of war treated better because of partial accordance with rules1. Greatest violation in East farthest from the West

vi. In Europe, 18 million died in WWIIIV. Violence

a. Civilian Deathi. WWII as much about killing civilians as about military achievements

ii. War against civilians and become primary targetsiii. Goal is to remove civilian population in a certain area

b. Strategic Bombingi. Total in nature

ii. Spares nothing, intent is absolute destructioniii. British undertook a carpet bombing mission, they new they would unload at a

certain area at a certain time in Germany to destroy that one specific area; destroy everything

iv. Erases distancesv. Came about by accident because neither side had planned it

vi. Begins in summer of 1940 with Operation Sealion (Hitler's plan to invade Britain)1. Needed to gain air superiority

a. Needed to wipe out British air forcevii. Each mission that went up (particularly during Berlin raids), 20% did not come back

viii. Strategic bombing undercut German production by 9%c. Slave Labor

i. Not new to WWII1. Best example in WWI is occupation of Belgium and use of Belgium citizens as

slaves and artillery people for German armyii. Difference is not difference in scale, but difference in kind

1. Kind of exploitation and scale was so great that it was something new to warfare

iii. Third Reich resorted to slave labor on a European-wide scale1. Occupied territories from West in France to deep inside Russia2. Contributed at the local level to the German war machine

a. Imported into Germany to work in factories therei. 8 million imported workers in Germany (artillery tanks, guns, etc;

replacing 9.5 million German soldiers that were out fighting)b. More controls inside Germany

iv. Exploitation 1. WWII had a strong ideological bet compared to WWI

a. Came out of Germanyb. Manifested itself in racial views

i. Getting rid of Jews, Slavs, and Gypsiesd. Holocaust

i. Racial views play out during Holocaustii. Population of French Alsac-Loraine sent to German factories where they worked for

the German war machineiii. Concentration camps were largely war camps

1. Some served as a dual use death camp-concentration campiv. German camps had 12 million prisoners v. Western Poles kicked out to make room for Germans (living space)

1. Germans relocated therevi. 20 million civilian losses in Europe, 20 million civilian losses outside of Europe

V. Mobilization of Resourcesa. War Economies

i. Britain immediately imposes a naval blockade on Germanyii. In 1939, up until 1951, British, Germans, and Soviets are allies

iii. Human allocation1. How to employ population in war effort?2. German ideology is that women should stay home and cook and make babies

a. Nazis led by Hitler did not advocate using women in the war effort

3. British use EVERYONE (18-50 become defacto employees of the military)a. Necessity is the mother of inventionb. Government employed everybody and directed resources

4. In the US and Soviet Union, opposite reaction to Germansa. Employ female population efficientlyb. 10 million women enter the workforce between 1941 and 1944c. Soviet Union: largely agricultural, women take over agriculture (7% of

agriculture is harvested etc. by women)5. How to produce more

a. Germans occupied resourcesb. Soviets grew the fastest because they produced the least and then grew

rapidly during war (out-producing Germans in tanks by wars end)c. US produces more by being run like a giant corporation

i. Pentagon like a board of directors ii. 90% of materials used in Pacific theater was produced by the

Americansiii. 35% of the materials used to defeat Germans was produced by

Americans6. Countries that could produce the most (US and Soviet) were the clear victors

in WWIIVI. Mobilization of Minds

a. Propagandai. BBC broadcast in 29 languages

1. Clear message that Nazis were totalitarian aggressors and neutral countries should come to aid of British

2. US had Hollywood show films of Americans fighting the good fight3. Soviet rhetoric in 30s was all about 5 year plans, inevitability of communist

revolution sweeping the world = Marxist rhetorica. Later makes appeal to Russian people that they need to fight for Mother

Russia in 40s4. Nazi propaganda machine engaged in keeping morale up in Germany while

destroying morale of enemiesb. Science

i. Mobilization 1. Bliestlick Park employed 10,000 Brits to break enigma code machine2. Americans engaged in Manhattan Project developing atomic bomb

VII. Social and Political Consequencesa. Europe: Place of Misery and Destruction

i. From Moscow to London, Europe is a place of misery and destruction1. Germans call it ground-zero (bombed and had Red Army run through half of it)2. Europe on decline in WWI, and WWII accelerates decline

b. Occupied Europei. Americans in West and Russians in East

ii. Occupied by two NON-European powersc. German Question

i. Wanted to de-industrialize German and turn it into agricultural, pastoral state (remove industry and have complete agriculture)

ii. Germany just inflicted 2 world wars

1. Taking industry away from state and turning it into a monitored pastor landa. Before being settled, Cold War starts and Europe divides into two

(Germany in particular)b. Iron Curtain circumvents the question (no whole Germany)

i. 2 camps that neuter it by making satellite statesd. International Agreements

i. Overseas empiresii. New international agreements

1. UNa. League of Nations was a precursor but was a failed institution

2. IMF3. GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade)

iii. Allowed for economic recoverye. Displaced Persons

i. Modern welfare state is createdii. Raison-d'être of a state is to take care of the welfare of citizens

iii. State took money out of pockets to put people on the battlefield iv. Brought about the possibility of the annihilation of humanity with the advent of

nuclear technology

Nuclear Age

1. The Nuclear Facta. Revolutionary Weapon

i. Bipolar landscape where Soviets and Americans hold nuclear cards1. Europe no longer at center2. Predate advent of nuclear weapons

ii. How to describe Europe's decline post '45 before nuclear weapons1. Place of misery and destruction2. European empires on the decline3. Economies were destroyed (national treasure spent on war to have a bunch of

debtor nations living on credit)4. Question European leadership

iii. 6th and 9th August 1945, America dropped bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki1. Ushered in new era in military warfare2. Transforming the scale and nature of war (revolutionary weapons)

a. Raised new questionsb. Viewed as superbombs, bigger versions of what already exists

b. Effectsi. Destructive nature of weapons would raise questions in time

ii. 1944: heaviest allied bombing raid during WWII delivered the equivalent of 6 tonnes of TNT

1. Hundreds of bombers dropping tens of thousands of bombsiii. 1945: Fat Man and Little Boy were two bombs

1. First to Hiroshima delivered the equivalent of 15,000 tonnes of TNT2. Nagasaki delivered the equivalent of 20,000 tonnes of TNT

a. Ground zero was 1.5 kmb. Heat released from the blast went up to 2 kmaway from ground zero

iv. 1954: US tests the first thermonuclear weapons, or the hydrogen bomb1. Explosive equivalent of 15 million tonnes of TNT2. 2.5 million fold increase in power

a. Ground zero increases 10 fold to 15,000 kmb. Heat released from the blast goes up to 200 km away from ground zero

v. Destructive power growingvi. Subsidiary effects: black ring

1. Spread radioactive materials to places outside of ground zerovii. Consequence is nuclear winter

1. Dust would block sun's raysviii. 200 kiloton airblast hit sky above Central Europe would wipe out all communications

c. Delivery Systemsi. Efficiency with which they could be delivered increases

ii. First atomic weapons delivered by bombsiii. Soon, bombers by the 1950s could fly at 3 times the speed of sound and deliver their

payload 2-3,000 miles awayiv. By 1960, both the Americans and Soviets created missiles that could deliver multiple

payloads1. Fired under a minute

v. Nuclear powered submarines created in 60s1. Theoretically, they can run forever2. Hidden deadly arsenal of enemy weapons that can deliver a payload of

intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs)vi. Space of strategic thinking had been minimized to minutes

1. Less time to reflect 2. Mechanistic war plans (like mobilization plans before WWI)

a. Militaries too gung-ho on mobilization and logistic plans that they believed that war was inevitable

b. Nuclear policies and second-strike policies of 60s and 70s, military became adamant

2. Nuclear Terror, 1949-1972a. Theory of Deterrence

i. Conceptual thinking about how to fight a nuclear war ii. 1945 thinking was constrained and restrained by the old framework

1. Idea that the bomber would always get through2. Defined British thinking in 1930s (PM Baldwin said this with respect to the

German bomber)a. Put efforts into defensive system

3. Battlefield had radically changed in a revolutionary waya. No front, no rear, no flankb. No reliable defense (first time, one side has complete control)

i. Cold War, Nuclear Age - offense had completely trumped defenseii. Only possible means of a credible defense is retaliation

1. Cannot stop the offenses in traditional sense , idea that you can retaliate with weapons that would stop the attack in the first place

iii. Theory of deterrence predicates

1. Have to be indestructible (or part of your arsenal does have to be indestructible to a first attack)

2. Second strike (vulnerable to a second strike)3. Resolve (opponent has to view you with having credible resolve to engage you

in a second strike)a. Game theory approach (spite)

iv. US policy changed over time (quite malleable) 1. Technology for weapon systems and delivery systems improved2. Political circumstances changed (domestic and the US/Soviet Union engaged in

a Cold War - periods of détente and periods of high tension)3. Geography 4. Ideology (stopping communism at any cost, containing it, working in a world

where there is parity between the two sides)b. Massive Retaliation

i. 1945-1953: Malleable 1. US sought to control all nuclear weapons

a. Only country that has them is building more and more, so others can get technology

2. Could not limit (grew from 13 to 50)ii. 1948: Berlin Crisis to change how US uses weapons

1. Berlin in Soviet sector of Germanya. Soviet tries to starve out Berlin

2. Soviets are unhappy with post-war settlement and US actions in Koreaa. US supporting Chinese nationalists in civil war (ideology is polar

opposite)i. Soviets looking to export communist ideology, US using Truman

doctrine to contain communismii. End up taking a massive air lift

3. National Security Council issued a directive number of 30a. Prepare to use nuclear weapons against Soviets with presidential

authorityb. Soviets opened out grand transport lines

iii. 1949: Soviets get the bomb1. US monopoly comes to an end2. Stalin sold on tanks, not sold on weapons3. Soviets had clear conventional superiority

a. US had nuclear superiority and a superior delivery system by way of bombers to get bombers through

iv. 1950-1952: things change in Korean War1. McArthur goes crazy and requests 26 nuclear weapons to use against Chinese

and Soviets as a part of his push to conquer North Koreaa. Communist China said 200,000 to 1.5 million to aid North Korean ally in

fighting USb. Truman said no to bombing Asiac. Close run call

v. 1952: Truman out, Eisenhower in, Carter retires1. Clearest formula of nuclear policy called massive retaliation

2. If Soviets invade Western Europe, US retaliates with nuclear weapons on a massive scale

a. Regard conventional war and nuclear war as the same thing3. Has some great advantage

a. Nuclear arms cheaper to maintain than an armyb. Keeps the US out of limited war

i. Advent of ICBMs and the development of tactical battlefield nukesii. Soviets put effort into building

4. Krusjeff comes to power, and declares that Soviet has second strike capabilities

vi. 1957 - 1961 Cuban Missile Crisis: height of war1. Space race2. Government cranking out videos of duck and cover3. Both sides had an arsenal to inflict second strike

c. Flexible Responsei. 1960-1961: under Kennedy administration called flexible response

ii. Because of downside of massive retaliation as a nuclear policyiii. Limitations of massive retaliation:

1. Guerilla warfarea. Not all aggression can be met with nuclear response

iv. Kennedy changes policy to flexible response1. Fight our enemy at whatever level our enemy is fighting at2. Keep things from going nuclear

v. Kennedy administration idea of military planners 1. Took war planning out of hand of military planners and into hands of civilians

vi. Look to Cuban Missile Crisis to see how mechanistic and dogmatic war planning had become

1. Brush with Armageddonvii. 1970s: have parity

d. Mutually Assured Destructioni. 3rd policy stage to mutually assured destruction (MAD), outgrowth of flexible

responseii. If we go nuclear, that's it - leaves room for proxy battles

1. Going to fight wars on the periphery with proxy battles2. Had a deeper history than Cold War3. People on ground had different reasons for fighting (not policy to fight for, but

own independence and would prefer to remain neutral, got sucked into promise of weapons and support for their point of view)

3. The Europeansa. American Nuclear Umbrella

i. US covered Western Europe in nuclear umbrellaii. Western Europe gave up a little bit of its sovereignty to the US in return for

protectioniii. US allowed to put military bases, air fields, missiles throughout Western Europe

1. Threat of deterrence2. Did not have to pay

b. UKi. 3rd country to develop in 1952

ii. In a bid to retain their great power statusiii. Some question as to how closely allied UK would be with the USiv. Locked with the whole NATO policy

c. Francei. 4th country to develop in 1960

ii. In a bid to retain their great power statusd. Crisis: Suez, Berlin

i. If there was ever a WWIII, Europe would be vaporizedii. Suez Crisis: UK And French team up with Israelis to get back Suez Canal

1. No one consulted US and thus, they were pisseda. Gave threat of a nuclear warb. Questioned how protective US was

4. Arms Control and Decontrola. SALT, START

i. Thinking towards limiting nuclear proliferation in 1970sii. SALT 1: Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty in 1972

1. Limited the number of weapons either side could have2. Silly number because this number could still destroy the world3. Important part is that there is an anti-ballistic sub-treaty (ABM = anti ballistic

missile)a. Deterrence does not work anymoreb. Outlawing ABM, ensuring deterrence in the spirit of mutually assured

destructioni. Want proxy battles because last nuclear war would be end of the

worldii. Works until 1980 until threat of Star War system

1. Scared Soviets to spend more money than they have, and this bankrupts them (trying to keep up with Americans)

c. Bush W. withdraws US from ABM treatyi. Introduces first strike option with respect to terrorist states

5. Conclusions: Possibilities of Nuclear War, Realities of Conventional War

Test 2 Review Sheet

Economic Warfare: Economic warfare refers to the economic policies followed as part of military operations during wartime, such as the complete mobilization of human and other resources. The purpose of economic warfare is to capture critical economic resources so that the military can operate at full efficiency, and to also deprive enemy forces of these resources so that they cannot fight the war effectively. With economic warfare, there is total war, and government ministries are created to direct the resources of the country towards war, such as the allocation of labor, propaganda, scientific effort, and all other logistical ventures. An example of economic warfare is present at the Battle of Stalingrad, where the Russians cut off German supply lines and starved them to death using blockades.

Operation Barbarossa: Operation Barbarossa is the codename for Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during WWII. There were 3 reasons why Germany needed to invade Russia: race war, economic war, and for diplomatic reasons. The race war part was to eliminate the Jewish and

Marxist population in Eastern Europe and Russia and gain living space for the German race by removing the Slavs. The economic war aspect came into play with gaining plunder and economic gain from grain in Ukraine, oil in the Black Sea and Middle East, and other general war boot. Diplomatic reasons that served as an impetus for this invasion was that Germany believed that if they invaded Russia, Britain would have to concede and thus, Germany could control all of Europe. Plus, if Germany could occupy Soviets with a land war, this would open up the Pacific theater for ally Japan. Operation Barbarossa was scheduled for May 15, 1941 but gets delayed to June 15, 1941 because of a coup in Yugoslavia. Operation Barbarossa and the subsequent war between Germany and the Soviet Union was the largest land war in history. Operation Barbarossa is the largest military operation, in terms of manpower, area traversed, and casualties, in human history. The failure of this operation results in the eventual defeat of Germany.

Strategic Bombing: Strategic bombing is a form of destruction that is total in nature, spares nothing, and erases distances. This form came about by accident because neither side had planned it. Strategic bombing begins in summer of 1940 with Operation Sealion, Hitler's plan to invade Britain. Germany needed to gain air superiority and to do that, it needed to wipe out the British air force. Britain also undertook a carpet bombing mission where they would unload at a certain area in Germany at a certain time to destroy everything within that one specific area. However, it was a very dangerous form of offense. Each mission that went up, particularly during the Berlin raids, did not come back 20% of the time. Strategic bombing undercut German production by 9%.

Clausewitz/Total War: Total war is a conflict of unlimited scope in which a belligerent engages in a total mobilization of all available resources at their disposal in order to destroy or render beyond use their rival's capacity to continue resistance. In total war, there is less differentiation between combatants and non-combatants as everyone can be part of the war effort. Total war includes the help of women. In terms of total war using sea power involves using blockades and U-boats, and total war using air power involves using strategic bombing.

Revolutionary Warfare: Revolutionary warfare is a type of warfare that links social, military, and political developments. Revolutionary warfare allows the state to use all resources and plan the entire economy around fighting. As such, plans are made for fixed rationing for the entire population. Revolutionary type warfare allowed for mass mobilization of men and resources where ideology is the main driver and motivation (seek the destruction of the enemy with a political goal). On the battlefield, revolutionary warfare is more mobile and trustworthy (play off of each other), and the officer class that gets promoted through the ranks is one that seeks a decisive outcome

Machine Gun: The first consistent machine gun is invented by the American Hirum Maxim in 1883. Maxim had trouble getting a patent, so he left to Britain. For his machine gun, Maxim's machine gun used the energy of the fired shot to reload the next shot to create a self-sustained weapon. It is capable of firing 600 rounds per minute. This machine gun provides defense with a decisive advantage and a tactical perspective. However, the value of the machine gun was not recognized as fast as other inventions, such as the railroad.

Blitzkreig: Blitzkrieg refers to short, lightning warfare. Under blitzkreig warfare, an army moves its troops with such speed that opponents are unable to set up a coherent defense. Then, the opponent has to panic instead of choosing to set up a coherent defense. Blitzkreig brought back mobility to warfare. Germans used blitzkreig warfare during Operation Barbarossa, and the Soviets were greatly unprepared for these tactics.

Whale VS. Elephant: Whale vs. elephant refers to the advantages of sea power. Britain was known

as the whale, because it had a naval system that was capable of producing total war with sea power. On the other hand, Germany was limited to using land-based attacks. Just as the animal names suggest, Britain, like a whale, was able to use the water to its advantage, while Germany, just like an elephant, had to stay on land to fight.

Flexible Response: Flexible response was created in 1960-1961 under the Kennedy administration. Because of the downside of massive retaliation as a nuclear policy, Kennedy changed the policy to flexible response. Flexible response entails that we fight our enemy at whatever level our enemy is fighting at to keep things from going nuclear.

Propaganda/Censorship

Century of Peace: After the peace settlement of 1815 and the "Restoration," a Century of Peace existed from 1815-1914. Here, the five great powers exerted less aggression than before. There were infrequent wars (no warfare between Europeans between 1815-1884 and 1871-1914). War was also limited in size and scope and all five powers were intact till 1914. Traditional explanations to explain this peace include exhaustion from fighting, the fear that change and revolution would recast social orders, moderate peace settlements (did not give the French the excuse to follow the policy of seeking to retain lost or disputed lands), buffer zones (state of Belgium did not exist before 1789 but was created by the 4 great powers/victors), security alliance and balance of power (powers joined together to fight a future aggressor France), and systemic (European states saw that it was more reasonable to keep the peace than go to war). Other explanations for this peace include the European Concert where the five main powers of Europe came together to prevent a future aggressor like France or Germany, insulation in Europe from conflicts outside by the British naval hegemony, and intermediary bodies like the creation of buffer Belgium, the Danube River Treaty, general diplomatic agreements, and the North German Confederation.

Militarism: Militarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests. Militarism includes the prestige of an army, the idealization of war, and military permeation of civilian life. Militarism is evident in the belief that the prestige of the army is tied in with imperial race, or that the military is the guardian of national virtue and national identity. Bernardhi even once wrote that war was a Christian virtue (a Germanic notion) and as such, the middle class in Germany idolized the military.

Balkan Interlude: Balkan Interlude refers to the delay of Operation Barbarossa because of a coup in Yugoslavia. Operation Barbarossa is scheduled for May 15, 1941 but gets delayed to June 15, 1941 because of this coup. The British coup is planned by allies to install a British government in Yugoslavia. This took about a month as the harsh conditions of winter approached. Churchill was behind this coup plan and was obsessed with the soft underbelly of Europe (planned Calipally, Balkan interlude, to whole idea of attacking Germans in North Africa instead of in Europe).

Napoleon: Napoleon Bonaparte rose to prominence in 1796 in the French Revolutionary Army during the War of Liberation into the Italian Peninsula. In 1789, he became the first Council in the Directory and was the man to undertake a coup d'etat. In 1802, he crowns himself Emperor. A man seen as a liberator, a usurper, a conqueror, an invader, and a threat did not undertake campaigns of

genocide. Napoleon created the Code Napoleon, a series of new legal and civic codes of law that he exported to the continent along with his war of liberation. This code solved the problem of standardization, put everybody on the same footing, and was clearly written and accessible. He led with personality and charisma, and invented the idea of theater command.

Nuclear Terror (1949-1972): Nuclear terrorism is curbed by the theory of deterrence, massive retaliation, flexible response, and mutually assured destruction.

Weltpolitick: Weltpolitick is the German concept that poses the question "How well can I compete?" It is the concept of competition and the ideology behind it is that the pie never gets bigger - if you lose, I win. Darwinism gives Weltpolitick an intellectual basis from which to work because survival of the fittest mentality is at the heart of German Weltpolitick. Weltpolitick is evident in the naval arms race between Britain and Germany.

Battle Fleet Revolution: Between 1850s and 1900s, navies of the Western World and Japan changed dramatically. Some revolutionary improvements include: old wooden ships that were sail powered and wind driven being replaced by steam powered ships with steel weapons in 1837, the creation of iron hulk boats with propeller drives by 1850, and increased armor and guns on ships. Even though the navy did not initially welcome these changes, everything after 1880 was a steam and steel powered vessel. More improvements were made by Fisher, a British admiral, and Tirpitz, a German admiral, who both pushed this new technology seeking faster, stronger vessels with bigger guns. Fisher and Tirpitz created a cycle of innovation wherein one side would develop guns with high explosive shells, then so with the other in order to compete and match improvements. Fisher believed in new navy and ship design, and developed the use of the dreadnought, a precursor to the 20th century battle ship. Submarines were also a part of this battle fleet revolution; these submarines could not go underwater for too long and were easily spotted because of the torpedo. They were, however, good for breaking a blockade but not for sinking ships and spying.

Cambrai, 1917: The Battle of Cambrai in 1917 was a British campaign of WWI known for its successful use of tanks in a combined arms operation. The British lined up 1000 artillery pieces in secret and had precise data and aerial reconnaissance. They timed a creeping barage to allow the infantry to have some cover, and used pilots as bombers that used coordination to find where German troops were strong and weak, where trenches were abandoned etc. Cambrai saw a mix of tanks, heavy artillery, and air power being used, and for the first time in the three years that WWI had continued, mobility had returned.

 Please describe and analyze the battlefield conditions at Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme. In describing such conditions you will want to address who fought (social and national composition), how (weapons and tactics used, nature of killing, physical conditions) and why (from average soldier to leader's political and strategic goals). In analyzing your description please assess, for better or worse, how the nature of the battlefield and fighting has changed over time.Thesis: Fought for others, then fought for selfAgincourt :o October 25, 1415o Fought in France between French and English troopso Henry V led the English to victory. He claimed land on French soil, and campaigned to capture

it. o Men fought because of honor, God, alcohol, and because Henry was seen as a great leader.

o Longbowmen took out cavalryo Many men fell in the mud trying to chargeo Henry ordered the men to kill the prisoners. He worried that they would grab weapons

scattered on the ground and regroup. He did it to instill fear, to control the situation (the French were still amassed), and to intimidate. Men were cautious at first, because they wanted the ransom that could be gained from hostages. Only the most illustrious prisoners were spared.

o The English were heavily outnumbered but still won.Waterloo:o June 18, 1815o Fought in Waterloo, Belgium between French and Prussian /British troopso Napoleon led the French troops while Blucher and the Duke of Wellington led the

Prussian/British troops to victory. This defeat at Waterloo put an end to Napoleon's rule as Emperor of the French.

o Upon Napoleon's return to power in 1815, many states that had opposed him formed the Seventh Coalition and began to mobilise armies. Napoleon chose to attack in the hope of destroying them before they could join in a coordinated invasion of France with the other members of the Coalition.

o The French army of 72,000 consisted of 58,000 infantry, 14,000 cavalry, and 7,000 artillery with 250 guns. Though Napoleon was a frequent user of conscription, he did not use conscription for this 1815 campaign - all of his troops were veterans of at least one campaign who had returned voluntarily to fight for their once-great ruler. Unlike the French troops, the Coalition army had no armored troops, and only a handful of lancers. Coalition troops consisted of 67,000 men: 50,000 infantry, 11,000 cavalry, and 6,000 artillery with 150 guns. Of these, 24,000 were British, with another 6,000 from the King's German Legion. All of the British Army troops were regular soldiers and 7,000 of them were Peninsular War veterans. In addition, there were 17,000 troops from the Netherlands, 11,000 from Hanover, 6,000 from Brunswick, and 3,000 from Nassau.

23,000 British troops with 44,000 allied troops and 160 guns/ against 74,000 French troops and 250 guns.

o It rained heavily during the night of 17th June 1815. The French artillery commanders insisted that the attack did not begin until the ground had dried out sufficiently for the guns to maneuver without sticking in the mud.

o The British position was linked with various strongpoints - the chateau of Hougoumont, the farmhouse of La Haye Sainte and the dwellings of La Haie and Papelotte - and while Wellington knew his troops could hold the French for a time, he was relying upon the promised arrival of Blucher on his left flank to ensure victory.

Battle of the Somme:o July - November 1916o Among the largest and bloodiest battles of WWI (1.5 million casualties)o Allied forces attempted to break the German lines along a 12 mile front north and south of

the River Somme in northern Franceo Purpose of battle was to draw German forces away from the Battle of Verdun (but by the end,

losses on the Somme exceeded those at Verdun). The offensive was planned late in 1915 and was intended as a joint French-British attack. The French Commander in Chief, Joffre, conceived the idea as a battle of attrition, the aim being to drain the German forces of reserves, although territorial gain was a secondary aim.

o Allied loses were less than German losseso British army had been a largely inexperienced, but well trained mass of volunteers - a newly

raised citizen army. Germany, on the other hand, had entered the war with a trained force of regulars and reservists.

o The attack was preceded by an 8 day preliminary bombardment of German lines and then a creeping barrage would precede the advancing infantry to the German front line - both attacks were countered with the use of machine guns.

WWI and WWII are often referred to as the modern Thirty Years War (1618-1648 vs 1914-1945). Germany was the epicenter in both instances, but the two 20th century world wars share a number of additional similarities and differences. Please identify and analyze those similarities and differences in terms of tactics, time, space, levels of violence to civilian and soldiers, mobilization of resources and minds, as well as the social, political and economic ramifications of each war.o Tactics

Similar purpose of engaging many nations to stop the threat of Germany WWII technology was far more advanced (real aeroplanes, heavy bombers, tanks, radio

communication etc.)1. Tanks were now used effectively as offensive weapon as opposed to support, they

also were armed with a main weapon of a cannon, as opposed to a machine gun.2. Sub machine guns were much more common in WWII, which would greatly act

against trench warfare, because of quick movement, and tactics that could be used with a SMG, as opposed to a bolt action rifle.

3. Carpet bombing, dive bombing, close air support. Cities were more vulnerable in the rear, forcing militaries to defend their rear and neccessarily spreading their defenses.

o Timeo Space

WWI was a war of attrition with both sides bogged down virtually immobile in trenches. WWII was more a war of movement.

o Violence to: Civilians

The Holocaust is a major difference. Nothing similar happened in WWI, save the Turkish genocide of the Armenians.

Soldierso Mobilization of resourceso Social ramifications:o Political ramificationso Economic ramifications

1. Difference between WWI and WWIIo No negotiated peaceo Germany and Austria don't surrender unconditionally in WWI, but do surrender

unconditionally in WWII Both were occupied by the victorious powers (Germany not by end of WWI)

o Allowed for stab in the back with Hitler and Nazi party From the days of mounted knights to the present, the battlefield advantage between the offense and defense has ebbed and flowed. Please lead me down a path from the Middle Ages to the present describing who had the advantage when, and why. Please play particular attention to weapons technology and its influence on tactics and strategy.Middle Ages: defensive, moats and towers and fortifications to resist knights, lancesRenaissance Warfare: offensive = gunpowder, infantry squares, cannons, pike square, arquebus and musket

Thick Walls Built thicker walls for defense

Layered Towers Out towers to counteract the appearance of the cannon Push cannon as far away as possible Return more fire to sieger

Outworks and Moats Moats and ditches pushing the besieging army further and further

Angle Bastions/Star Fort The trace italienne Angle bastion as part of fortification design More points from which to fire back out into the attacking army Flanking fire Fire double the rate of fire onto a single point

17th century warfare: offensive (sea power, adolphus' new pike square, combined arms, crosstrained)Napoleonic Warfare: offensive(mass bayonet charges, calculated and deceptive, decisive outcomes)WWI: offensive (air power, tanks, artillery, combined arms)WWII: offensive (startegic bombing, blockades, economic warfare)