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McKenzie Reading - Jonah

Apr 07, 2018

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    lntroduction

    JONAHAND GENRE

    Satire s a sort of glasswherein beholders do generally discover everybody's facebut their own. -Jonathan Swift, Preface to The Battle of the BooksWhatwriting is. Telepathy, f course. -Stephen King, On Writing

    The thesisof this book is simple. It is that many-I would even venture to saytrinoEt"-people who read the Bible misunderstand t. This is not exacdya noveldftm, I had a teacher once who was fond of saying hat the Bible is bigger than

    of us, No one understands he Bible completely,but most readersof the Bibleto appreciate he true nature of its literature. I would add that the conse-

    of their misunderstanding can be devastating. don't mean that theytsa be spiritually devastating-as in the idea that misunderstanding the Bible cankd tu eternal damnation-but that they can be psychologically devastating-asl&ea en individual feels orn between abandoning aith because he Bible seemsand untrue, or committing to a belief system hat affirms the com-

    aecuracyof the Bible in all matters despite reasonable ndications to thegitrery, These are extreme reactions,but they illustrate the point that the ques-&a of whqt to do with the Bible is a real one for those people who want to holdF Eea faith that allows or a realisticview of the world.

    Introduction

    JONAH AND GENRE

    Satire is a sort of glass wherein beholders do generally discover everybody's facebut their own, Jonathan Swift, Preface to The Battle of the BooksWhat writing is. Telepathy, of course. Stephen King, On Writing

    thesis of this book is simple. It is that manyI would even venture to sayoat" people who read the Bible misunderstand it. This is not exactly a novel

    I had a teacher once who was fond of saying that the Bible is bigger thanus. No one understands the Bible completely, but most readers of the Bible

    to appreciate the true nature of its literature. I would add that the conse-ces of their misunderstanding can be devastating. I don't mean that theybe spiritually devastating as in the idea that misunderstanding the Bible can

    d to eternal damnationbut that they can be psychologically devastatingasn individual feels torn between abandoning faith because the Bible seems

    asonable and untrue, or committing to a belief system that affirms the corn-accuracy of the Bible in all matters despite reasonable indications to the

    trent. These are extreme reactions, but they illustrate the point that the clues-n of what to do with the Bible is a real one for those people who want to holdto a faith that allows for a realistic view of the world.

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    ButJonah is also one of the least undersrood stories in the Bible lts rcal messageoften gets lost amid the debate over whether the slory a'tually happened Hoviexactly, is the story to be uderstood? h it history or some kind of fairy tale?could a person really sutrive fot three days and nights inside a whalel somesraunchly dcfend rhe possibility, while others ridi'ule it and dismiss the book-and in some cases he entire Bible-as a diculous fable or myth

    But ifJonah nnot history,what is rsPoinrrA caretul reading of the book of lonah suggeststhat the misuderstandingaiiscs lrom attempts to male it something that it is not The story is full ofhumor exaggeration, irony, dd ridicule These features indicate that the bookwas never intended to be read as history but was written as a kind of satire Nowonder ir has been disunderstood! Trying to read the story as history can orilvlead to a failure to appreciate its uue nature and to misconstrue its primarymesage. The tr$tment ofJonah that follows Points out the many iNtances otexaggeration md &e like and dis.usseshow they work to make a satirical pointThe traNlations of Bible passages n this book are mostly my own and are usualty marked AT for "author: tlaNlation " otherwisc, they are taken from theNew Rsised Standard Version of the Bible md marked NRSV

    oudideJonah is comprised of two distinct halves each introduced by the statement''thc word of Y:hweh'came to Jonah" Gr; 3:r)with the additional Hebrew word.again" or "a seconal ime" o.curring in 3r' Jonah's prayers further divide ea'hhalf in two.' Thus, the book falls into four principal scenesmostly corresPond-ing io fie four chapter divisions

    r. Jonah's call and flight2. Jonah'spsalm3. Jonah s missio. to Nineveh4. Yahweh's lesson toJomh

    The slanmetry between the two halves of rhe book shows Jonah to be a wellorganized work of narrarive literature. The symmetry is even clearer in the llebrew numbering' The outline also shows hatjonah is the ceniral charactcrolthe bookmd suggestshat rs contenls evolvearound rhc nlteracli()ns ctw'(nhim an{:l he other characters. n examitrationof lhc b(r)k s rrrn'nl by trs (n'fsccnes il l hclp ro answ(t hc qufsrnnN tris\l frrlnr ' rh 'rr( rs rr i i l | ' r I r irxlh(,w hc (lc t r i ls 'l lhr s l , , ry cht r ' lo l l r r l lx ir x

    JONAH AND GINREJonah s cal and Flight

    'l hc book of Jonah begins, "The word of Yahweh came to Jonah, he son ofAmittai." Jon3h is one of the writings within lhe division of the Hebrew Biblekrown as he Prophets (Hebrew Neu Im). More specifically ir isone of rhe worksni the Book of the Tvelve, also known as the Minor Pfophets. Its beginning ish rth similar to and different from other prophetic books. The opening sentenceh not like those fourd at the begimings of most prophetic writings. It doesnotr{y the word of Yahweh riratcame toJonah." Rathea it launches right into thertoryr "The word of Yahwehcame ojonah, saj,mg. . "

    l his beginning already signals something unusual about tle book ofJonah: ith r narratjve, a srory abour the prophet rather than a collection of his sayings. Ith rrot unusual for prophetic books to contain some biographical narrative. TheI ftt I bree chapters of Hosea, for erample, relare intimare details of the prophet'snrNringe and family life. But prophetic books are generally collectionsof the0r'rflrs or speeches f &e prophets.Jonah s the opposire, eing nearlyall narrallvr'l here s only one orade inJonah(3:a), nd r is very brief:

    s(nlc other prophetic books, such as Haggai and zechariah, begin kind ofllhr..lrnah by lauchiag directly into a narrative. Haggai and zechariah borhllr,Iln rheir narrativeswith a dating formula: ln the X year of such and suchrrlfr, butJonah does not begin wifi such a formula. Ih au&ordoesnot exl'l,rl,, whcnJonah lived or worked or gire any additional detailsabout his life.'l hr' l', ,l( never even calh him aprophet. The only additional inftrmation aboutlrnrih frnncs rom, Kings14:25.In Kingswe ledn thatJonah, he sonof Amittai,t!,ri r tnl'Phct who lived during the time of Kingjeiobom II of lsraet appmx./nh /,10 {:). I Ie was ftom a town called Gath Hepher in Israel,and he proph-filrll rhf .nl|tgcmcnt of aportion of lsrael'snorrhern border underjeroboam.llrr, ,rhrrrc of such details, spccially the lack of chronoiogi cal nformation,h ' || |hc h( x )k ol Jonah suggests rhat the author deemed the specifics about rhehllrr.ili.unrg of rhc srory asunimpoltanl(,rr, ,,rlr.r si8rill(.nr fi.rure of dre story ofJonah rclated o its first versehasro(l |wrI r l ! rrr , . 'n i r8sol is lamcandrhatof his father ' lonah'means dove"lI I lfl,l1 w l'( i l|]|l's Iis suA]tcsrsomcrhingaboutjonah's.hdactd in the storyl l r ' r r r f wr! i l r | l r ryxrrl u| lsribh ikf a dovc.The dove s also ometimes sed nl l r f l l r l , l i i rrsyrrh, l l i r l r r i( l ( l l , ,s7: ,, ) .SoirmiybetharJonah, the dove, ' is

    . 11t,,{t |11,,ryr ' l iz f l \ r i f l , , r i r ! (r i l r (k {n fhufu.t(l isri. Prevalenrn Israel . isldt l r f ' ! r, ,r! , Anrirri , . Llf f iv,\ i iorrr t l ! l lc l t rrw rnrr n). i f lnrg "t rurh orhl r l r l I l r r d I l , r( r 1l I l ir i r , ' ry i r r | , l r r) l ( l ,nr. r l r .h s i ! ] (' l rnrrh, islk ' ,11, . , r , ' ' l , l " r t . r , r l r t . .l , . . , rr ' l ' . , , rr l ix r ' r , . , r , I r \ ' ,1 l r . . . rr ' l l r r '1. ' t l r r .L.I"

    2 HOW TO READ THE BIBLE I _IONAH AND GENRE 3Butyinah is also one of the least understoodstories in the Bible. Its real messageoften gets lost amid the debate over whether the story actually happened. How,exactly, is the story to be understood? Is it history or some kind of fairy tale?Could a person really survive for three days and nights inside a whale? Somestaunchly defend the possibility, while others ridicule it and dismiss the bookand in some cases the entire Bibleas a ridiculous fable or myth. But if Jonah isnot history, what is its point?

    A careful reading of the book of Jonah suggests that the misunderstandingarises from attempts to make it something that it is not. The story is full ofhumor, exaggeration, irony, and ridicule. These features indicate that the bookwas never intended to be read as history but was written as a kind of satire. Nowonder it has been misunderstood! Trying to read the story as history can onlylead to a failure to appreciate its true nature and to misconstrue its primarymessage. The treatment of Jonah that follows points out the many instances ofexaggeration and the like and discusses how they work to make a satirical point.The translations of Bible passages in this book are mostly my own and are usu-ally marked AT for "author's translation." Otherwise, they are taken from theNew Revised Standard Version of the Bible and marked NRSV.

    OutlineJonah is comprised of two distinct halves, each introduced by the statement,"the word of Yahweh' came to Jonah" (Ex; 3:1) with the additional Hebrew word"again" or "a second time" occurring in 3:.1. Jonah's prayers further divide eachhalf in two! Thus, the book falls into four principal scenes mostly correspond-ing to the four chapter divisions.

    I. Jonah's call and flight2. Jonah's psalm3. Jonah's mission to Nineveh4. Yahweh's lesson to Jonah

    The symmetry between the two halves of the book shows Jonah to be a well-organized work of narrative literature. The symmetry is even clearer in the He-brew numbering' The outline also shows that Jonah is the central character ofthe book and suggests that its contents revolve around the interactions betweenhim and the other characters. An examination of the book's content by its fourscenes will help to answer the questions raised earlier about its main point andhow the details of the story relate to that point.

    Jonah's Call and Flighttine book of Jonah begins, "The word of Yahweh came to Jonah, the son of'Amine," Jonah is one of the writings within the division of the Hebrew Bible

    own as the Prophets (Hebrew Nevi'lm). More specifically, it is one of the worksthe Book of the Twelve, also known as the Minor Prophets. Its beginning is

    Oth similar to and different from other prophetic books. The opening sentencenot like those found at the beginnings of most prophetic writings. It does notOy "the word of Yahweh that came to Jonah" Rather, it launches right into the

    ry: "The word of Yahweh came to Jonah, saying..."This beginning already signals something unusual about the book of Jonah: itiii narrative, a story about the prophet rather than a collection of his sayings. Itnot unusual for prophetic books to contain some biographical narrative. The

    it three chapters of Hosea, for example, relate intimate details of the prophet'srnage and family life. But prophetic books are generally collections of thedes or speeches of the prophets. Jonah is the opposite, being nearly all narra-

    There is only one orade in Jonah (3:4), and it is very brief.Some other prophetic books, such as Haggai and Zechariah, begin kind ofJonah by launching directly into a narrative. Haggai and Zechariah both

    their narratives with a dating formula: "In the X year of such-and-suchler," but Jonah does not begin with such a formula. The author does not ex-

    n when Jonah lived or worked or give any additional details about his life.0 book never even calls him a prophet. The only additional information abouteh comes from a Kings 14:25. In a Kings we learn that Jonah, the son of Amittai,

    prophet who lived during the time of King Jeroboam II of Israel (approx.6 ace). He was from a town called Gath-Hepher in Israel, and he proph-(Id the enlargement of a portion of Israel's northern border under Jeroboam. absence of such details, especially the lack of chronological information,

    the book of Jonah suggests that the author deemed the specifics about thetorleal setting of the story as unimportant.One other significant feature of the story of Jonah related to its first verse hasdo with the meanings of his name and that of his father. "Jonah" means "dove"Hebrew. Perhaps this suggests something aboutionah's character in the storyt he was flighty and unstable like a dove. The dove is also sometimes used inBible as a symbol for Israel (Hos 7:11). So it may be that Jonah, the "dove," isAM to symbolize Israel or an attitude or characteristic prevalent in Israel. Histrio name, Antittal, derives from the Hebrew root meaning "truth" orthfultum." Here in the first irony in the book. Jonah, the "son of truth," isy s modal of faithfulness in the story. 'The meanings of his and his father's

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    4 Honamesmaybe atleastpaftof rhe reason hat Jonahwas hosen as he "hero" of

    conrinDing the sroilr Y:hweh commands Jonah to go to the great city" ofNheveh and to cry out" agarl$t it because of its wickedness. If readingjonah ashistor). the reference ro Nineveh raises a chronological Problem. Nineveh camero prominence as he capital of the Assyrian empire in the seltnth century (the6oot DcE, ong after the Jonah of 2 Kings r4i2t lr fact. by the time Ninevehbecame he capital, he nation of Israelhad ceasedo exist The Assyrims hem'selvesbrought end to the kingdom of Israel by destroying its capital, Smaria,in 72r Bcl and taking mary of its citizens into caPtivity fiom which they wouldnever return Gee 2 Kings r7). Thus, the role of Nineveh in the book ofJonahappears to be an anachronism.

    The occurence of an ana.hronism injonah is a problem only if the story ofJonah is history or if one assumes bat it is lt is not aproblem' though, ifjonahis some kind of story such as a sadical Pdable, in which the characters fePresent an attitude or even a larger class of People Nineveh might havebeen chosen by the author ofjonah asthe embodiment of the evil foreign citv preciselybecause t once served as the Assyrian caPiral Assyria, in turn had likelv cometo symbolize the foreign evil empte" ever sin e it desnoved Israel in 722BcE'This is the role that Nineveh and the Ninevites plsy in the story of Jonah inorder to make the point that if God cares for rhem, God carcs for evervone

    The Ninevites andJonah comPlement each othcr in their respecrile roles inthe book ofjonah. Jonah the prophet lived in Israel rn the eighth cenrury at thetimc the Assyrian empite was on the asccni and before its destruction of IsraelNincveh was not yet the Assyrian capital at the timc Jonah ived and \touldbecome so only in the follovhg cenrury The author ofJonah, witing severalcentudes later, may not have kflown that it vas not actually rhe capital duringJonahs lifetime. But this did not matter, sirce the author was not tryjng ro

    Jonah s response o God's.ornmand is suryrising on soeral levels He boardsa ship in order ro flee toward Tarshish Nine\h lay northeast of Isracl in themodern country of lraq. Tarshish,on rhe southen coastof Spain (modernTartessog, represented the westernmost exrreme of the known world for thewriter ofjonah and his audience n essence,herefore, onahheads n the opposite direction fiom wtlere God tells him to go

    This part of the story againPresents ome historicalproblems har indi(ar(that the author lived ong afterJonah's ime. The rcfcrencc o l(4rpa's l('rrh sport of embarkstions odd,since oppa .rs rrPhil isl iRhrnds nrn t ' r rr l i rc iDthecighrhccnl!fy.Alv), lhfI t l lr 'nni.nl),n1,,1 l t r( wrs. I 'n j1r ' l ' rrrr l r 's1rr l l tc f l ) le i ' l i rch. rrr f r .wrrr) l ( ; rr l r l i r l 'hrr l ' r rrwis l ' l l l '1 l l r is f lx r 'hl l r rrsr ' l rL

    JONAH AND CENR! 5rril do not impede the point of the story and are not of much consequence0Dlcss ne nsistson trying to re:d it a s history-

    Mole surpdsing or the readerisjonaht response n the ffrst place.Prophetsrrf messengersFom cod, and crying out is what prophets do. They are privyr0 sfccial divine rmlation and go where dre divhe word sends hem. Then theyurt(I God's judgmots againstpeople in hopes of bdnging them to repenence.Nol Jonan. He does u$ the opposite, blatandy disobeying a dirtct order from( i|(1. To dricipate the story Jonah, the prophet, whom the reader erpects to beYdhwch'sclosestsetrmq is the only one of a11the haractcrs n the story hummrr ril nonhuman who fails to obey God. Jonah is a very unusual prophet indeedlI hc narrative twice usesrhe expression from the presenceof Yalweh," makhr$ l clear hatjonah is trylng to ru, airal from God. The statement hat hell'rl(i rlrc i,r'rp'i hire, ralhef than ,'rir hire or fare, may eren mem that he was inir r, h ,r h(rry that he chartered the ship Ghis also mal

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    JONAIT AND GENRE 7pleasure {specially sincetheir own lives are n peril. Besides, onah deatly rhi'l

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    JONAE AND CENRI

    The entire scene now becomes even more comical. TraPPed inside of thfth, Jonah ffnally prays.Jonah'sprayer is lctually a hymn of thanksgivins ud assuch js not entirely apprcpriate to his situation.5 Here is the wa''ward prophet,who is not exacrly the gtaretul b?e, intoning a rousing hymn of thanks hside ofa large fish. The humorous image that this cbaPter conjures up may be preciselythe reason hat hc psalmwas ncluded.

    The original setting of the psalm vas apparenrly its author's survjval of a''ne:r death" qpedcnce. The psalmist says hat he cried out to Yahweh from thebclly of sheo]. Sheof is the Hebrew nme for the undeNorld or place of rhedead, also called the Pit" later in the poem. The Hebrert rerm for "bely" heie isdifferent from *1e vord used for the belly of the fish, rhough they ale borhraNlated the samein the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV). Even so, thereference toJonahbeingin the belly" of Sheol easily brings to mhd his predicament in the recessesof the f:ish. Another imagc for death used in the poem isthat of drowning, and ir also rcminds one ofJonal's situation. Srill, even thoughlonah has not dro ned in rhe sea, he does not yet know that he will surive hisordeal in thc fish. Thus, the psalm of thanksgiving is inapproPriate be.ause n is

    There are other ditrerences between Jonah's situation md that rcllecred inthe psalm. lr is Yahweh in rhe psalm, rather than rhe sailors, who throws thepsalmist inro rhe sca. There is no mentioD of the fish or any of the ciromstmces that landedjonah there in the psalm. The references o Yalweh's house"or "temple" are also inappropriate toJonah s situationi the temple was inJerusa1em, he capital ofJudal, whne Jonah was from the kingdom of Israel Thecondemation of idol worshippers as orsaking rheir loyalty fits ill vith the storyin Jonah, shce the foreignus, who presumably wonhip idols, are more faitffuland obedient to Yahweh thdjonah. The mention of sacrifice at the temple alsopresupposes a setthg on land ra$er than in the fish s interior The vow men-tioned at the efld of L\e poem ( 'and vhat I have vowed I $.i11 ay') is presumablyoccasionedby the ps3lmist's restomnon . . . of whjch there is no mention yet in

    Despire he nappropriateness f tbe psalm ojonah: situation, he scene nthe bellv of the fish furrhe's the story and the characterization of]onah by wh:tir does Dor say.There is no irdication onJonah's part of any regrer for his disobcdienceand ailure o carry out Cod s order. n spireof his eaperjencen rhc fish.he remains obstinale ar)durtpentant. The humor of this sceneconri'trcs lDwhat mustbe iDtendedasa wry t'ivist,aftcr hreedaysYahwchsPcrks o rh. llshThe idea of rhe Almighty personally ddfcssnig lish is eorrrr l errotr8h, rt,laclcinigtothcc(nncdyiswhirYihw.hrclls(hf l ishr, '(1,) w.l)iv{ isry i r lgt l r i r' ' I t i rhi rr l {r ! .s tsst ink l i .r rlrf .r , l ,rys l l , , l lr , ,r1.rlrrrr l rl ! l l r rr l l , t l , rt t . ,

    though for differnt reasoN. Following Yahweh's colnmand, the ffsh spews (lit"vomits") up the distasteful rophet.

    Jonah's Mission to NirevhY hweh tellsJonah a second ime ro go to Nineveh, and lhis time he goes.He hasnl least leamed that he camot run avay from the Mater of sea and dry landNonrethingrlat ws already quite obvious ro the non Israelite sailors Nineveh isf'rllcd an exceedinglylarge ity,lirerall. a great ciry o God " The further sPecil ( rion, a ftree days'valk across," NRSV) ndi.aresan enormouscity ndeed.Alrhough he ex?rcssion loDe s:mbiguous, its reference o diameter s evidentlir,rn the statement thatJonal wafts a day's ourney into the ciry Figuring twenty[rllrs as the approximate distance rhat one cm walk in a day this would meanth"l Nineveh was sixty miles aaoss-huge wen by modern standards! lD fact,tlx ligure is exaggerated beyond any sembtame of re3lity and can only be con-rl(lffed h}?erbole. This is another problem for a historical reading of the book'l hc location of ancient Nineveh was identified and excarated well over a ceD-lur y igo. At its height, the city had a circumference of only about 7 75milesi atIt w t(lcsrpoint it was about three miles across-no\theie near the sze tbatJonal'llr l|ulcs ro it.6Again, he discrepdcy is only:problem if one aBemPts o readf'r h trshisrory This kild of exaggeration is to be expected, however, in sanrelhnrlirg a day'swalk into the hedt of Nineveh,Jonahutters 3 lerse otacle|'Drii$rirlgof only five words n Hebrew: Forty days tom nov Ninevh will berrfl lfir'tlcd'(nl5;11 jllltll Dll A"flN 7l!,3:a) There snoindtcanorinthe textlh(| |f rcpcats he message.Rather. he appa rendy urns abruPtly and eavesAu,rl||,his bchavior s out of character or a prophet (remember hat prophets't I y 0r r ) x nd reflects his stubbornness. other prophets deliver extended oracleslrrll ol r oldirl laugu:ge and vivid metaphors. onahdoes he b arc midmum,||Ihlr+lrx,.. fhc fsson for rhis ersenesss simple.Unlike everyotherProPhetlri r' llihl.,.l(nrnhdoesnot wanr his audience o listen He retuses o ProlonghisnrrF!{I{r or his visit bccausc e doesnot want them tobe effective;hedoesnorwr|r Iis,rtrlicr.c ro fcpcnt. As he soon makesdear in the story he hopes harl|f Nn, !ir(s will igDorchis mcssrgeand hat God will desnoy hem

    J',||ilrr,,,rriL is fss srr.righrlinwdrd han it initially aPPearsobe He appart t r l ly rn, r ' rsr, , i ry r l ! r l Nirfvfh s ", )vcnurning' is omingsoon. ut forty days"h rr l rrr l ly i r{r, ,xl r t r1rr l ) . rl r . rrr | l ! ' l i , r l ( , rgt ime n ie Bible Onedpects al |Fr l , r l r , , r . l rk ( rIr! rl i t t l ir surh rn r l r inrr tunr.As a resuh, onahseemsrr ' l r 'l l \ 1 i , l1r, |1 !. NI rvrt(* t ( , rrrrc( l ii r . r . rnnr rn issuf ing hem hatt l |rr | l ,rvr , l , rrrrrrr rrrr r , , [$$ r l r( r w, ry f ] l! 1), , inr,l rh r (r ' i . lc is lv)

    8 HOW TO READ THE BIBLE

    The entire scene now becomes even more comical. Trapped inside of thefish, Jonah finally prays. Jonah's prayer is actually a hymn of thanksgiving and assuch is not entirely appropriate to his situation.' Here is the wayward prophet,who is not exactly the grateful type, intoning a rousing hymn of thanks inside ofa large fish. The humorous image that this chapter conjures up may be preciselythe reason that the psalm was included.

    The original setting of the psalm was apparently its author's survival of a"near death" experience. The psalmist says that he cried out to Yahweh from thebelly of Sheol. "Sheol" is the Hebrew name for the underworld or place of thedead, also called the "Pit" later in the poem. The Hebrew term for "belly" here isdifferent from the word used for the belly of the fish, though they are bothtranslated the same in the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV). Even so, thereference to Jonah being in the "belly" of Sheol easily brings to mind his predica-ment in the recesses of the fish. Another image for death used in the poem isthat of drowning, and it also reminds one of Jonah's situation. Still, even thoughJonah has not drowned in the sea, he does not yet know that he will survive hisordeal in the fish, Thus, the psalm of thanksgiving is inappropriate because it ispremature.There are other differences between Jonah's situation and that reflected inthe psalm. It is Yahweh in the psalm, rather than the sailors, who throws thepsalmist into the sea. There is no mention of the fish or any of the circum-stances that landedionah there in the psalm_ The references to Yahweh's "house"or "temple" are also inappropriate tokinah's situation; the temple was in Jerusa-lem, the capital of Judah, while Jonah was from the kingdom of Israel. Thecondemnation of idol worshippers as forsaking their loyalty fits ill with the storyin Jonah, since the foreigners, who presumably worship idols, are more faithfuland obedient to Yahweh than Jonah The mention of sacrifice at the temple alsopresupposes a setting on land rather than in the fish's interior. The vow men-tioned at the end of the poem ("and what I have vowed twill pay") is presumablyoccasioned by the psalmist's restoration of which there is no mention yet inthe story of Jonah.Despite the inappropriateness of the psalm to Jonah's situation, the scene inthe belly of the fish furthers the story and the characterization of Jonah by whatit does notsay. There is no indication on Jonah's part of any regret for his disobe-dience and failure to carry out God's order. In spite of his experience in the fish,he remains obstinate and unrepentant. The humor of this scene continues. Inwhat must be intended as a wry twist, after three days Yahweh speaks to the fish.The idea of the Almighty personally addressing a fish is comical enough, andadding to the comedy is what Yahweh tells thc fish to do. We have a saying that"Fish and guests stink after three days." Both Jonah and the great fish agree,

    though for different reasons. Following Yahweh's command, the fish spews (lit.vomits") up the distasteful prophet.Jonah's Mission to Nineveh

    JONAH AND GENRE 9

    weh tells Jonah a second rime to go to Nineveh, and this time he goes. He hasleast learned that he cannot run away from the Maker of sea and dry landOmething that was already quite obvious to the non-Israelite sailors. Nineveh ised an exceedingly large city, literally; "a great city to God." The further speci-

    Cation, "a three days' walk across," (NRSV) indicates an enormous city indeed.though the expression alone is ambiguous, its reference to diameter is evidentm the statement that Jonah walks a day's journey into the city. Figuring twentyes as the approximate distance that one can walk in a day, this would meanat Nineveh was sixty miles acrosshuge even by modern standards! In fact,figure is exaggerated beyond any semblance of reality and can only be con-red hyperbole. This is another problem for a historical reading of the book.a location of ancient Nineveh was identified and excavated well over a cen-

    y ago. At its height, the city had a circumference of only about 7.75 miles; atwidest point it was about three miles acrossnowhere near the size that Jonahbutes to it's Again, the discrepancy is only a problem if one attempts to readah as history. This kind of exaggeration is to be expected, however, in satire.Entering a day's walk into the heart of Nineveh, Jonah utters a terse oraclelisting of only five words in Hebrew: "Forty days from now Nineveh will beurned" (nDni 11' Vn,

    ynnt; 3:4). There isno indication in thetext

    t he repeats the message. Rather, he apparently turns abruptly and leaves.In, his behavior is out of character for a prophet (remember that prophetsout") and reflects his stubbornness. Other prophets deliver extended oraclesof colorful language and vivid metaphors. Jonah does the bare minimum,g more. The reason for this terseness is simple. Unlike every other prophet*Bible, Jonah does not want his audience to listen. He refuses to prolong hisSage or his visit because he does not want them to be effective; he does nott his audience to repent. As he soon makes dear in the story, he hopes thatNinevites will ignore his message and that God will destroy them.lOttah's oracle is less straightforward than it initially appears to be. He appar-

    nleans to say that Nineveh's "overturning" is coming soon. But "forty days"lypicKity a round-number metaphor for a long time in the Bible. One expects ad more like three days for such an ultimatum. As a result, Jonah seems

    HA. Is he calling the Ninevites to immediate action or assuring them thathave adequate time to change their ways? The point of the oracle is also

    tguouo, The verb for overt tinted" (11:01 nehthicet) may mean "destroyed"

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    or "changed." Thus, Jonalis prediction wil prol true regadless of hov theNinevit; react. If thev fail to listen and resPond' the citv wi! be destroyed onft other hand, if they rpent, the ciiy wil not be destoyed, but it wil be changed'This means that, counter to an interpretation that has sometimes been oFered'Jonaht subsequent anger is not occasioned by his concern over his "pmpheticrecord' (i.e., the accuraa/ of hjs predictiont. His record rcmains intact howeverth Ninevites iespond There is some other rcason that Jonah gets angry areason that gs at the heart of the booLs message

    In spite of the curtness of Jomh's orade' it is enormoudv successtul-to aridiculous extreme. Alt the peoPle of Nineeh beliel in God, makingJonah $emost efective piophet in the Bible by far. The Ninevites are amaangrv perceptive. Not only do they discern rhe implicit threat ir Jonahi oracle' they alsoperceive that the threat comes fiom God, even hough the oracle did not mentioncod. whx ls more, they irtttit how they should respond in order to ala)id destruction. The entiie .itizenry of Nineveh. ftom the greatest or most imPortant torhe smalesror leae imponanr ,a.or'Fa\rs nd dressesn q'Ldo$ 'on!'enbonalsigns of mourning. The king of Ninelh himself 'omes down Fom his $roneto sit in the dust drcssed n sackdoth. Incidentallv, the title, "king of Nine!h" isnot attested in the voluminous literature recol'ered ftom ancient Ninerh andAssyna, and again suggests he unhistorical nature of the story

    The king issues a decree requiring all the peoPle ad the anirtals in the citv tofast,dress n sackctorh Pray,and repent of oil deedsand violence' Like hisPeople'the k ng 's incredbly Pe ( ePtive He mdkes iis deo eewir hour any cena nD ofthe abaiement of divine punishment bur onty in the mere hope tlat Yahwehmay relent and decide not to destroy rhe citla The decree aPpearsat frst glanceto be superfluous, since it follows the notice that the people repented Howeveathe rcil decree higt ights the ddiculousEess of the eftent of effectivenessofJonah's oracle in the story lmagine sheep, catde, and other animsls dressed nsa.kcloth retusing to eat or drinL, Prefeffing instead to lamenr then evil deedsand pray for mercyl The idea is ludicrous. No other scene n the book quite soclearly illustrates the satirical natue of the storv with its ridicuious images andhwerbole.

    The repentance of the Ninsites humans md animals alike is effectiveYahweh is moved by it to change his mind about the disaster he had iltended forrhe ciq. lronicauy.Nineleh i5 nor desrro\ed be'Juse 'r ts ' hanged one mrghrexpectJonah to be gratilied ar the efiectiveness of his Proclamation- He is notInstead, e s displeased. he Hebrew iterallv sayshat he Perceivedt asa Srcarevil, ddhe becameangry-angry atcod forbeing mcr'ifDl Yct, hc v'ry nle'fvof cod that nfudates.lonahand un(,n whi(h the Nitr0viLcscly s rlso hc rn'f'ythal hnskcDt (nrnhhinrs(ll rrliv. l'hlt jt tttrorhc' ol rhc brrlk' gr''rtr rorrlcr'

    JONAE AND CENRIY.hwh'! Lsson to Jonah

    In the ffnal scene of the storyJonah at last explains why he so foolis ydiedtorun aFtsywhen Yahweh first ordered him to go to Nineveh. The explanatio4 orNheeasoning behind it. is even moie stading thanJonahi flight.

    Oh Yahfth, is his no! what I saidwhenI wrs still in my oM coutrtryr This swhyI preenptiltly fled towdd, Tarshish.For ldew that you are agraoous dd merciful God {low to becomemgr' geat in kinalne$, and who changes is mindnbourbringing dirastei (42, AT)llc ran awall he says,because he hew Cod to be merciful and gracious, patientInd forgiving. Jonah, it seemq wmted Nircveh to be destloyed, and he wasr&cld that cod would relent if his preachiry caused the city's residents to re-poll, That is prcisely what happened, md now Jonah is angry angry withOud br beiry mercitul.

    Jonah s so angry that he 1sksGod to takehis life. It is better for me to dielhtn to lii" he says.Yahweh espondswiti a question,"Do you do wel to bettlltty?" (AT) Butjonah doesnot answer. nstead,he takes aposition overlookIng Nheveh, appaiendyhopeful that God will changehis mind apin and detltoy thc city wirh its inhabitmts.Ilut Yahwehdecideso try yet oncemore to teachjonaha esson.He apPointsahuh togrowup andgiveJonahshade. onah uds greatjoy" in the bush-ina6llllnrt to the great eral" that he felt at Yshweh's decisionnot to destroylllttwch, Then, the Almighty, who Previouslyspoke o a fish, now appoints aAtrDr, lollowing divine command, he worm attacks he bush so that it with-llt, Fhrully,God appoints a dry eartern wind that, together v'aththe hot sun,be{rr down oppressiv-elynJonah. The ProPhets miserableand or the secondg$r $L{ (;od to take his ife. Hrepeats is erlier lamenr "It is better for me to$i th[n tr) ivc. SoYahwehalso epeats is rejobder qu$tion: "Do you do welFb$ {ngryt"this ime adding about hebushl'Andthis imeJonah nswrs&flrntly: "l do wcll to be angry enough o die." Yahweh's peech ondudes hebenl wlrhLr ucsrion:

    iru rlifd drrr/rh. b!sh,which oudidnotworkorgro*, hi.h cameo be ni dry rn(lrnrlfrl Lr niBhrAn.l houldnotcare bout ineveh,hegleat ity,ltt whichhc|t r. ,ir!. rhrnr,o,ooo coplc hodonotknow heir ght handlirur lh.lr'lcll, w.ll 'r$ riDy nitrrils?AT)LlL! lt| h!*hnrItx, thc ro(llnR,)l lrnnrhr uru$url nd poims o the booKsgikutno ODlyr 'r tolh(rhtr)L(,1hr hbrcw l i l r lc. trchdt$ i th qucsdn.

    to HOW TO READ THE BIBLE JONAH AND GENREor "changed." Thus, Jonah's prediction will prove true regardless of how theNinevites react. If they fail to listen and respond, the city will be destroyed. Onthe other hand, if they repent, the city will not be destroyed, but it will be changed.This means that, counter to an interpretation that has sometimes been offered,Jonah's subsequent anger is not occasioned by his concern over his "propheticrecord" (i.e., the accuracy of his predictions). His record remains intact howeverthe Ninevites respond. There is some other reason that Jonah gets angryareason that gets at the heart of the book's message.

    In spite of the curtness of Jonah's oracle, it is enormously successfulto aridiculous extreme. All the people of Nineveh believe in God, making Jonah themost effective prophet in the Bible by far. The Ninevites are amazingly percep-tive. Not only do they discern the implicit threat in Jonah's oracle, they alsoperceive thnt the threat comes from God, even though the orade did not mentionGod. What is more, they intuit how they should respond in order to avoid de-struction. The entire citizenry of Nineveh, from the greatest or most important tothe smallest or least important (4:6), fasts and dresses in sackclothconventionalsigns of mourning. The king of Nineveh himself comes down from his throneto sit in the dust dressed in sackcloth. Incidentally, the title, "king of Nineveh," isnot attested in the voluminous literature recovered from ancient Nineveh andAssyria, and again suggests the unhistorical nature of the story.The king issues a decree requiring all the people and the animals in the city tofast, dress in sackdoth, pray, and repent of evil deeds and violence. Like his people,the king is incredibly perceptive. He makes this decree without any certainty ofthe abatement of divine punishment but only in the mere hope that Yahwehmay relent and decide not to destroy the city The decree appears at first glanceto be superfluous, since it follows the notice that the people repented. However,the royal decree highlights the ridiculousness of the extent of effectiveness ofJonah's oracle in the story. Imagine sheep, cattle, and other animals dressed insackcloth refusing to eat or drink, preferring instead to lament their evil deedsand pray for mercy!. The idea is ludicrous. No other scene in the book quite sodearly illustrates the satirical nature of the story with its ridiculous images andhyperbole.

    The repentance of the Nineviteshumans and animals alikeis effective.Yahweh is moved by it to change his mind about the disaster he had intended forthe city Ironically, Nineveh is not destroyed, because it is changed. One mightexpect Jonah to be gratified at the effectiveness of his proclamation. He is not.Instead, he is displeased. The Hebrew literally says that he perceived it as a "greatevil," and he became angryangry at God for being merciful. Yet, the very mercyof God that infuriates Jonah and upon which the Ninevites rely is also the mercythat has kept Jonah himself alive. This is another of the book's great ironies,

    Yahweh's Lesson to Jonahthe final scene of the story Jonah at last explains why he so foolishly tried to

    away when Yahweh first ordered him to go to Nineveh. The explanation, ora reasoning behind it, is even more startling than Jonah's flight.Oh Yahweh, is this not what I said when I was still in my own country? This is whyI preemptively fled towards Tarshish. For I knew that you are a gracious and mer-ciful Godslow to become angry, great in kindness, and who changes his mindabout bringing disaster. (4;2, AT)

    a ran away, he says, because he knew God to be merciful and gracious, patientd forgiving. Jonah, it seems, wanted Nineveh to be destroyed, and he wasaid that God would relent if his preaching caused the city's residents to re-nt. That is precisely what happened, and now Jonah is angryangry withod for being merciful.Jonah is so angry that he asks God to take his life. "It is better for me to die

    to live," he says. Yahweh responds with a question, "Do you do well to be?" (AT) But Jonah does not answer. Instead, he takes a position overlook-Nineveh, apparently hopeful that God will change his mind again and de-

    the city with its inhabitants.Big Yahweh decides to try yet once more to teach Jonah a lesson. He appointsto grow up and give Jonah shade. Jonah finds "great joy" in the bushintrait to the "great evil" that he felt at Yahweh's decision not to destroyPet. Then, the Almighty who previously spoke to a fish, now appoints aM. Following divine command, the worm attacks the bush so that it with-!finally, God appoints a dry eastern wind that, together with the hot sun,I down oppressively on Jonah. The prophet is miserable and for the seconduko God to take his life. He repeats his earlier lament: "It is better for me to

    than to live." So Yahweh also repeats his rejoinder question: "Do you do wellangry?" this time adding "about the bushr And this time Jonah answerstly; "I do well to be angry enough to die." Yahweh's speech concludes thewith a question:

    You eared about' the bush, which you did not work or grow, which came to be in*do),ondperished inanigh

    In which there ere more than 120.000 people who do not know their right hand*OM their left, as well as many animals? (AT)Like its beginning, the ending of Jonah is unusual and points to the book's

    UMW Only one other book of the Hebrew Bible concludes with a question.

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    It is the book of Nahum, which, interestingty s also a proPheticbook dealingwith Nineveh.Both questioN arerhetorical The diffetences that the quesdoninjonah is transparentlydidactic.That is, it is desigled to teacha theologicallesson-that cod cares or aI peoPle and indeedall creation The question sdirected o Jonah,but the lessons meant or the book-s eaders'

    The Message ndPurPoseof JonahIt is obvious ftom tlle foregoing examimtior of its content that the book ofJonah was not witten asbiography or history There is an almost total lack ofthe sort of speafic information that one expectsof such works Thus' no date ordme Fame is suPPlied or the stoqa one assumes hatJonah is all eighd'centurylsraelite prcphet becauie of the mention of him in 2 Kings 4:25 But Jonah-stocation wtre" le is .atted is not specified lndeed, no biograPhical details aboutJonah are given. we de also not told ar what place on dry land the fish vomitsronah

    "o.no" is the .'arne of the Ling of Nineveh provided There are historical

    -l"accu'.aes, s"cfr as ne title 'king of Nine\h" and the descriPtion of Ninereh ssize,not to mention the prominence of Nineveh in dt eighth century Even moreimpoflrr for rccognizing e srorys un] sroncalnrture is rsPenchanl or exaS-e",:tion .rhe q'ear ""nd. grfa( .torm. gr " cir) and great Fsh tonamei t * """*pt.-. so-. "t $ese go bqond mere hwerbole to ridiculou"nessespecialy the claim that it n sixry miles adoss the city of Nineah andthe idea thatthe entire city, induding fie animals, repents atjonah's one seitence utterance'

    The characters injonal afe also exaggerariofls. o' better, stereotypes' that atleastborder on the ridiculous The two main characters are God andJonah Theother people and the animals PrNide cofltrasts tojonah as wel ascomic rliefThe comedy n not merely for Purposes of entertainmenti it is usecl to ma{eserious points about the nature of God ard human atdtudes'Yahweh is an orrunpotent mrcromanager who conEols not only the forces ofnatu* but al"o personally appoints and conmands fish, iisects' and Plants Thecod of lsraet is also the God of the entire universe' the creator of seaand landrhe jdea of rhe Almighry sPeaking o indindudl lllh Pldnrs ddsorms andsending them on sPecialmissions i5 comical, bur it makes the Point that God is.oncerl'ea ro' "ni;r-orred in all creation Gods concern for the lowliest ofcreatures also conuasts with Jonatis callousnesstoward his fellow human bcings in wanting to seeNineveh destroyed.

    God'spurPoses hroughout the story arc unfailnrglyrcdcmFivc rnd rn( rclful. The rcason orJon:rh's issnr m rhc iN( Pl ' r l is ) bdrrg l ( Nirrcvnc$('rcDcnran(so hnl hcy nay rvc d.r lnrdl ( ! r ' Yrrhwrh powc|rtnthcs hc nrr i I rr

    l0 revere im but doesnot destroy hem. God s especialymercifin toJonahanddocsnotpuish him despite is disobedience ndhis sell$h andarroganrattitude.lvcn in the hce ofJonal's pleas or death,Yahweh emainspatientand ries toln$fuctjoflah. The greatestrony of the story may be hat the divine mercy dlatm rngers onahs what keeps im ftom being he target of divine wrath.Jonah s by fd the most ridiculous character n the story Ever]'thingJonahdoass comical his attempt o flee the creator of the uni\rse, his nap during atrShrgstorm at sea,his ntonation of a h1m of praise n the tsht bel\a his exitby rcgurgitation, dd his deep atrection for a plant. This Jonah is an unrealluurc-a satidcal mitation of a prophet rather than the histoncd prophet oflhc |,amename. His flagrant rebelion againstcodk command contrasrswithdl( picty and obedienceof dle pagd" sailorsmd the evil Ninevites, not tolh$tion the dumb animals,plants, and or.es of nature.

    ,kmahs full of conffadictions.Eren more than d imitation of aprophet,heh nn "antiprophet,"who doesnot want to prophesy and whose behawiorardttllludc are he opposite f what the readerexpectsn a man of God.He isdtludcdi his actionsdo not match his beliefs, or he confesseshe Creator uddun tric$to run sway tom him. He is a self centeredbigot whose easoning sdo{ded by prejudiceand hatred. As a resuit, his priorities are dreadtullymi{edlF, hhweht mercy toward other peopleor y ftuitmtes him to thepoint thathl docldcsife is no longer worth living, to the point that he harbors deepe.ftlllngr lbr aplart that shades im th3n for m]'riads of peopleand animals.'l'hc tnterview between he two principalcharacters,Yahweh andjona}, inffilnl sceneof the book is where ts nessage hrough satirical characteriza18 I| clcdrest.onahwould rather die hm have od be mercilirl to otherpeople.!ll| rultLrdcof prejudice and hatred ov{d non-tsraelitess wh3t the book sati*m, 'l'he ludicrous eaturesof the story ridicule this attitude of bigotry ldeally,*t lrrnur and exaggeration elp rhe audience o perceivenjonah the si iness th.h rlwn attitudes and rhe ridiculous engths o which arogance andpreju'

    ] ONAH AND CENPI

    ti[ lmci thcm. The concludingquestionpoints to the story's didacticpur', li linr h s character s a mirror for the boolis audience.He embodiesan

    h|(k lr rsrrl or d lc astperceived y the author ro exist n Israel.Again, hety ahout hlrn s not hisbry but satjreorparody, aridiculous story that matesI l : f l rr tuFntr l .

    Eanrc nd ExpcctstionThr|!yt ' ,$r. l f l r tcrxlhr l{ |hf l l r |Nri 'r l i r(n. '(nr lhisrcfoAnizinsirsscnn:. 'ccnrc, 'i \ , l | ( l i r | | r l r l ' l r ( ,h r r fr |r r fr l lo fr l i . r ' r , ,hr tyP. n rrrSrn rn n pif((

    12 HOW TO READ THE BIBLE JONAH AND GENREIt is the book of Nahum, which, interestingly is also a prophetic book dealingwith Nineveh. Both questions are rhetorical. The difference is that the questionin Jonah is transparently didactic. That is, it is designed to teach a theologicallessonthat God cares for all people and indeed all creation. The question isdirected to Jonah, but the lesson is meant for the book's readers.

    The Message and Purpose of JonahIt is obvious from the foregoing examination of its content that the book ofJonah was not written as biography or history There is an almost total lack ofthe sort of specific information that one expects of such works. Thus, no date ortime frame is supplied for the story One assumes that Jonah is an eighth-centuryIsraelite prophet because of the mention of him in a Kings Lezs. But Jonah'slocation when he is called is not specified. Indeed, no biographical details aboutJonah are given. We are also not told at what place on dry land the fish vomitsJonah up, nor is the name of the king of Nineveh provided. There are historicalinaccuracies, such as the tide "king of Nineveh" and the description of Nineveh'ssize, not to mention the prominence of Nineveh in the eighth century Even moreimportant for recognizing the story's unhistorical nature is its penchant for exag-gerationthe "great" wind, "great" storm, "great" city, and "great" fish, to namea few examples. Some of these go beyond mere hyperbole to ridiculousnessespecially the claim that it is sixty miles across the city of Nineveh and the idea thatthe entire city, including the animals, repents at Jonah's one-sentence utterance.The characters in Jonah are also exaggerations, or better, stereotypes, that atleast border on the ridiculous. The two main characters are God and Jonah. Theother people and the animals provide contrasts to Jonah as well as comic relief.The comedy is not merely for purposes of entertainment; it is used to makeserious points about the nature of God and human attitudes.Yahweh is an omnipotent micromanager who controls not only the forces ofnature but also personally appoints and commands fish, insects, and plants. TheGod of Israel is also the God of the entire universe, the creator of sea and land.The idea of the Almighty speaking to individual fish, plants, and worms, andsending them on special missions is comical, but it makes the point that God isconcerned for and involved in all creation. God's concern for the lowliest ofcreatures also contrasts with Jonah's callousness toward his fellow human be-ings in wanting to see Nineveh destroyed.God's purposes throughout the story are unfailingly redemptive and merci-ful. The reason for Jonah's mission in the first place is to bring the Ninevites torepentance so that they may avert destruction. Yahweh's power teaches the sailors

    revere him but does not destroy them. God is especially merciful to Jonah andsnot punish him despite his disobedience and his selfish and arrogant attitude.in the face of Jonah's pleas for death, Yahweh remains patient and tries touct Jonah. The greatest irony of the story may be that the divine mercy thatangers Jonah is what keeps him from being the target of divine wrath.

    Jonah is by far the most ridiculous character in the story. Everything Jonaheelscomicalhisattempttofleethecreatoroftheuniverse,hisnapduringa

    ing storm at sea, his intonation of a hymn of praise in the fish's belly, his exitregurgitation, and his deep affection for a plant. This Jonah is an unreala satirical imitation of a prophet rather than the historical prophet ofIt same name. His flagrant rebellion against God's command contrasts with

    piety and obedience of the "pagan" sailors and the evil Ninevites, not totion the dumb animals, plants, and forces of nature.

    Jonah is full of contradictions. Even more than an imitation of a prophet, he"antiprophet," who does not want to prophesy and whose behavior andde are the opposite of what the reader expects in a man of God. He isIldeci; his actions do not match his beliefs, for he confesses the Creator andtries to run away from him. He is a self-centered bigot whose reasoning isded by prejudice and hatred. As a result, his priorities are dreadfully mixedthweh's mercy toward other people only frustrates himto the point thatRides life is no longer worth living, to the point that he harbors deeperp for a plant that shades him than for myriads of people and animals. interview between the two principal characters, Yahweh and Jonah, in

    final scene of the book is where its message through satirical characteriza-is Jonah would rather die than have God be merciful to other people.attitude of prejudice and hatred toward non-Israelites is what the book sari-

    The ludicrous features of the story ridicule this attitude of bigotry Ideally,itUrnor and exaggeration help the audience to perceive in Jonah the sillinessir own attitudes and the ridiculous lengths to which arrogance and preju-can lead them. The concluding question points to the story's didactic pur-fix Jonah's character is a mirror for the book's audience. He embodies an

    de present or at least perceived by the author to exist in Israel. Again, theabout him is not history but satire or parody, a ridiculous story that makesOtio point,

    and Expectationto understanding the message of Jonah is recognizing its genre. "Genre,"Otti fi'om French, is a term used to refer to the type or category of a piece

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    HO W TO RIAD TE E BI}I 'E

    of literatue. Broadiy,hereare iction andnonfiction geffes' andwithin eachofthose eenreshereareothergenresor subgenresNovel'shortstory andscrence;;":; ^,,"".", "* "Jgenres of {iction aiographt instructionmanual'

    andcaralogue resubgenres f noDfiction Eachof thesesubgenresn turn mayr,"* lt" oui' *Ugs"..'. a",obiographv, for examPle's asubgeffeof biograPhyGenrecategmie"are"ot f'm or fixedbut

    at fluid and lexible' so a iterar/work can ncorporate difierent genres,ust as he book of Jonah ncorporatesthepsalm n chaPter2di"."""-"". of g.n'. i, * essentidpart of the processof communicationbemeen "othor anJread.rs. It provides a titerary ftame of teference"withinwhich the reader nterpretsandmakesuseof a ext Miscoflsffu4g thegenreora Djece f bterarurehereore.canbedsasnou This s nicely'llustrrtdbv rhe*l*i" crl,,yQ*"'rn ir' r scienciction elevisronenes bout hecrewof d-"." "frtoo --'*t*

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    cultureand imeoaoi rr'. p*"i ia to. contusion ncreaseswhen a readeaanv rcadeacon-l""i' fn*",-. t - *.ntirelv difierentculture and

    dme-such as he Bible'Despitehe mPortanceof determininga work sgerre' thereareno frm rules

    r..i.i'le * R"..ly a*' " literary work erpresslvdenti{v ts owngenre ln fact'tne aea-ofaent$ng gsn'e asan mPortantstePn thestudyof texts sa relativelyrecentDhenomenon.houghJnoenr eaders ndau$orswerecertdiy avarerhar }iy wereuing or producins ifrerenrand" f re!1s nddoflmenrsoi"cernment oige.fe i" somethingreadersdo subconsciousbat has been

    --p"r"a m "p""fig " languagelt n an interpreti\ tool engrainedwithin

    c,rltri.e. leople qpically absorb" anguageas hev grow up in a culture Thevcan el if someonemakesa grammaticalerror or is not a nativespeakereventhoueh hev mav nor be rblto desgibe he grrmmrncrl rule rhathasbeens,o#.. n.opt. . , 'n 'o 'peJ theirnrt iw anguageus t andthenrhevlearn'huSimilarrypeopleautomatically ecognizehegenreof a work producedwithitr

    th"lr culture .oen if *ey cannotexplain he processor rulesbv which rccogn'tionhasoccurred t is an nrerpretiveool wc posscssor do'un]crlsPr trl' ct\r*tiiir.". *r,"* "t-pry bv virtucol havnrgbcct triscd t r wc rPPlvitwithout thinkin*,withotrl cvenbeirr* rwurtol wh{l wc rrrrd(}lng )rrlywhcnwr

    tncounter ter.ts tom a newgenreor a culture with which we are unfamiliar dow! becomecogdzant of the ssue.cenrerecognition, ike earniry a oreign anguage,s always arder orpeopleoutsiale f the culture of a 'orL But, ust asa anguagehasgramatical rules,rc thereareguidelircs or dues for determidng getre. Sometimes hose duesoomcn thephFical form of a iterary work. Newspapers,magzines, md books$! cesilydistinguishedrom one another,evenwhen they are n an rnfimiliarItnguage.n the ancientworld there were nsgiptions, royaldeoees,etters,andOthcrdocume'ts that might be distitrguishedby &e way in which they wereprtlcnted. Unfortunately suchphysicalditrerencesdisappearedn the formallon of collectedworks ike the Bible, and eadersmust now rely on clueswithin$! lcxts themselvesn order to discerngenres.6uchcluesq?ically come n the form of features n a .ext thar signal tsgenrethrough huse of conventions stablished ithin aparticularculture or readerdrlp, Thesdues often occur at the beginning or end of the rext and lead hehtdcr to certain expectations bout ts content. For modem American readers,tht words,"Dateline New York," indicate that they are reading 3 newspaperItll(lc, cvn f it doesnot appear n newsprint. Thegreeting "DearSir/ Madam"I thc typicalbegimiry of a businessetter, ud we expect t to end with "Sin-trrcly, or the ike, folilrred by a signatureof somesort. Fairy ales conrmonlyhlhl Onceupon a time" md end They lired happily mr after"'l'hc creation of literature ho always been, to at least some e:tent, a creatildtlvlly, Tleoretical\, o author could create a new g{fe that Rs uriike anyl|olk plcviously in exjstence. Bur if that were to happen, no reader would belbh to ' ccoSnize r understand t. Hence,authorsvary or mix genreso creativetndr, pl0yingupon the knowledge and expedationsof their readers.A burinesslatlet thrt bgins Dear sir/Madam" would hardly end with :All my lore," unhft lt wt'spart of somekind of publicity or advertisingcampaign.By the same&||lD, u llc'sonal letter between(former) lolrs that is writren on letlerheadI thnnpcrsonal tationery nd hat ends, Sincercly,insread f "Love,"he nrikiDg a not-too-subtlepoint about the reiationship. similar\. a fairythrt b(Blr)s oncc upon a time" but endswithout "They li\d happily elr

    ]ONAI{ AND GENRE

    ' drlci nor bodc wcll for the rclationship of the couple who 1re the subject'l'hrrr lxrrr|lrs ilhnrrrc how a textt genre D and of itself may coNy agr, lh. lirrlof.r r)l t|. tcrrs usrdcscribed o not match onventionshat

    Ftdf$l!t lh('f fulroftNwrnrl(l(xp.rl, inrhcynrixfcaturcsfromdifferentgenres,Elthl l x r l r gi . r 'c r i r $u. l r w{y {s i) ukr. ln, inr. ' l 'hc lcssagcssubtle o theEi l i rh 'r ol | ly r . r( i . rr whrl rr lrt l l |r t . ly i i rri l i i I wirh thf ust l i l gcnrcs 'r dSl l r f i { lu ' r , r 'r f ( l lh io I ' l( I l ! l l | | rir, l |rgcri

    HOW TO READ THE BIBLEof literature. Broadly, there are fiction and nonfiction genres, and within each ofthose genres there are other genres or subgertres. Novel, short story and sciencefiction, for instance, are subgenres of fiction_ Biography, instruction manual,and catalogue are subgenres of nonfiction. Each of these subgenres in turn mayhave its own subgenres. Autobiography, for example, is a subgenre of biography.

    Genre categories are not firm or fixed but are fluid and flexible, so a literarywork can incorporate different genres, just as the book of Jonah incorporatesthe psalm in chapter 2..

    Discernment of genre is an essential part of the process of communicationbetween author and readers. It provides a literary "frame of reference" withinwhich the reader interprets and makes use of a text. Misconstruing the genre ofa piece of literature, therefore, can be disastrous. This is nicely illustrated by themovie Galaxy Quest. In it, a science fiction television series about the crew of aspace ship is mistaken by aliens for real history or journalism. The aliens draftthe cast members to help them fight a real interplanetary war. The film illus-trates how confused someone who reads science fiction as history could be-come. Similarly, imagine the disaster that might ensue if a surgeon took aninstruction manual as fiction, or a work of fiction as a medical guidebook. Suchscenarios may seem far-fetched. Someone as educated as a surgeon would notlikely mistake a work of fiction for an instruction manual or vice versa, at leastas long as that surgeon is reading literature from his or her own culture and timeperiod. The potential for confusion increases when a reader, any reader, con-fronts literature from an entirely different culture and timesuch as the Bible.

    Despite the importance of determining a work's genre, there are no firm rulesfor doing so. Rarely does a literary work expressly identify its own genre. In fact,the idea of identifying genre as an important step in the study of texts is a relativelyrecent phenomenon, though ancient readers and authors were certainly awarethat they were using or producing different kinds of texts and documents.Discernment of genre is something readers do subconsciously. It has beencompared to speaking a language. It is an interpretive tool engrained withinculture. People typically "absorb" language as they grow up in a culture. Theycan tell if someone makes a grammatical error or is not a native speaker eventhough they may not be able to describe the grammatical rule that has beenbroken. People learn to speak their native language first, and then they learn thegrammar.Similarly, people automatically recognize the genre of a work produced withintheir culture even if they cannot explain the process or rules by which recogni-tion has occurred. It is an interpretive tool we possess for documents producedwithin our culture simply by virtue of having been raised in it We apply it without thinking, without even being aware of what we are doing. Only when we

    JONAH AND GENREcounter texts from anew genre or a culture with which we are unfamiliar dobecome cognizant of the issue.Genre recognition, like learning a foreign language, is always harder for peopletside of the culture of a work. But, just as a language has grammatical rules,there are guidelines or dues for determining genre. Sometimes those dues

    me in the physical form of a literary work. Newspapers, magazines, and bookseasily distinguished from one another, even when they are in an unfamiliarage. In the ancient world there were inscriptions, royal decrees, letters, andr documents that might be distinguished by the way in which they weresented. Unfortunately, such physical differences disappeared in the forma-

    n of collected works like the Bible, and readers must now rely on clues withintexts themselves in order to discern genres.Such clues typically come in the form of features in a text that signal its genreUgh the use of conventions established within a particular culture or reader-, These clues often occur at the beginning or end of the text and lead theder to certain expectations about its content. For modern American readers,Words, "Dateline New York," indicate that they are reading a newspapertie, even if it does not appear in newsprint. The greeting "Dear Sir/Madam" typical beginning of a business letter, and we expect it to end with "Sin-

    or the like, followed by a signature of some sort Fairy tales commonlyn "Once upon a time" and end "They lived happily ever after."be creation of literature has always been, to at least some extent, a creativeey. Theoretically, an author could create a new genre that was unlike anypreviously in existence. But if that were to happen, no reader would be

    to recognize or understand it. Hence, authors vary or mix genres to creativeplaying upon the knowledge and expectations of their readers, A businessthat begins "Dear Sir/Madam" would hardly end with 'All my love," un-

    it was part of some kind of publicity or advertising campaign. By the samen, a personal letter between (former) lovers that is written on letterheadtir than personal stationery and that ends, "Sincerely" instead of "Love,"be making a not-too-subtle point about the relationship. Similarly, a fairythat begins "Once upon a time" but ends without "They lived happily everdoes not bode well for the relationship of the couple who are the subjectI story.etc examples Illustrate how a text's genre in and of itself may convey aop, The features of thc texts just described do not match conventions that

    oro in those cultures would expect, or they mix features from different genres,rot mix genres In such a way as to make a point. The message is subtle to thelit that only readers who arc Intimately familiar with the usual genres andAmmo ere able to pick up the changes.

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    1,6 HO W TO READAuthorscanusesenreust asetrectivelv nd feativelvasleJ canword c]::::'

    ,..*"...,-.r"'". t,."n Jnd r host oCorher learures f language'nd^w.lr,",i;1il::;;;:;;;. pr,*"p*'r"'a*;'T:::'l':l:"1::::::',i:il:, ;;;:;';: ;.ia.irv"' gi't-a''k u'**' il:il:':'i ::::':.*";;,;; ;il;:;..' -,'"iu.'i*;'i"' "" "'o*."""p:'*'lvd':::11:;;;;;.;; ;;; ," ""derstan'r it, atreast

    n the'av

    intendedbv its author'"" t,iJ,rr. .o - *"a*' ,o recognizesubtle

    variations n genreemplovedbv an:uthor if theyare o profit fully ftom a terl-__O*"*,-*..ff.""ft uslrateshe mportanceof thediscernment f ge eari,.'0,"'a4"".*" tible Jonri likeman) iterao worLsdoesnor dentifi"" *-J Ut ledes rt ro lhe reader o d$cern srill

    rhebook si\essignificanr'"'"1' ia.", il.* " -* -eant to be readReaderswho hal'emisconstrued he

    ""-"* "r r"*t ", t'j,,o', t ave herelore pproachedrq irh aner oneous et f

    '"xp"."t1"' ,"J ** "oen Lriedo torce l ro fir rherrelpectrrronswhen ir is

    ot-'."t"..j rt r, .f.. u..f. aoesnot fit thoseexpectations'hetendencvsoftentoi"*.lr'. l"*, a*r"n"g it "untrue" and mplving that it is somehowof lessU*tn ".."

    t..""." n a"es not describe istoricalevents t is mportant to reci3"',"', i.'.a'"' "", "e Problem n the interpretatios of Jonal doesnot lie*^ltfr tt'e Soot itsaf Ut vith its readers readerswho fail to discem ts genrea"- t "'""f a"* *a ,f'-eby to aPpreciate$ true

    naiure andpurpose Ther-it.- " ."t "**'o"ed bi the fact thatlonah is anancientPiece

    of litera'iure from a foreigncultureand{ritten in a forcign 1*9"-g* . , ,-'- it"' p,"Ur.ln-.r',u'e ro dlvern abook"

    genrc oes evondonJh omuchot thebrerururen heBrbleForru ate'\biblicJscholar'hiPa longbeen wd e.f ii. *f*"*" a p'Perlv discerni4 a s'ork ssenreandhas ecendvmadecru.ial insightsabourviflous genresPrcsert in the Bible' which alows tor amort preciseunderstandingof *reir nature

    Form CriticismBecausehe iiterattrle of the Bible s so ar remNed in time andculture' modernLi.r:, "'U* *"o *o"nt lsraelitecounterparts'do not

    automadcallvecognizc,i-*.rr*" n ..",*r' ".rue canbe discerned

    nly tluough deoiled studvalrl,",ri's. r f.. ,pp-".r' tf'arbibLcJscholrr'u'e Io helpdis'rrn rhegcn'cs r r1."": ,10,rr. ' i i t *^ ' t rhe Brblecdl led orrn ri t i ' sm BrsrcJl lvi 'rmirr 'ar- u*.rnp,, ,o a",..';e what sq?ical aDdwhat suricllrc 'rb(ut i givul P(!1oi tit","to.. itt ora.' t' undcrsrand hat rs'urhor wishd r()'(nnon'rn'ir(" ' i r '" ."-"r i '" '0""." ' i t i )rm..r i l icnl inr lysistt l ) .8i I lsl)ylr |( l l ( i ! ] } l l I l |$l ' | | ', ."- ," i t f , rp" , ' f , f ," '*si*c

    ir r lLrc$rl( trr 'lh ' ! ' l rolulr i l t r thr i t i r l ty tt r t t l '

    JONAH AND CENR! Vwith the approachof form criticism were Germans,and Form is the Germanword for shapeor structule. Djicerning a ter_r's hapeor structue meansaleterhining tust of all its extent.where does heunir of text begin and end? nitiall).form cnticism focusedon small iterary units and was sometimesdefined as atrcatmentof the smallestpossibleunit. Howera in more recentyearsbiblicalrcholarshae recognized he value and ndeed he need or form-critical airalysisof larger units, in.luding entire biblicai books and even units that trarxcendbooks.Thb shift is \,ery important for our work in this presentbook. what Ihope o do is to show how recent advancesn our understandirg of the mainScluescontained n the Bible help to counter broadly held misconcepdons fWhathe Bible s and whar t is trying to sa)4A secondphaseof form critical investigation entails determining the genreof thepassagender examination-As w haveseen, enre efers o the categoiy0[ ltlerature o which one assigns tel't, be t a speciffcpassage.n entire book,tr a collectionof books.A leadingbiblical scholarhasdefinedgenre his way:"alt oup of written te*s markedby distircdve recurring chdactedsncs hich con'Itllutc a recognizable nd coherent ne of wriring."" There are two comPolltrlg to this definition, one internal and the oth er external.The internala0rrlponnt onsistsof the chdacteristics of agiven texr ftat canbe discernedty eurcfulreadiag ard malysis. The extenal component s the .omparison oflhr tcxtwith other similar ets insidemd outsideof the Bible. Careful compari"!0ll r'cvcals hich characteristicsf a dt are recurrilg' enoughwirhin a group*hlah nre"distinctive"to the particular teat in question.Thr rhid and fourth stepsof form criricismrepresent he attempt to trace

    hlilLu y of the text being analyzed and its genre. The third is the positing of$ttlng in the actual,&ily life in which thegenrewould hil arisen.potentialgr lnclude emple worship, egalproceedings, wedding,a ineral, a dass-

    n, or nny orher of the myriad of activities that human beings etrgage in.nl . r cism was initially conceived particuhly as a meais of uc(mdng thefrtlp{)ncnrs that were assumed o und erliebibiical iterature.This was he

    w tten texts" to allow one to recogaize a "coherent q?e of *riting," md

    h li)cuscdon the smallesrpossibleunits-because it was assumedhaty iry fouldbc crainednmemoryand ecited rany. orexample,heProph!|'rflcllrcs cxpr.ssrl Godsgrievancesgainsrsrael y mearsof thegenrei h*{l {r,LrlJl.inr i rhc violrtionof a contract. hus,a prophetmighrdeYnhwc|,rs llinAsui( igarDstsraelorbreakinghe covenant. heorigi-l!llhr,{ol lhiN crf. wis rh. hw c,}urt of ancienrhrael. The principalgenreslirgr lhr'rlry workr rn th llil)k r lso hnd scltiDgs life, often n scriulrpr lnrr l IrAI0rlxl l i l r rNrorl ial vrnls nd scs, utsomctimesmore

    16

    Form Criticism

    HOW TO READ THE BIBLE

    Authors can use genre just as effectively and creatively as they can word choice,sentence structure, allusion, and a host of other features of language and writ-ing. In so doing an author plays upon the readers expectations. This means thatthere is, by necessity, circularity or give-and-take between a text's genre and itscontent, to which readers must be sensitive. Just as one must properly discern atext's genre in order to understand it, at least in the way intended by its author,so it is also up to readers to recognize subtle variations in genre employed by anauthor if they are to profit fully from a textOur treatment of Jonah illustrates the importance of the discernment of genrefor interpretation of the Bible. jonah, like many literary works, does not identifyits genre but leaves it to the reader to discern. Still, the book gives significantdues about how it was meant to be read. Readers who have misconstrued thegenre of Jonah as history have therefore approached it with an erroneous set ofexpectations and have often tried to force it to fit their expectations. When it isdiscovered that the book does not fit those expectations, the tendency is often toblame the book, declaring it "untrue" and implying that it is somehow of lesssignificance because it does not describe historical events. It is important to rec-ognize, therefore, that the problem in the interpretation of Jonah does not liewith the book itself but with its readersreaders who fail to discern its genrefrom internal dues and, thereby to appreciate its true nature and purpose. Theproblem is only exacerbated by the fact that Jonah is an ancient piece of litera-ture from a foreign culture and written in a foreign language.This problem of failing to discern a book's genre goes beyond Jonah to muchof the literature in the Bible. Fortunately, biblical scholarship has long been awareof the importance of properly discerning a works genre and has recently madecrucial insights about various genres present in the Bible, which allows for amore precise understanding of their nature.

    Because the literature of the Bible is so far removed in time and culture, modernreaders, unlike their ancient Israelite counterparts, do not automatically recognizethe genres it contains. Genre can be discerned only through detailed study andanalysis. The approach that biblical scholars use to help discern the genres repre-sented in different parts of the Bible is called "form criticism." Basically, form criti-cism attempts to determine what is typical and what is unique about a given pieceof literature in order to understand what its author wished to communicate,

    There are four parts to a form-critical analysis, it begins by plotting the strut'.tare or shape of the passage in question, The scholars who initially (AMC up

    JONAH AND GENRE 17with the approach of form criticism were Germans, and Form is the German

    rd for shape or structure. Discerning a text's shape or structure means deter-g first of all its extent. Where does the unit of text begin and end? Initially,rm criticism focused on small literary units and was sometimes defined as a

    atment of the smallest possible unit. However, in more recent years biblicalolars have recognized the value and indeed the need for form-critical analysislarger units, including entire biblical books and even units that transcendoks. This shift is very important for our work in this present book. What I

    pe to do is to show how recent advances in our understanding of the mainnres contained in the Bible help to counter broadly held misconceptions ofat the Bible is and what it is trying to say.A second phase of form-critical investigation entails determining the genrethe passage under examination. As we have seen, genre refers to the categoryliterature to which one assigns a text, be it a specific passage, an entire book,a collection of books. A leading biblical scholar has defined genre this way: "aup of written texts marked by distinctive recurring characteristics which con-

    te a recognizable and coherent type of vvriting."9 There are two compo-e to this definition, one internal and the other external. The internalponent consists of the characteristics of a given text that can be discerned

    careful reading and analysis. The external component is the comparison oftext with other similar texts inside and outside of the Bible. Careful compari-reveals which characteristics of a text are "recurring" enough within "a grouptten texts" to allow one to recognize a "coherent type of writing," andch are "distinctive" to the particular text in question.

    e third and fourth steps of form criticism represent the attempt to traceliiitory of the text being analyzed and its genre. The third is the positing ofEng in the actual, daily life in which the genre would have arisen. Potential

    gs include temple worship, legal proceedings, a wedding, a funeral, a class-or any other of the myriad of activities that human beings engage in.criticism was initially conceived particularly as a means of uncovering theComponents that were assumed to underlie biblical literature. This was then it focused on the smallest possible unitsbecause it was assumed that

    they could be retained in memory and recited orally. For example, the proph-Mistimes expressed God's grievances against Israel by means of the genrelagal complaint for the violation of a contract. Thus, a prophet might de-

    Yahweh as "filing suit" against Israel for breaking the covenant. The origi-tang of this genre was the law court of ancient Israel. The principal genreslarge literary works of the Bible also had settings in life, often in scribalrearonding to specific historical events and crises, but sometimes moreIn nature,

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    I8The fourth patt of a form_critical{xeatmenr s the discernmentof the in'tended ouroose of the genre n the passage rder scrutiny This is the most*".""1r, tlr,^" A r..--ffitical analvsis ecauset gets at the very reason or.ilr,.'*" '.*"*. fie authors ntenrionb wriring r -and ilus s

    heulri--,J" ".ri"r.'*.nu.nm Comiiuing wirh heex,mpl'

    above$e firrm riLi:" i"l'"^ i"'...''.0 n ".r

    mo.eso. n *e semng r rhePrcphecs ho adap(edthe qenre t an ndicrmenrn $eir oracles g'in5rsrael s n cheegar er ngor;; ".;;;; ;.*. Fo,m r.i.s shourd'iso be nre*s..d in the strusor the'."u."1rr'" ir'* ""^.nbed and rrrarged LbeProphcric rades

    nro-Mirteni..* **" -. "" **" for uncovering

    he ntentbehinda en's useof agiven;;;;;;;-"., "irnprv be inferred ot deduced tom the featuresandi""..", .f .f'. ."*. of "oecialimpotance; this respectare he distinctile characterisncs f the text ir comparison o o$e$ of its genre-- ir'" i*",-"", A l."ah earlier ir this jltroduction wasbasicallva form..iJ o.," W. U"g"o-itft mattersof sructuJe Becausewewere nterestedndiscerning hegenreandpurposeof thebook s a whole therewasno quesnon

    "u.",-n"i-r.'.:.--r'.'"i bepn andwhere it ended we did have o consider

    ,f'. "".'"." "f "f'"** ,he plarrn nJonah wrs ar oriSral pafl of rhebook,"oilt' t*r*a rr'" r.'--criucal issues pecificaUvavinsodo rrh rheoriS!""ir""t"* .t ,n 0""-' -ntch appearedo be a

    poem of thanlsgiving for res'c,-retom'near death hat wasadopted-not endrelyapPropriately forJonah's" '"nJ. ' r'. ."-' "r *" boor wd noran sue ir begurningd endingprowdto be stremely imPortantbecause f the uniqueness f Jonahamong he pro-"i..'. -.1".,0

    *..r"rr.okJl l-he ool s conrenrilr$erconfirmed rsuniquel"*,-."* tft. ot.on." rs r narrrbvewith a Plot rrrher Lhan'j colleoionol.." i . . . in"" *, |rn. "r 'hebook. ' loneed o the ecognjr ionha t rsPlor evolvesalounal he interaction betweenJonahand the other charactersn ther.*-""J* *"*".u." of its contentsshowed hat the interaction of

    codwithjonah is the focusof the book'On the ba* of these orm-critical obseflations' we wereable o makea determination aboutJonah'sgenre Again' detetmination of the book s genre s,t t . t .u,o i" lr t ," tpr., , ton tt i"nor h;sro"cal rrrat ive ur a f ictronal' tory" 'UuJ *r ' .r ,^ ***rrr , charrcreriTe

    onah" novcl ldakhdof shorr$"rvt *fti.f, " "".i.i "f "pitodes involving the samesetof charaers

    eads (t tl..".f,"""" * **f"O.".f apmblem hathasalisenOtherexamPlcsf nov'llas n the Bible, o which onahmiShr e compared' includc hcbo('ks ol I sth |andRuth,and hestoryofJoseph r Ccncsis 750'Th cunhistor icr lnIUrc l fert ' l in lrr tr i lsn rn\trh rrr lr s lr( 'NCr)r1'r 'r ' rrnuNi '1cvch,( lJ,r{$rshrrr t$ $'rrrrrL rr r r)r l | i l ( l ' t l rblvrrrovct l i rrrr rhr 'r i l l l1r l1

    aenturywhen the story is set. A number of late linguistic features n the bookhdiatea date n the postexilicperiod (aroundaooBcE). his date its we withthe rhemesof Yahweh'suniversaldomidon md concdtr for all people,which.urface nJonah and which becameespeciallypointed issuesof debate n thelortexilic period. These matters oom large in other biblical books ftom this,erlod, suchasChroniclesand Ezra Nehemiah. onahwas iLely written to con-trlbute to this theological debte.DererminingthatJon3h'sgerue s not history ftees us to examine he questlon of the storyt intent andpurpose.which is he marnobjectir of ifterpreta-!lo[ and he focus of our form-critical analysis fJonah.Jonal's intent must bellllhrred ftom the booLs content, as here is no statement n ir articulating thet$lhor's purpose n witirg. The many exaggerations nd absurd elements nth! rtory a.e good hdicatiors that the story was not intended to be read as ahirlorical novel or biograph} Rathet these eatures,along with the caricaturat0r rtcrorpical nature of its chda.ters, lead o the reasonable educion thatlht Nory rvas ntended asa satircor parodlaThe condudiag nterview betweenood 0ndJonah,especially he question with which the book ends, urther indi'ttl$ that its purposewas didactic-Jonah was ntended to setre as an objectl mr, illusrrating in bold relief the stupidity of the attitude that the authorlflc.ivcd in the book's ntended readershipfhc book ofjonah furnishes aparadigmaticexampleof rhe mportance ofldlndlllng the geme of apieceof biblical iterature for properlyappreciatingts$t!nt $rtd of form giticism asa tool for genre dentilication. Each eader of aSVlr tcxt makes an assumption about the ge.re of tl'at tert The reader thenrh l assumption in the couise of reading rcording to the signals in the

    JONAH AND GENRI

    l[J lhc reader's fami]iadty with literary md cultual coNentions. Since theol ,louahdoes not expressly dentify its genre, he aisumption that it is'y hnxno specialclaim to correctness r legi.imacy ar the outiet. Its genre

    lnlr|l llvr lri 'r whllc lirr rh(:c dlys ..andmissingts mainpoint the stu'ol hlAory, r,'||[1rlly, rlltiorrly conscrvrtivc ommentarors ho advothFhhr'I t .dl r fr .hy( ' l rhf r(x 'y nlry rur l lyLrnscprobkxnstbrthefaith

    t hc uddlrcd rom ts content.thc Ercn1:r o readJonahs istorygives riority o anassumptionbout tsUvfl lr .rLr l conr nt A hisr rical Fadng ignoresor srruegle s o explr n

    rlltt' ! xu$lc lli(nrs, caricaturs, nd absurd eatures hat are essential o the0l thc st{r'y rs satifical icrion.worst of all, the historical eading f

    lr Irorx'lirhir'nr)duns hc riskof missinghebook's ichness.ltmisleadst?tdd lor0 litrNing ,n) fcl tivcly nrsignificantdetails such as whether a

    tsrdlrrwh oobxer'vcintrrrr hr hr rrrn r l$L (r) l l l l wirhwhur hcy xpc.t

    18 HOW TO READ THE BIBLEThe fourth part of a form-critical treatment is the discernment of the in-tended purpose of the genre in the passage under scrutiny. This is the most

    important phase of form-critical analysis because it gets at the very reason forthe passage's existencethe author's intention in writing itand this is the ulti-mate goal of form criticism. Continuing with the example above, the form criticis just as interested, if not more so, in the setting of the prophets who adaptedthe genre of an indictment in their oracles against Israel as in the legal setting ofthe original genre. Form critics should also be interested in the setting of thescribes who then transcribed and arranged the prophetic oracles into writtenbooks. There are no rules for uncovering the intent behind a text's use of a givengenre. The intent must simply be inferred or deduced from the features andcontent of the text. Of special importance in this respect are the distinctive char-acteristics of the text in comparison to others of its genre.

    The treatment o f Jonah earlier in this introduction was basically a form-critical one. We began with matters of structure. Because we were interested indiscerning the genre and purpose of the book as a whole, there was no questionabout its extentwhere it began and where it ended. We did have to considerthe question of whether the psalm in Jonah a was an original part of the book,and this involved the form-critical issues, specifically having to do with the origi-nal setting of the psalm, which appeared to be a poem of thanksgiving for res-cue from near death that was adoptednot entirely appropriatelyfor Jonah'spredicament.While the extent of the bookwas not an issue, its beginning and ending provedto be extremely important because of the uniqueness of Jonah among the pro-phetic books. A careful look at the book's content further confirmed its unique-ness among the prophets as a narrative with a plot rather than a collection oforacles. The outline of the book alone led to the recognition that its plot re-volves around the interaction between Jonah and the other characters in thestory Further examination of its contents showed that the interaction of Godwith Jonah is the focus of the book,On the basis of these form-critical observations, we were able to make a de-termination about Jonah's genre. Again, determination of the book's genre isthe key to its interpretation. It is not historical narrative but a fictional story.Biblical scholars generally characterize Jonah as a "novella," a kind of short storyin which a series of episodes involving the same set of characters leads to aconclusion or resolution of a problem that has arisen. Other examples of novel-las in the Bible, to which Jonah might be compared, include the books of Estherand Ruth, and the story of Joseph in Genesis 37-50.The unhistorical nature of certain details in lonah, such as those concerningineveh, suggests that its setting was considerably removed from the eighth

    JONAH AND GENRE 19century when the story is set. A number of late linguistic features in the book

    dicate a date in the postexilic period (around aoo soR). This date fits well withe themes of Yahweh's universal dominion and concern for all people, whichtface in Jonah and which became especially pointed issues of debate in the

    ostexilic period. These matters loom large in other biblical books from thisod, such as Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah. Jonah was likely written to con-

    bUte to this theological debate.Determining that Jonah's genre is not history frees us to examine the ques-n of the story's intent and purpose, which is the main objective of interprets-and the focus of our form-critical analysis of Jonah. Jonah's intent must berred from the book's content, as there is no statement in it articulating thethor's purpose in writing. The many exaggerations and absurd elements inStory are good indications that the story was not intended to be read as arical novel or biography. Rather, these features, along with the caricaturallitereotypical nature of its characters, lead to the reasonable deduction that

    Story was intended as a satire or parody. The concluding interview betweenand Jonah, especially the question with which the book ends, further indi-that its purpose was didacticJonah was intended to serve as an objectn, illustrating in bold relief the stupidity of the attitude that the authorived in the book's intended readership.

    book of Jonah furnishes a paradigmatic example of the importance ofing the genre of a piece of biblical literature for properly appreciating itsAnd of form criticism as a tool for genre identification. Each reader of a

    text makes an assumption about the genre of that text. The reader thentil that assumption in the course of reading according to the signals in the'inti the reader's familiarity with literary and cultural conventions. Since theof Jonah does not expressly identify its genre, the assumption that it is

    has no special claim to correctness or legitimacy at the outset. Its genrebo adduced from its content.ta attempt to readlonah as history gives priority to an assumption about itsover its actual content. A historical reading ignores or struggles to explaineilf exaggerations, caricatures, and absurd features that are essential to the

    Ur the story as satirical fiction. Worst of all, the h istorical reading ofii monolithic and runs the risk of missing the book's richness. It misleadsoder into focusing on relatively insignificant detailssuch as whether a

    001Ild live in a whale for three daysand missing its main pointthe stu-d bigotry. Ironically, religiously conservative commentators who advo-ilie veracity of the story may actually cause problems for the faithro who observe features in the story that conflict with what they expect

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    HOW TO R!ADftom a historical accout.'o Recognition rhat the story is satidcal alctws the readerro percei\,truth in irs messageabout Prejudice aPdt {iom the question of his

    The Purposeof This BookThe thesisbehind this book is that the Bible at lfge. like drc book ofjonah withinit. hasbeen and continues to be widelv misundestood becausets principar genresare mjiconstrued. Readersof the Bible have long recognized the diversity of itsliterature and the importaffe of being sensitive to the kind of literature one israding. The Bible is an anthology containing lala history biographv, h)'rnns,letters, contracts, and a host of other geDres. Most peoPle recognize fiis and donot want to read everlahing in the Bible as a aw or commddinent Those *'hodo attempt to read it all as aw fail to seehow dangerous this move is' since thereare plenty of stories in which the actions of characters-eln good ones-arenot meant to be emulated. The exarnPle ofjonah shows that co ect discernment of genre is crucial for ProPer interPretationInjon3h's case, he geire was misconstrued as trstory and then the satnicalintention of the story wd missed More cotmonly in t}le Bible, the gerre of abook or sedion of literature is misconstrued h a different, lessdramatic vay-not by improper dassification or idefltification of irs genre -but by improperdefinition of the and-enrgenre. To put it another way a genre is correcdy identilied, but the natuft and meaning of the getre in irs ancient setting, what nentailed for its ancient lsraelite authois and readers, is misundetstood As a re_slt, the intent is misinterPreted

    The Bible, quite naturalla rflects the culture of fie sncient Israeliteand Greco-Roman societies that produced it lt was written in Hebrew and GreeL not En_glish. We do not expect to find referencesto modern Western dothing styles ormodes of transportatiotr within itspages-Neither should we er_pectt to use mod-em liter"ry genres. Misconstrual of geffe leads modern readers o uniealistic andsometimesunreasonableexpectationsabout the conterts 5nd messageof dre Bible

    An ancient genre is not always, in fact almost nser' identical ro a modernone. For instmce, law ir the Bible indudes seculai' and religious" legislatiorand is therefot quite diferent ftom modern, American law The separation (tchurch and state s not eEn imagined lndeed' he very word law" (16rl'4)d(r rally means nsrruction," so that biblical aw s rcally primarily rclign)us nsrftrrtion. It is closer o what we mighr call 'catechism' rhan l is ri) (trrr i'rtrlnr l'rwTo thinkof th e -a wol Moscs, holrl inc, | ronrs (' l r rr)c l t rnlxw'o( l (s l lkf Ih rConst i tur i ( lnf thc J 'r i l {d l t l .$ i r 0rnis( lc i i trcl t r ' t r1l r ,rr l$ l | r l r rPr ' rl r I 'n ' rr l

    The same s ffue of eachof the five geffes treated n this booL hirtoriograpbi prcphecy,wisdom, apocab?tic, and ettels. In ea.h case, he genre s moreor less amiliar to modern readersjbut in eachcase,aswell, there aresignificanrdlffrences et. een he atrcientgetre in the Bible md rhe dodern one or theweypeopleusually deffne t. The problem, as n the caseof Jonah, s nor withlhc Bible but with the way people ry to interpret rhe Bible, wirhout properlyUDderstandingts genresand heir intenrs.Thepurposeof this book is to help readersof the Biblunderstand he majorfenresof literature in the Bible to identiry i$ genres,define them properly,tnd correcdy chaiacterze rheir ntenrs.As we saw n our discussion fjonal, all$lders make assumptions bout he genresof texts as hey read hem. Yetbibllrul boots, likeJonah,do not usually explicidy dentiq. or deffne hei' respectivegrnrcs. Biblicalwritings doprovideclues o then gmres in su.h things as heirllnrctures and ntemal features, uchas he itany of ridi.ulous ideasand magesluJonah.That s where orm diticism comesn: It seeks o higtiight those nter'lltl dues, n compar