massque_for_dancing.pdf

A STUDY OF JOB, A^ MASQUE FOR DANCING BY

RALPH VAUGHAN WILLIAMS

by

PATRICIA WADE WILES, B.S. in Ed., M.A.

A DISSERTATION

IN

FINE ARTS

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Approved

Accepted

August, 1988

l a s t - m i n u t e q u e s t i o n s . My a p p r e c i a t i o n goes to each one of

these p e r s o n s , as well as Ursula Vaughan W i l l i a m s , who l e n t

m a t e r i a l s , w r o t e l e t t e r s , and d e c i p h e r e d her h u s b a n d ' s

handwri t ing for me. My t h a n k s a l s o go to the F i t z w i l l i a m

Museum for permiss ion to reproduce the scene des igns for Job

by Gwendolen R a v e r a t and to the U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s of New

England for permiss ion to reproduce B lake ' s I l l u s t r a t i o n s of

the Book of Job from B l a k e ' s Job by S. Foster Damon, 1982.

In Texas my g r a t i t u d e extends to Audrey Rhodes F i e l for

her c o n t i n u i n g g r a c i o u s h o s p i t a l i t y and s u p p o r t , to the

Canyon Fine Ar ts Club for t h e i r f i n a n c i a l award, and to Ruth

R i g s b y f o r t h e warm welcome i n t o h e r home on so many

o c c a s i o n s . Most of a l l , I thank my h u s b a n d , J a c k , and

c h i l d r e n , B r e n t and S h a n n o n , f o r t h e i r under s t a n d i n g ,

e n c o u r a g e m e n t , l o v e , and s u p p o r t d u r i n g the up -and-down

times over the years of t h i s s tudy .

1 1 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS vi

PREFACE X

CHAPTER

I. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE ENGLISH MASQUE 1

Origin and Development 1

Demise of the Court Masque 9

Description of a Masque 10

Music and Dance in the Masque 19

Notes 31

II. CONTEMPORARY BACKGROUND 36

Vaughan Williams, The Masque, and Dance 36

Classical Ballet Background 42

Keynes' Conception of Job 48

The Composition of Job 51

Conclusion 53

Notes 55

III. WILLIAM BLAKE AND THE SUBJECT OF JOB 58

The Book of Job 58

William Blake and Job 61

A Selected Reading of the Plates 68

Notes 81

IV

IV. THE MUSIC OF JOB 128

Music Analysis 130

Discussion of Analysis 140

Notes 176

V. JOB ON STAGE 178

Scene Design 183

The Large Group Dances 184

The Solo Dances 195

Elihu's Dance of Youth and Beauty 201

Character Dances 202

Dance of War, Pestilence, and Famine 203

Dance of the Three Messengers 205

Dance of Job's Comforters 206

Notes 209

VI. CONCLUSION 301

Job As a Masque 301

Job As a Universal Theme 303

Notes 305

SOURCES CONSULTED 306

Primary Sources 306

Secondary Sources 307

APPENDICES

A. SCENARIOS 313

B. ADDITIONAL SCENE DESIGNS 322

C. PERFORMANCE HISTORY 325

D. TWO PAGES FROM ORCHESTRAL SCORE 336

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Title page, Illustrations of the Book of Job, William Blake, 1825, Tate Gallery, London 84

2. Plate 1, thus did Job continually 86

3. Plate 2, when the Almighty was yet with me, when my children were about me 88

4. Plate 3, thy sons and thy daughters were eating and drinking wine in their eldest brothers house and behold there came a great wind from the wilderness and smote upon the four faces of the house and it fell upon the young men and they are dead 90

5. Plate 4, and I only am escaped alone to tell thee 92

6. Plate 5, then went Satan forth from the presence of the Lord 94

7. Plate 6, and smote Job with sore boils from the sole of his foot to the crown of his head 96

8. Plate 7, and when they lifted up their eyes afar off and knew him not they lifted up their voice and wept, and they rent every man his mantle and sprinkled dust upon their heads tbwards heaven 98

9. Plate 8, let the day perish wherein I was born 100

10. Plate 9, then a spirit passed before my face the hair of my flesh stood up 102

11. Plate 10, the just upright man is laughed to scorn 104

12. Plate 11, with dreams upon my bed thou scarest me and affrightest me with visions 106

13. Plate 12, I am young and ye are very old where-fore I was afraid 108

14. Plate 13, then the Lord answered Job out of the whirlwind 110

15. Plate 14, when the morning stars sang together, and all the Sons of God shouted for joy 112

VI

16. Plate 15, behold now Behemoth which I made with thee 114

17. Plate 16, thou hast fulfilled the judgment of the wicked 116

18. Plate 17, I have heard thee with the hearing pf

the ear but now my eye seeth thee 118

19. Plate 18, and my servant Job shall pray for you 120

20. Plate 19, every one also gave him a piece of money 122

21. Plate 20, there were not found women fair as the daughters of Job in all the land and their father gave them inheritance among their brethren 124

22. Plate 21, so the Lord blessed the latter end of

Job more than the beginning 126

23. Blake's Comus, Plates 6 and 8 213

24. Four figures labeled Pavane 2 215

25. Ten female figures 217

26. Embracing figures 219 27. Three seated figures labeled as Comforters I and

three writhing figures 221

28. Figures with hands clutching head and others 223

29. Figures labeled Finale, Altar 225

30. Eight groups of various figures 227

31. Job and comforters believed to be taken from Blake's 1786 engraving 229

32. Job, "Satan's Dance of Triumph," stage layout

and opening bars of Benesh notation 231

33. Gwen Raverat, design for Job, throne 233

34. Gwen Raverat, design for Job, Scene I 235

35. Gwen Raverat, design for Job, Scenes III, IV,

V, VI, and Elihu's Dance of VII 237

36. Gwen Raverat, design for Job, Scene IX 239

vii

37. Entrance of Job's Children, Scene I 241

38. Patterns of Job's Children, Pastoral Dance, Scene I 243

39. Sketches of Children of God for Saraband, Pavane,

and Galliard 245

40. Sketches of Children of God, uplifted arms 247

41. Sketches for Scene I, Job's Children, small groups 249

42. Sketches for Pavane-Galliard, groups of Children of God 251

43. Scene I, God seated, Satan kneeling, Children of God, 1948 production 253

44. Scene I, Children of God on steps, 1931 produc-tion 255

45. Scene I, Children of God on steps, 1948 produc-tion 257

46. Tableau of Scene VIII, four Sons of Morning, 1931 production 259

47. Circles of Children of God with Satan appealing

to God, 1932 production 261

48. Satan appealing to God, six Sons of Morning 263

49. Scene I, God and Satan standing, Children of

God kneeling 265

50. Satan falling out of heaven 267

51. Satan falling out of heaven, Camargo Society 269

52. Satan pointing to Job, 1948, revival by Royal

Ballet at Covent Garden 271

53. Satan and Job's Children, Scene III 273

54. Tracing of Satan and dead Children of God taken from photo 275

55. Tableau at end of Scene VIII 277 56. Page from de Valois' sketchbook showing rela-

tionship of Satan to Blake's Plate 2 279 viii

57. Scene VII, Elihu and Children of God 281

58. Figures of Scene IV movement as drawn and labeled by Joy Newton 283

59. Scene IV. Satan with War, Pestilence, and Famine in masks and demonstrating Newton's drawings 285

60. A second view of Scene IV, Satan with War, Pestilence, and Famine 287

61. A third view of Scene IV, Satan with War, Pestilence, and Famine 289

62. Satan standing over Job and wife in Scene IV as in Blake Plate 6 291

63. Stick figure drawings of entrance of three messengers, Scene V, as drawn and labeled by Joy Newton 2 93

64. Scene V, three Messengers relating their sad

news 2 95

65. The three Comforters, Scene VI, 1948 production 297

66. Scene VI, Job cursing the day he was born 299 67. Unused design by Gwen Raverat for Job, evening

landscape with sheep, 1931 production 323

68. Scene design by John Piper for 1948 revival, Scenes III, IV, V, VI and Elihu's Dance of VII 328

69. Scene design for John Piper for 1948 revival, Scene I 330

70. Theatre program for Job, 1931-2, the Vic-Wells Ballet 332

71. Cast of Job for 1931-2 season, the Vic-Wells Ballet 334

72. Scene I, Interlude II, full score, the opening of the heavens revealing God on his throne and lines of angels 337

73. Scene VI, full score, Job cursing the day of his birth 339

IX

PREFACE

On J u l y 5 , 1 9 3 1 , s p e c t a t o r s a t t h e Cambridge T h e a t r e in

L o n d o n w e r e w i t n e s s t o t h e f i r s t p e r f o r m a n c e of J o b , A

Masque fo r D a n c i n g , a b a l l e t based on t h e i dea t h a t W i l l i a m

B l a k e ' s e n g r a v i n g s , I l l u s t r a t i o n s of t h e Book of J o b , con -

t a i n e d t h e s e m i n a l e l e m e n t s f o r a c t u a l m o v e m e n t . S i r

G e o f f r e y K e y n e s , t h e B r i t i s h p h y s i c i a n and b i b l i o p h i l e who

f i r s t imagined t h e b a l l e t of J o b , s t a t e d i n h i s a u t o b i o g -

r a p h y ,

Looking at the designs in 1926 it came to me that the groupings and gestures of the figures were asking to be put into actual motion on stage and, accompanied by dramatic music, couLd be fashioned into a new kind of symbolic ballet.

In Keynes' view, ". . . a ballet must synthesize the

different arts of drama, design and colour, music, and

dancing. Blake had provided . . . ample material to form a 2 basis for all of these except the music." To the prominent

British composer, Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872-1958),

however, Blake's masterpiece supplied inspiration enough.

Vaughan Williams conceived the music as a masque, a form

which had existed as a spectacular composite of the arts in

seventeenth century England. The magnificent score is

considered by many a culminating achievement of Vaughan

Williams' extensive career and is one consideration of this

study.

Nevertheless, his choice of form raises certain

expectations in a modern work. As in a Greek tragedy when

the spectator knows the outcome but wonders how the author

will manipulate the characters and action, so in Job, A

Masque for Dancing the spectator wonders how the artists

will relate the elements of music, scene design, and dance

to meet the criteria of the masque in a twentieth century

ballet. Part of the attraction of the work lies in these

relationships.

At the same time, Job, A Masque for Dancing abounds in

other associations, as well. Its unique origin and context

reflect the dance milieu of London in the 1920s, while its

form and content interweave disparate elements into a

peculiarly English synthesis of the arts. Its creation

pushed English dance drama forward into a new chapter of

achievement while the work itself addressed one of mankind's

most agonizing and ancient questions, that of unjust suffering.

The intent of this study of Job, A Masque for Dancing

is to exhibit and explore the multiple associations of this

masterwork. The work's source of inspiration, its origin,

and its contents as separate arts and as reflections of both

the historical and contemporary contexts will be considered.

Two matters of semantics remain. Henceforward, when

referring to the work by the title of the music or ballet,

Job, A Masque for Dancing, the author will use the shortened

title of Job. When referring to man, men, or mankind, the

author uses these terms in a generic, traditional sense.

xi

Notes

Geoffrey Keynes, The Gates of Memory (Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 203.

2 Geoffrey Keynes, Blake Studies: Essays on His Life

and Work (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), 189.

Xll

CHAPTER I

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF

THE ENGLISH MASQUE

The English masque was one of many forms of Renaissance

f e s t i v a l . I t r a n k e d w i t h e n t r a n c e s , p r o c e s s i o n s ,

p r o g r e s s e s , b a l l e t s , tournaments , banquets , water f e s t i v a l s ,

f i r e w o r k s d i s p l a y s , i n t e r m e z z i , and masquerades to serve

f i r s t t he R e n a i s s a n c e , l a t e r t h e Baroque p r i n c e as r o y a l

p r o p a g a n d a . The f o r e m o s t p o e t s , c o m p o s e r s , w r i t e r s ,

a r t i s t s , a r c h i t e c t s , and s c u l p t o r s were commiss ioned t o

p r o j e c t t h e roya l image. Through t h e i r i nd iv idua l or j o i n t e f f o r t s , t h e monarch was p r o p a g a t e d t o h i s c o u r t and

s u b j e c t s , as not only the " a r b i t e r in r e l i g i o u s ma t t e r s but g r a d u a l l y . . . as t h e s o l e g u a r a n t o r of peace and o r d e r

w i t h i n t h e S t a t e . " As a r e s u l t , "One can read the masque

as a m i r r o r of t h e r e l i g i o u s , p o l i t i c a l , or a r t i s t i c

a rguments of t h e a g e , which s u b s e q u e n t l y f i l t e r e d down in 2

English history and thought. . . "

Origin and Development

The masque was primarily a court fete, although 3

occasionally institutions such as the Inns of Court or

private nobles hosted masques with less aristocratic purpose

or participants. Enid Welsford attribntes the origin of the

masque to the desire of Henry VIII to incorporate the

Italian masquer ie with its connotations of "flirtation and

4 amorous adventure" into the established Tudor muramings and

5 disguisings. It is that fact that is reported by the

spectator in Hall's Chronicle in 1513, so often cited as

first mention of the masque. "'On the date of the Epiphanie

at night, the kyng with xi other were disguised, after the

maner of Italie, called a maske, a thyng not seen afore in

Englande. . . .'" The description further pictures the

confusion caused when the elaborately robed masquers asked

the ladies of the audience to join them in their dances. " . . . some were content, and some that knewe the fashion of

it refused, because it was not a thyng commonly seen." The

participation of the audience, or the revels, was apparently

the new element in the evening's entertainment. "The object of the masquers was to choose each a lady out of the

assembled company, to entertain her with dancing and gallant

conversation. The gallantry and risqu talk of the masquers Q

became proverbial. . . ." This type of ribald revelry

became one of the defining charac t e r i s tics that

distinguished the early masque from similar forms of court

entertainment.

Andrew Sabol, in Four Hundred Songs and Dances from the

Stuart Masque, summarizes the masque as: . . . a dance drama whose meaning is conveyed primarily through patterned movements and gestures rather than the vocal expression of ideas and ideals. It is in the tradition of the ballet rather than the opera, for aristocratic masquers neither sing nor speak, but express themselves in bodily movement. Although a poetic libretto clarifies the action and its meaning, it does so

p r i m a r i l y to remind the s p e c t a t o r s of what they have seen . . . a t i t s bes t i t was a b r i l l i a n t s p e c t a c l e in which a bas ic poe t i c idea was se t forth in de l ica te symbolism, r ichly and gracefully enhanced by a combination of the a r t s .

In sp i t e of i t s origin and popularity in Tudor England, the masque developed during the reign of the S t u a r t s (1603-1649) and the p roduc t ive p a r t n e r s h i p of Ben Jonson (1572-1637) and Inigo Jones (1573-1652) into the most lavish aural and visual spectacle of Renaissance c o u r t s . Both James I (1603-1625) and Charles I (1625-1649) g r e a t l y encouraged masque p r o d u c t i o n by f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t and p e r s o n a l involvement. Cor r espond ingly, the years 1604-1640 saw the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the form t h a t became h i s t o r i c a l l y d e f i n i t i v e as well as s i g n i f i c a n t . While r e t a i n i n g the e s sen t i a l elements of dance, r e v e l s , and masquerade, the l i t r a r y content was enhanced great ly by Ben Jonson, whose l i b r e t t i served as a p ro to type in s t r u c t u r a l u n i t y and theraatic development. Jonson stressed the use of c l a s s i ca l myths and l e g e n d s as t h e b a s i s of h i s a l l e g o r i e s , i n t e n s i f i e d the p r a i s e of the monarch, and elaborated the role of the spoken presenter . Most important to the form, however , was h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n and development of the antimasque, thus inser t ing ". . . drama and i n t e l l e c t u a l depth in to what might otherwise have been a l i f a l e s s and s t a t i c pageant."

Contributing equal ly to the f i n a l forra of the masque was Inigo Jones , the foremost figure in the visual a r t s in

4

seventeenth century England. Jones' innovative career in

architecture, engineering, designing, and painting found a

parallel outlet in the court spectacle. Through Jones,

Italian stage design was brought to England; he introduced

simple perspective, and all his masque designs included a

prosceniumarch theatre with a falling curtain. Jones'

crowning achievements were elaborate stage machines, or

devices, that served as the deus ex machina of the drama,

reflecting the royal ability to create God-like transfor-

mations inherent in the symbolism. These magical effects

became so important with their ability to mystify and

delight that eventually they overshadowed any literary

significance.

As ingenious as Jonson and Jones were, their efforts

were aided by certain relevant assumptions held by the

Renaissance mind, concerning the visual arts, music, and

dance. The rebirth of classical theories, both Aristotelian

and Platonic, imbued the Renaissance artist, his materials,

and methods with power " to project illusions . . . [that] had meaning and moral force; . . . seeing was believing,

. . . art could give a vision of the good and the true; 1 2

. . ." The power to project truth through image was possibT^ because the artist and perceiver assumed a direct

13 relationship between "reality, pictures and thought."

Pictures might be admired for their sensuous qualities, "but

5

the s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e work l ay in i t s mean ing , and t h i s 14

was expressed in a l l e g o r i c a l or symbolic ter ras ."

The much d e s i r e d P l a t o n i c s e n s e of harmony and

p ropor t ion was a l so bel ieved to be c l o s e l y a l l i e d to music

t h r o u g h t h e P y t h a g o r e a n - P l a t o n i c p r i n c i p l e s of harmonic

nurabers. John Meagher, in Method and Meaning in J o n s o n ' s

Masques, s t a t e s :

. . . i t i s p l a i n t h a t t h e s o c i e t y of g o d s , a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s , and v i r t u o u s h e r o e s , which Jonson raanipulates . . . in a conf ron ta t ion of men by t h e c e l e s t i a l o r d e r , canno t f a i l to have i t s intended e f f e c t u n d e r l i n e d , p o e t i c a l l y s t r e n g t h -ened , and extended by the con t inua l f l o s e a s s o c i -a t i o n with rausic which i s given them.

He d i s c u s s e s a number of ways in which Jonson e x p l o i t e d the

power of mus ic ; bes ides using rausic i m p l i c i t l y to r e i n f o r c e

a des i r ed e f f ec t in the drama of the masque, Jonson u t i l i z e d

music e x p l i c i t l y in the form of metaphors , which raight evoke

the intended raeaning by the l y r i c s or a corab ina t ion of the

l y r i c s and accorapanying sound. Frequent ly Jonson used music

as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of the masque, e i t h e r for p r a i s e of the

w o r t h y or r i t u a l , and he commonly used t h e i m p l i c i t

r e l a t i o n s h i p of music and o r d e r to a c t u a l l y c r e a t e o rde r ,

such as "where the sound of a ' l o u d e t r i u m p h a n t m u s i c k e '

s e r v e s in i t s e l f to s c a t t e r t he hags who had been dancing

g r o t e s q u e l y t o a d i a b o l i c a l ' s t r a n g e and s o d a y n e 17 Musique . ' "

Dance, also regarded as a reflection of cosmic order,

was, after all, the raison d'etre of the masque. Jonson

6

relied heavily upon his audience's awareness of implicit and

explicit associations. "The external grace of the dance is

always, in the Renaissance, to be a sign of an internal 18 grace of virtue and excellence," notes Meagher. One use

was to create order from disorder, as in the case of the

grotesque dance of the antimasque followed by a dance of

beauty and order. Rarely are references made to specific

dance instructions ; those that do exist show geometric

patterns, letter dances, and choreographic steps designed to

create syrabols signifying desired virtues. Although devised

for other dance events, these were assumably used by Jonson,

as well.

Thus , huraanis t a l l e g o r y and syrabolism, a s d e p i c t e d w i th

t h e combined powers o f t h e v i s u a l a r t s , m u s i c , and d a n c e ,

w e r e p e r c e i v e d by t h e r e n a i s s a n c e raind i n a m a n n e r

u n f a m i l i a r t o m o d e r n m a n . The mind o f t h e t i m e was

accus tomed t o e x p r e s s i o n in t h e manner of "when one t h i n g i s 19 t o l d , and by t h a t a n o t h e r i s u n d e r s t o o d . " Such l a y e r s of

20 meaning a r e e l u c i d a t e d in Roy S t r o n g ' s Sp lendour a t C o u r t .

On t h e l i t e r a l l e v e l was t h e f r i v o l o u s d e l i g h t t h a t

s c i n t i l l a t e d t h e s e n s e s of t h e c o u r t i e r s and t h e i r monarch ,

t h e s u r f a c e p l e a s u r e s of p l a y and p r e t e n c e i n r e c r e a t i n g

m y s t e r i o u s e x p l o i t s and a c t s o f sorae a n c i e n t m y t h o l o g i c a l

c h a r a c t e r . A s e c o n d l e v e l o f m e a n i n g was t h e m o r a l ,

d e s i g n e d f o r ' " . . . a p p r o v i n g v e r t u o u s a c t i o n s and 21

condemning t h e c o n t r a r i e . ' " I t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s depended on

7

the a b i l i t y of the audience to decode t h e e l a b o r a t e v i s u a l

e f f e c t s of c o s t u r a e , s t a g e m a c h i n e s , and d e s i g n , of t he

m u s i c , or t h e c h o r e o g r a p h y t h a t d e p i c t e d t h e i r a p r e s e ,

erableraata, and other p r e v a i l i n g syrabols of the t imes . These

" ' C o u r t H i e r o g l y p h i c k s , ' " as Jonson c a l l e d them (as quoted 22 in N i c o l l ) , were known in e n d l e s s i m p l i c a t i o n s to the

c o u r t l y a u d i e n c e , who, " . . . a l i v e to a l l the ' s i g n i f i c a n t

s i g n e s , ' can have looked upon the masques as n o t h i n g but a

s e r i e s of l i v i n g erableras or have l i s t e n e d to t h e i r ve r se s as 23 augh t e l s e than a s t r i n g of m o t t o e s . " A t h i r d l e v e l of

meaning r e f l e c t i n g " ' some t r u e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of N a t u r a l l

P h o l o s o p h i e , or sometimes of P o l i t i k governement, and now 24 and then of d i v i n i t i e . . . ' " was a l s o coramon. A l l of

t h e s e l a y e r s of meaning were embell ished by the miraculous

t h e a t r i c a l e f f e c t s , music, and dancing.

T h u s , t h e masque was f a r more t h a n an a r t i s t i c

s t a t e m e n t of i t s dayi t was an idea l veh i c l e through which

to express c e r t a i n gove rnmen ta l and r e l i g i o u s p r i n c i p l e s .

R e c e n t s c h o l a r l y c r i t i c i s m s of t h e masque r e l a t e the

development of the forra to i t s peak as " exac t ly c o i n c i d e n t a l

wi th t h e r i s e and f a l l of ex t reme c la i r a s to raonarchical 2 5 d i v i n i t y . " E s p e c i a l l y d i d C h a r l e s I b e l i e v e in the

i l l u s o r y power of the raasque to i n f l u e n c e h i s i n c r e a s i n g l y

f r a c t i o u s o p p o s i t i o n .

The C a r o l i n e masques a l l r e l a t e to the years of C h a r l e s ' s s o - c a l l e d "personal r u l e , " t h o s e e l e v e n y e a r s b e t w e e n 1629 and 1640 in which he r u l e d

without parliament, a period subsequently brande by the opposition as the Eleven Years' Tyranny.

8

d by the opposition as the Eleven Years' Tyranny.

Kogan describes the extreraes present in the latter days

of the form that permeated every level of production, from

conception through staging and perforraance. An 27

extraordinary "stretching of analogies" existed within the

formal eleraents, the fantasy, the appeal to the intellect

and senses, and the imagery. Every detail was significant,

even the position of the throne.

Through the use of perspective the monarch, always the ethical centre of court productions, became in a physical and embleraatic way the centre as well. Jones's theatre transforraed its audience into a living and visible emblem of the aristocratic hierarchy: the closer one sat to the King, the "better" one'splace was, and only the King's seat was perfect.

The temporal order of events within the form itself also

reflected the masque's intention: the masque always

proceeded from the undesirable to desirable, from chaos to

order, which was always brought about by the "king and court

abstracted in emblematic form as gods and goddesses, heroes 29

and heroines, sun and stars." The symbolism then spread

into the audience with the revels.

Further, while the intellectual thrust pushed the mind

into eternity through its Platonic spiritualism and mystical

theophany, " the political cc.itent was directed toward time

and history," as each performance was a celebration of the

king and, increasingly, a statement of his place in the

balance of the universe. According to Kogan, in contrast to

9

Elizabethan and even early Jacobean paeans, which maintain

an equilibrium between the monarch, nature, and divinity,

the Carolinian eulogies gradually insisted on a geniune 31

apotheosis. Strong states, " . . . the themes . . . moved

from a contemplation of cosmic harmony and its reflection in

the estate to a conteraplation of the monarch as the genesis 32

of that earthly and heavenly harmony."

Deraise of the Court Masque

For a few years the raasque "held together powerful and

unsettling opposites in a high degree of resolution 33

. . . ," as no other art form could. The last masques

reflected the monarch and Jones' "passionate belief in their

remedial efficacy . . . in staving off the oncoming tide of 34 disaster." But the policies of Charles I which incited

the tensions in the populace caused complementary tension in

the masque. The ultimate paradox was, of course, that the

more insistently King Charles celebrated his Divine Right

tenet, the less the spectacles of celebration did to bring

about a parallel reality in the conviction of his subjects. Sensitive to foreign influence as well as domestic

pressures, the form which had accommodated themes ranging

from trivial to serious began to shift balance. Jonson's

literary input had ceased in 1631; without his high level of

coherency and sense of proportion, unity was threatened by

an increase of unrelated entries, in the manner of the

ballet de cour. The final blow to the masque came, however.

10

wi th t h e E n g l i s h C i v i l War and the s u b s e q u e n t r e g i c i d e .

A f t e r b e i n g t r i e d by a f a l s e t r i b u n a l u n d e r O l i v e r

C romwel l ' s i n f l u e n c e , Charles I was led to h i s execut ion on

30 January 1649, o u t s i d e the Banqueting House a t W h i t e h a l l ,

the s i t e of so many evenings of masqueing.

So i t was t h a t t he need for the masque as p r i n c e l y

p ropaganda was e l i r a i n a t e d ; t he form had long s i n c e been

i m i t a t e d i n l e g i t i m a t e t h e a t r e , a n d , d u r i n g t h e

Commonwealth, t h a t t rend was i n t e n s i f i e d . With the P u r i t a n

ban on s t a g e p l a y s , d r a m a t i s t s and composers i n t e r p o l a t e d

the masque i n t o s t age p roduc t ions ; the masque l e n t a c e r t a i n

s a n c t i t y as "music" (not banned by the Pu r i t an s ) to dramat ic p roduc t ions by s u b s t i t u t i n g the term " e n t r i e s " for " a c t s . "

I t a l s o s e rved many d r a m a t i c , t r a g i c , and comedic purposes

wi th in the p l o t s of the p l a y s . During Henry P u r c e l l ' s t ime

t h i s type of hybrid adap ta t ion evolved in to English dramat ic

o p e r a , w i t h t h e m u s i c s e r v i n g more than an i n c i d e n t a l ,

i n s e r t e d purpose .

Masques c o n t i n u e d in l e s s s p e c t a c u l a r ways t o be

produced in p r i v a t e horaes and for s c h o o l s , as w e l l . Even

t h o u g h a few e n t e r t a i n m e n t s d u r i n g t h e R e s t o r a t i o n

r e a p p e a r e d a t c o u r t a s m a s q u e s , t h e y were n o t t r u e

r e f l e c t i o n s of the S t u a r t masque, c o n s i s t i n g of l i t t l e more

than s t r i n g s of ins t rumenta l numbers for dancing.

11

Description of a Masque

Masques at court were presented several times a year;

the dates of perforraance, concentrated near times of renewal

and epiphany such as Twelfth Night and Shrovetide, were part

of traditional celebrations, but other memorable occasions,

such as royal births and birthdays, weddings, and treaties

warranted masques, also. Between the years 1605 and 1639,

roughly seventy-four masques were presented, as listed in

Mary Steele's Plays and Masques at Court. Contemporary

references denote a number of masques staged by nobles and

Inns of Court, as well as in private schools; one may

surmise that the form was experienced by many, for, after

all, court custoras were highly iraitated. Being a court

entertainment, masques were never held in theatres; most

took place in the Great Hall or the larger Banqueting House

of Whitehall, a rectangularly shaped room, fifty-three feet

wide by one hundred twenty feet long, and designed by Inigo

Jones.

Since no complete score for any one masque exists,

historians interested in recreating the form raust rely on

bits and pieces of extant information included in the

libretti and scattered scores, plus informed imagination.

Edward Dent, in Foundations of English Opera, provides some

facts and assumptions coricerning the musical aspects and

summarizes the masque from which he draws most of his

information, Lord Hay's Masque (1607). In this case, the

12

p o e t , Thomas Campion, was a m u s i c i a n and composer of most of

t h e m a s q u e ' s rausic and so was more l i b e r a l w i t h m u s i c a l

i n f o r m a t i o n . By drawing on D e n t ' s a c c o u n t a s w e l l a s t h a t

of t h e l i b r e t t o of Lord H a y ' s Masque a s i n c l u d e d in Orge l

and S t r o n g ' s I n i g o J o n e s : t h e T h e a t r e of t h e S t u a r t C o u r t ,

1 8 7 3 , a n d t h e f a s c i n a t i n g d e t a i l of A l l a r d y c e N i c o l l ' s

S t u a r t Masques and t h e R e n a i s s a n c e S t a g e , 1 9 3 7 , a g e n e r a l

i d e a of an even ing of masqueing i s p o s s i b l e .

In t h e c a s e of t h e above-men t ioned masque, t h e l o c a t i o n

was t h e G r e a t H a l l of W h i t e h a l l P a l a c e , "89 f e e t long and 39 35 f e e t w i d e , " an a p p r o p r i a t e l y d e c o r a t e d s a l o n for r o y a l t y .

At one end of t h e room was a s t a g e , a t t h e o t h e r t h e k i n g ' s

s e a t , u s u a l l y under a canopy and upon a d i a s r e f e r r e d t o a s

t h e " s t a t e , " w i t h r a i l i n g s b u i l t around t h e s i d e s and b a c k .

Th s p e c t a t o r s w e r e t h e f a v o r e d e l i t e of s o c i e t y , " ' w i t h

mos t n o b l e and r i c h l y a r r a y e d l a d i e s ' a t t e n d e d by t h e i r

l o r d s h a r d l y l e s s c o l o u r f u l in t h e i r a t t i r e . " They s a t on

w o o d e n s t e p s w h i c h a p p a r e n t l y r e s e m b l e d c u r r e n t s p o r t s

s t a d i u m b l e a c h e r s . These " b o x e s , " as t h e y were r e f e r r e d t o ,

were c o n s t r u c t e d a long t h e two long s i d e s t o t h e h a l l s c r e e n

and a c r o s s t h e back o f t h e h a l l b e h i n d t h e k i n g . The

a u d i e n c e was s e a t e d by t h e Lord C h a m b e r l a i n , who obse rved 37

" fo r t h e c o u r t i e r s a s t r i c t o r d e r of p r e c e d e n c e . . . , "

no m i n o r f e a t c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s e v e r a l h u n d r e d g u e s t s

i n v o l v e d .

13 One audience was described by a v i s i t o r :

Costumes were provided of such "gorgeousness . . . t h a t the imagination could hardly grasp the spectac le . The King's cloak, breeches and j a cke t were a l l sewn with diamonds, a rope and jewel of diamonds a l so in h i s h a t , of ines t imable v a l u e . The Queen had in her ha i r so g r ea t a number of pear-shaped pea r l s , the la rges t and most beautiful there are in the world; and there were diamonds a l l over her person, so that she was ablaze."

Nor were the Royalty alone extravagant. "Lady Watton had a gowne t h a t cost f i f t y pound [between $1,250 and 2,000] a yard the embroi-d e r i n g - - t h e Lord Montague- -bes towed f i f t e e n hundred pound [between $37,500 and | 0 ,000] in apparell for his two daughters. . . . " The lo rds and l a d i e s of the cour t paid for the i r own

raasquing cos tu raes , o f t e n b e a u t i f u l l y embro idered and be jewel led . Accounts available for reference indicate that the f ines t of a l l f a b r i c s , raaterials, c ra f t smansh ip , and deco ra t i ons were used. Costumes for the raasquers generally reflected Jones' I t a l i a n t r a in ing . Men wore k i l t s k i r t s , or shor t , form-fit t ing pants which allowed freedora of movement; molded b reas tp la tes , under-blouses with a va r i e ty of s l eeve designs, lush capes which draped and swirled, and e labora te , plumed helmets or other appropriate headgear completed their enserable. Woraen masquers' costumes followed more the dress s ty le of the day, again with designs of s k i r t s to f a c i l i t a t e and show cff the dancing; most of the s k i r t s were well above the ankles. Bodices were general ly f i t t e d , with p len ty of d e c o l l e t a g e . Transparent and a i ry f ab r i c s were gathered

14

around pretending "nyraphs," with a raere layer of gauze 40

occasionally used as the only covering over the breasts.

Less information remains that describes Jones' concepts

of the masks; the faces of the masquers in his designs are

bare. Since the headdresses were an essential element to

the entire costume, it seems unlikely that they were

discarded when the masquers unmasked. Perhaps the masks

theraselves were simple vizzards, unadorned and discardable.

Antimasque costume designs do include facial coverings that 41

appear to have been kept in place.

The dancing was always done directly in front of the

king, on a carpeted and soraetimes raised platform, as in

Lord Hay's Masque. Since dancing was the primary activity

of the masque, a proportionate amount of space was alloted

it. A ramp connected this particular dancing stage to the

main stage, which was

. . . three feet higher and eighteen feet deep, which could be curtained off, and was concealed by clouds at the beginning of the masque. On the main stage was a grove of trees, with the nine golden trees, fifteen feet high, which concealed the masquers. On each side a slope led up to the bower of Flora and the house of Night respectively [covered by a double curtain]. The hall appears to have had a screen and presumably a gallery above, such as are found in college halls; these two side scenes were placed close to the screen, and above, probably built up from the gallery, was a mountain with the tree of Diana. Behind this there seeras to have been a group of hautboys in the gallery, more or less concealed by raore trees, with another hill rising behind them. The general idea then of the decorations is to carry the eye from the floor level by a series of ascents up to the very top of the hall: this would naturally lend itself to admirable spectacular effefcts.

15 Musicians were dispersed in several loca t ions , a common

p r a c t i c e for the t ime . Three groups were placed on the dancing stage; as Campion explains,

" . . . on the r i g h t hand whereof were consorted ten musicians with bass and mean l u t e s , a bandora, double sackbu t , and an h a r p s i c h o r d , wi th two t r e b l e v i o l i n s ; on the other side somewhat nearer the screen were placed nine v i o l i n s and t h r e e l u t e s ; and to answer both the consorts (as 'twere in a t r i a n g l e ) , six cornets and six chapel voices were seated almost r ight against them, in a place raised higher in resDect of the p ierc ing sound of those instruments."

"The t o t a l nuraber of musicians is given as forty-two, but if t he hau tboys above and the m u s i c i a n s on the s tage are included the re must have been a good many raore," adds

4 4 D e n t , a p p a r e n t l y i n c l u d m g the s t a g e s m g e r s , not raentioned above.

The story l ine was simple: the nine golden t r e e s were r e a l l y kn ights of Apol lo , "who i s the fa ther of heat and

45 youth, and consequently of amorous af fec t ions ." They have been transformed by the anger of Cynthia , but in honor of th i s marriage raay be restored to their or ig inal human s t a t e . In a kind of dance, the t rees began to move un t i l they were in groups of th ree , at which tiraes Night touched the f i r s t th ree with her wand and the transformation began. When a l l were res tored, the spectacle continued with process ions and the u s u a l masque d a n c e s . Nine masquers par t i c i p a t e d ; Campion describes t ha t number as " the most apt for change and d ivers i ty of proportion."

16

C o n t e r a p o r a r y a c c o u n t s r e f e r t o t h e f a c t t h a t t he

audience and p a r t i c i p a n t s f r e q u e n t l y wa i t ed for hour s in

t h e i r p l a c e s b e f o r e t h e e n t r a n c e of t h e k i n g and h i s

en tourage , a t which po in t the masque began . In Lord Hay ' s

Masque, the order of the evening went as fo l lows: Entrance of the King Accompanied by mus ic of the oboes

a p p a r e n t l y p l a c e d in t h e g a l l e r y behind Diana ' s t r e e

Consort music An a i r p l a y e d by t h e group of t en nea res t the s t a t e w h i l e the c u r t a i n i s p a r t i a l l y drawn t o r e v e a l t h e bower of Flora

Song in t h r e e p a r t s The same a i r as above now sung by F l o r a , Zephyrus , the Sylvans , accom-panying theraselves

Speech I n t r o d u c e s t h e o c c a s i o n of t h e masque, the marriage

Song A m u s i c a l d i a l o g u e for two v o i c e s a f t e r which the remaining c u r t a i n i s drawn r e v e a l i n g Night and the n ine Hours

Speech A long dia logue in which the audience i s i n f o r m e d t h a t t h e t r e e s a r e "knights of Phoebus, transformed in to t h i s shape by the anger of Cynthia; Hesperus announces t h a t Cyn th ia has in honour of t h i s occasion agreed to t h e i r Leing r e s t o r e d t o h u m a n shape ."

Song Sung and played by Sylvans

Dance I On s t a g e by t r e e s to "Move now withe measured sound"

Three Speech-Songs "The t ransformat ion then t a k e s p l a c e as i t was a somewhat cumbrous b u s i -n e s s , and Inigo Jones ' ' e n g i n e ' could on ly accommodate t h r e e t r e e s a t a t i r ae , Campion has done h i s b e s t to cover up the awkwardness by g i v i n g N i g h t a s e p a r a t e s p e e c h f o r each

17 group of t h r e e , followed by a song, sung, and played by the Sylvans."

Campion's stage d i rec t ions read: " . . . whereof that part of the stage whereon the f i r s t

t r e e s stood began to y i e l d , and the th ree foremost t rees gently to sink, and t h i s was ef fec ted by an engine placed under the s t age . When the t rees had sunk a yard they c le f t in three p a r t s , and the raasquers appeared out of the tops of them; the t rees were suddenly conveyed away, and the f i r s t t h r e e masquers were r a i s e d aga in by the eng ine . They appeared then in false habi t , yet very f a i r , and in form not rauch unlike their pr incipal and t rue robe . I t was made of green ta f fe ta cut into leaves and laid upon_cloth of s i l v e r , and thei r hats were sui table to the same."

Chorus T u t t i forces sing a shor t chorus in p r a i s e of the k ing , r epea t ed , sung with echo e f f ec t by f ive groups of singers

Dance II Masquers Main Dance on dancing s tage. Campion's musical effect i s described in the l i b r e t t o as :

"This chorus was in manner of an echo seconded by the c o r n e t s , then by the consort of t e n , then by the c o n s o r t of t w e l v e , and by a double chorus of voices standing on e i ther s ide , the one aga ins t the o t h e r , bearing f ive voices a p i e c e , and sometirae every cho rus was heard s e v e r a l l y , soraeiJLme mixed, but in the end a l l together . . . . "

Speech Motet W r i t t e n fo r s i x v o i c e s and s i x

corne t s as the masquers proceed in and throughout the stage and undergo further t ransforraat ion by revea l ing another robe ; t o r c h - b e a r e r s proceed with the masquers

Dance I I I By the m.asquers on the dancing stage Revels Apparently the r e v e l s a r e d i v i d e d

i n t o two p o r t i o n s , with the f i r s t being the raeasures.

18

Speech

Dialogue for four voices

Chorus

Speech

Revels Campion describes these dances as " 'the lighter dances, as corantos, lavoltas and galliards. . . .'"

Speech

Dance IV M a s q u e r s E x i t D a n c e . " . . . t h e v i o l i n s began the f o u r t h new dance . . . and i t ended w i t h ^ , l i g h t change of music and measure."

Song For two v o i c e s , tenor and bass

Chorus After which the masquers unraasked and f o l l o w e d t h e King to a b a n q u e t i n g p l a c e .

About the above t ransformat ion scene, N ico l l r e p o r t s :

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , a s C a m p i o n i r r i t a t e d l y c o m p l a i n s , t h e d i r e c t o r , t h rough " s i m p l i c i t y , negl igence or consp i racy , " succeeded in des t roy ing the e f f e c t . Apparently the device had been shown to some p r i v i l e g e d s p e c t a t o r s e a r l i e r in the day, and some one had f o r g o t t e n to put the t r e e s back in t h e i r p lacesa mishap thatc^somewhat hazarded" the opera t ion of the "eng ine . "

When one c o n s i d e r s t h a t the he igh t of the under - s tage area

was s i x f e e t deep wi th no b e n e f i t of a b e l o w - s t a g e p i t

( s i n c e t h e p l a t f o r m was b u i l t on t h e e x i s t i n g h a l l f l o o r i n g ) , and t h a t the l i g h t i n g in these u n d e r - s t a g e a r e a s came frora i n a d e q u a t e c a n d l e s and lamps, one i s amazed anew

a t the ingenui ty of e f f e c t s .

L i g h t i n g and v e n t i l a t i o n a b o v e - s t a g e w e r e a l s o

problems, as noted by Orgel and S t rong .

19

He [ J o n e s ] w a s f o n d o f n i g h t p i e c e s , t r a n s l u c e n t s c e n e s and sudden g l o r i e s , e f f e c t s of t h e s o r t t h a t o p t i m a l l y would r e q u i r e a da rkened h a l l ; bu t removing t h e l i g h t s from t h e a u d i t o r i u m was a s l o w p r o c e s s , and e x t i n g u i s h i n g them an awkward and smoky o n e , and i t i s n o t a t a l l c l e a r t h a t t h e j : , e s u l t would h a v e been c o n s i d e r e d an a d v a n t a g e .

The t r a d i t i o n a l l i g h t i n g f o r a t h e a t r e of t h e t i m e was a

c h a n d e l i e r of c a n d l e s o p e r a t e d by p u l l e y and a t t e n d e d by a

s n u f f b o y , who kep t t h e wicks t r immed d u r i n g a p e r f o r r a a n c e .

As t h e w r i t e r h a s f o u n d no r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s k i n d of

l i g h t i n g i n t h e B a n q u e t i n g H a l l , i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e

l i g h t i n g i n t h a t s t r u c t u r e w a s p r o v i d e d raostly by

t o r c h b e a r e r s or by s p e c i a l l i g h t i n g e f f e c t s c o n c e a l e d in t h e 54

s t a g e d e s i g n .

I r a p o r t a n t s t a g e e f f e c t s were c r e a t e d by c o l o r e d l i q u i d s

l i t by c a n d l e s and a l t e r e d by s h i e l d s and r e f l e c t o r s . J o n e s

was a l s o fond of " m e t a l l i c f a b r i c s , s e q u i n s , o r ' o o s , ' and

one f i n d s f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s e t s be ing ' h e i g h t e n e d ' 55

w i th s i l v e r or g o l d . " The c o s t u m e s of t h e m a s q u e r s and

a u d i e n c e a l i k e w i t h t h e i r j e w e l s and f a b r i c s would h a v e a d d e d t o t h e l i g h t i n g e f f e c t s a s a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e

t o r c h e s .

Music and Dance in the Masque

Composers of Stuart masque music inclade Thomas Campion

(1507-1620), Alfonso Ferrabosco (c. 1575-1628), Robert

Johnson (1583-1633), Henry (1595-1662) and William (1602-

1645) Lawes, John Coperario (1575-1626), and Nicholas Lanier

20

(1588-1666). One expects exce l lence of coraposition in t h e i r masque music t h a t equals t h e i r coraposition in o ther g e n r e s .

F u r t h e r , one assumes m u s i c a l development in the f o r t y or

l e s s years represen ted by the S t u a r t re ign to follow English

m u s i c a l development in g e n e r a l . Both expec t a t i ons a re met,

but the importance of the masque i s bes t understood when one

r e c a l l s t h a t t h e masque was a m a j o r f o r c e i n m u s i c developraent.

L i t e r t u r e on t h e s u b j e c t s t r e s s e s t h e l a c k of a comple te s c o r e for a masque, bu t enough e x t a n t examples

e x i s t to d e t e r m i n e the t y p e s of music t h r o u g h o u t which a

s teady pace of change a p p e a r s to o c c u r . I t i s f o r t u n a t e

t h a t a s u r v e y of masque musical a spec t s can begin with the

masque o u t l i n e d above, for i t s da te of 1607 p laces i t a t the

beginning of the s i g n i f i c a n t h i s t o r y of the masque. With

t h e pe r fo rmance d e t a i l s g iven , and the few songs by Campion

r e m a i n i n g , a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r c o m p a r i s o n c a n be

e s t a b l i s h e d . A number of v o c a l and i n s t r u m e n t a l

composit ions for t h r ee masques, Triumph of Peace (1634) , The Triumphs of the Pr ince d'Amour (1636), and B r i t a n n i a t r i u m -phans ( 1 6 3 8 ) , which f a l l near the end of the masque's cour t e x i s t e n c e , surv ive in the a u t o g r a p h m a n u s c r i p t of Wi l l i am

Lawes . T h e s e raake a f i n a l comment on masque m u s i c a l

evolveraent, of which c e r t a i n po in t s a re n o t a b l e .

Campion's musical s t r u c t u r e i s descr ibed by Dent as "a

s e r i e s of a g r e e a b l e songs and d a n c e s , which are organized

21

into a sort of drama, because the dramatic episodes are 56

i n t r o d u c e d for no o t h e r p u r p o s e t h a n t o e f f e c t t h i s . " Any

o t h e r e x p e c t a t i o n would be beyond t h e t e c h n i q u e of t h e t i m e ,

a c c o r d i n g t o D e n t . C a m p i o n i n t e r s p e r s e s a v a r i e t y of

i n s t r u m e n t a l c o m b i n a t i o n s , s o n g s , c h o r u s e s , and d a n c e t u n e s

t o a c h i e v e t h i s d r a r a a t i c i n t e n t ; n o t a b l e among them i s t h e

d i a l o g u e song . An e a r l y a t t e m p t a t m u s i c a l c o n v e r s a t i o n , i t

a p p e a r s t o be s i m i l a r i n v e r s e ( t h e m u s i c i s l o s t ) t o two o t h e r d i a l o g u e s o n g s t h a t s h o w " t h e v o c a l l i n e i s

e s s e n t i a l l y m e l o d i c . . . g i v i n g t h e i r a p r e s s i o n o f a 57

s t r o p h i c co rapos i t i on e v e n l y d i v i d e d between two s i n g e r s . " A l s o c o m p o s i n g i n t h e same t i m e f rame a s Campion i s

Al fonso F e r r a b o s c o I I ; t h e son of t h e E l i z a b e t h a n compose r

of t h e same narae, F e r r a b o s c o coraposed for e i g h t of J o n s o n ' s

raasques and e l e v e n i t e m s from t h o s e m a s q u e s s u r v i v e . From

them i t i s c l e a r t h a t F e r r a b o s c o ' s c o n c e p t s of u n i t y and

d e c l a m a t i o n a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t frora Ca rap ion ' s . E x h i b i t i n g

a h i g h l e v e l o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , t h e y l a c k C a r a p i o n ' s

s p o n t a n e o u s " a y r e " q u a l i t y , b u t u p h o l d s u b t l e r h y t h m i c

s h i f t s , u n u s u a l a c c e n t s i n t h e d e c l a r a a t i o n , and v o c a l

deraands t h a t s u g g e s t F e r r a b o s c o was w r i t i n g f o r h i g h l y

t r a i n e d s i n g e r s w i t h e x t e n s i v e r a n g e s and c a r r y i n g p o w e r s .

"The f o r c e of a d o w n - b e a t i s f r e q u e n t l y v i t i a t e d t l i r o u g h

a n t i c i p a t i o n s o r . . . s t r i k i n g l y e f f e c t i v e s u s p e n -

s i o n s . . . . Only one of h i s a i r s has a v o c a l l i n e b e g i n n i n g C Q

on the first beat of the measure."

22

F e r r a b o s c o ' s a t t e m p t s a t d e c l a m a t o r y w r i t i n g m i g h t be

l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t i f i t we re n o t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t I t a l i a n

and F r e n c h s c h o o l s of m u s i c a l t h o u g h t w e r e . a t t h i s t i m e

p e r m e a t e d w i t h m u s i c a l huraanisra 's e f f o r t s a t r e c r e a t i n g t h e

rausic of Greek t h e a t r e . E n g l a n d ' s m u s i c a l R e n a i s a n c e was

some y e a r s b e h i n d t h e c o n t i n e n t ' s and her m a s t e r m u s i c i a n s

c o n s e r v a t i v e , b u t , a s Meagher n o t e s i n a q u o t a t i o n by C.

Huber t H. P a r r y ,

" . . . t h e r e was a form of e n t e r t a i n r a e n t wh ich j u s t s u p p l i e d t h e framework r e q u i r e d t o i n t r o d u c e p a r a l l e l e x p e r i m e n t s t o t h o s e of t h e I t a l i a n p r o m o t e r s of t h e "Nuove M u s i c h e , " w h i c h a t t h e same t i m e r e r a a i n e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y E n g l i s h . The p o p u l a r i t y o f raasques a t C o u r t and among a r i s t o c r a t i c c l a s s e s . . . a l m o s t c o m p e l l e d composers who were c a l l e d upon t o s u p p l y music for thera t o c o n s i d e r t h e i r a r t from a d i f f e r e n t p o i n t of v i e w from t h a t of t h e o ld chu rch composers and coraposers of m a d r i g a l s ; . . . . "

" I t i s in t h e raasques t h a t t h e new rausic r e a c h e d E n g l a n d

t h e n e w l y p e r f e c t e d d r a m a t i c f o r m e m b r a c e d t h e n e w l y 6 0

d e v e l o p e d d r a r a a t i c m u s i c , " s t a t e s M e a g h e r h i m s e l f .

B r i t i s h m u s i c o l o g i s t s J . A. F u l l e r Ma i t l and and W. B a r c l a y

S q u i r e b o t h c i t e F e r r a b o s c o a s a p o s s i b l e s o u r c e f o r t h e

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e new I t a l i a n s t y l e i n t o E n g l i s h

c o m p o s i t i o n ; S q u i r e a f f i r m s J o h n C o p e r a r i o ' s ( n e e Cooper ) d i r e c t t i e t o I t a l y and h i s i n f l u e n c e t h r o u g h h i s p u p i l s ,

Henry and Wi l l i am Lawes, and adds N i c h o l a s L a n i e r a s a n o t h e r T 1, 6 1

l i n k .

Throughout the years from 1607-1638, definite stylistic

changes occur which follow the style of Ferrabosco rather

23

t h a n C a m p i o n . A l m o s t c e r t a i n l y t h e t h e o r i e s b e h i n d t h e

p r a c t i c e were d i s c u s s e d a s w e l l .

F r a n c e and I t a l y w e r e e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t t h e i r r e c o v e r y of t h e m u s i c of t h e a n c i e n t s and t h e e t h i c a l power which goes w i th i t ; t h i s i s raost a s s u r e d l y an e v e n t w h i c h would i n t e r e s t J o n s o n , and i t i s i r a p o s s i b l e t o b e l i e v e t h a t i t would n e v e r h a v e come t o h i s a t t e n t i o n when he was w r i t i n g f o r t h e E n g l i s h c o u r t t h e c o u n t e r p a r t s of t h e new French and I t a l i a n m u s i c a l d r a r a a t i c shows. J o n s o n ' s i n s i s t e n c e upon t h e p r o d e s s e , t h e u p -l i f t i n g e t h i c a l c h a r a c t e r of h i s raasques, would make t h e m u s i c o f t h e " e f f e Jut i " t h e p e r f e c t m u s i c a l v e h i c l e for them. . . .

In one a c c o u n t , Jonson d e s c r i b e d t h e music of L a n i e r a s 6 3 b e i n g " s t y l o r e c i t a t i v o . " S i n c e n o n e o f t h e m u s i c

s u r v i v e s , S a b o l d e s c r i b e s a n o t h e r song b e l i e v e d s i m i l a r ,

"Br ing Away T h i s Sacred T r e e " :

O c c a s i o n a l l y d i s j u n c t v o c a l p h r a s e s b e g i n on t h e u p b e a t and c o n t i n u e w i t h s y l l a b i c , c h a n t l i k e s e r i e s o f r e p e a t e d n o t e s on t h e same p i t c h . At t i m e s t h e d r a m a t i c n a t u r e of t h e v o c a l l i n e i s i n t e n s i f i e d by w i d e s k i p s or s y n c o p a t e d rhy thm. A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f e a c h s e c t i o n , t h e accorapaniment i s c h o r d a l and r a t h e r s t a t i c , bu t a s t h e c a d e n c e s of e a c h s e c t i o n a p p r o a c h , t h e v o c a l l i n e becomes more m e l o d i c , and t h e b a s s l i n e , d e m a n d i n g a r i c h h a r r a o n i c t e x t u r e by raoving more r a p i d l y , i n c r e a s e s t h e d r a m a t i c i n t e n s i t y c o n s i d e r a b l y .

From t h e t h r e e above-raent ioned l a t t e r raasques p roduced

a t t w o - y e a r i n t e r v a l s , many m u s i c a l p r a c t i c e s c a n be

o b s e r v e d . The mos t c o s t l y and m a g n i f i c e n t of a l l m a s q u e s ,

The Triumph of Peace ( 1 6 3 4 ) , was p r e s e n t e d a s a p o l i t i c a l p l o y by t h e I n n s o f C o u r t t o t h e k i n g . Wi th m u s i c by

W i l l i a m L a w e s and S i m o n I v e s and e x t e n s i v e r e m a i n i n g

d e t a i l s , one l e a r n s t h a t t h e m u s i c i a n s and s i n g e r s were

24

p l a c e d i n a s e m i - c i r c u l a r a r r a n g e m e n t on t h e f l o o r , t h a t

t h e r e was s p e c i f i c i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n f o r t h e o r c h e s t r a

( deno t ed a s a "syraphony") i n c l u d e d "a c o n s o r t of s i x l u t e s , a b a s s l u t e , a h a r p , a v i o l i n and t h r e e v i o l s " and songs

d e s c r i b e d a s " d e c l a r a a t o r y c o n t i n u o . " Sabol a d d s :

The f i r s t t h r e e songs . . . i l l u s t r a t e b e t t e r t h a n o t h e r rausic s u r v i v i n g for S t u a r t m a s q u e s t h e s u n g - s p e e c h s t y l e c a r r i e d t o i t s e x t r e m e . The v o c a l l i n e of t h e s o l o s , s u b s e r v i e n t t o t h e t e x t , i s p r i m a r i l y d e c l a m a t o r y , and , e x c e p t a s t h e rausic a p p r o a c h e s c a d e n c e s , few v e s t i g e s re raa in of t h e b a l a n c e d p h r a s e s , t h e s t r o n g r h y t h r a i c p u l s e , and t h e s t r o p h i c a r r a n g e m e n t of mos t J a c o b e a n a i r s . Aided by i r r e g u l a r i t y in t h e v e r s e l i n e , t h e v o c a l l i n e f o l l o w s t h e n a t u r a l i n f l e c t i o n s and p a u s e s of s p e e c h , a l t e r n a t i n g between s h o r t a p o s t r o p h e s and long p h r a s e s . U s u a l l y each s y l l a b l e i s s e t t o one n o t e o n l y , , a n d t h e v o c a l l i n e s f r e q u e n t l y beg in on o f f - b e a t s .

Den t comments t h a t t h i s " t r e a t m e n t of words p r o c e e d s on t h e

l i n e s w h i c h by t h i s t i m e w e r e w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d i n 6 8 E n g l a n d , " and p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e m u s i c a l d e c l a m a t i o n

f o l l o w s C a c c i n i " r a t h e r t han t h e more d r a m a t i c s t y l e of P e r i

or Monteverd i . . . s i n c e t h e m a s q u e s a r e a l m o s t e n t i r e l y 69 l y r i c a l as compared wi th t h e e a r l y I t a l i a n o p e r a s . "

The s y m p h o n i e s a r e t w o - p a r t ( t r e b l e and b a s s ) b i p a r t i t e i n s t r u m e n t a l d a n c e fo rms of t h e a lman v a r i e t y , and s e r v e t h e d u a l pu rpose of i n t r o d u c i n g t h e s o n g s a n d c o v e r i n g t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e m u s i c i a n s from t h e s t a g e t o t h e dance f l o o r . . . . The c h o r u s e s a r e homophonic or in m a d r i g a l s t y l e . The f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e s y m p h o n y - s o n g - c h o r iis i s r e p e a t e d a s a s e r i e s of m u s i c a l s c e n e s . . . .

The Triumphs of t h e P r i n c e d 'Amour was a l s o p r e s e n t e d

by t h e I n n s of Cour t w i th bo th Lawes b r o t h e r s c o l l a b o r a t i n g

on t h e m u s i c . I t r e f l e c t s t h e symphony-song-chor us p a t t e r n

25

in t h e l a s t two s c e n e s and u s e s a r i t o r n e l l o in one number

t o u n i f y t h e s y m p h o n y - s o n g - c h o r u s ; t h e e n t i r e work a p p e a r s

t o h a v e been c o n t i n u o u s l y c o m p o s e d , w i t h L a w e s ' f a v o r i t e

t o n a l i t y (C major and r e l a t e d k e y s ) , a v a r i e d s e q u e n c e of e n s e m b l e s , a n d a d r a r a a t i c b u i l d - u p t o a g r a n d c h o r u s

adumbra t ing o p e r a . Dent rerainds t h e r e a d e r t h a t one c a n n o t

e x p e c t a m u s i c a l c l i m a x s u c h a s P u r c e l l p r o d u c e d a few

d e c a d e s l a t e r , s i n c e " m u s i c i a n s w e r e j u s t e m a n c i p a t i n g 71 t h e m s e l v e s from t h e raodal sys t e r a . " T h i s raasque v a r i e d a

g r e a t d e a l frora p r e v i o u s c h o r e o g r a p h i c form, a l s o , a s i t d i d

n o t have r e v e l s or an e x i t d a n c e , and o n l y two a n t i m a s q u e s .

B r i t a n n i a t r i u m p h a n s (1638) s u r v i v e s more e x t e n s i v e l y i n m u s i c a l s c o r e t h a n any o t h e r m a s q u e ; i t a l s o e x h i b i t s

many of t h e same m u s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s The T r i u m p h of

t h e P r i n c e d ' A r a o u r , o n l y s l i g h t l y more advanced . For i n -

s t a n c e , t h e t w o - p a r t symphonies become t h r e e - p a r t , f o u r - p a r t

c h o r a l works e n l a r g e t o f i v e - p a r t . In t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of

d e c l a m a t o r y s o n g s and b a l l a d s t h e r e i s a f e e l i n g of

r e c i t a t i v e - a r i a , a s w e l l a s a we 1 1 - d e v e 1 o p e d t o n a l 72

o r g a n i z a t i o n around C ma jo r . A n t i r a a s q u e s o n g s s u i t t h e c h a r a c t e r s and a n t i c s ;

b a l l a d s , a i r s , c a t c h e s , and o t h e r p o p u l a r v a r i e t i e s a r e t h e

u s u a l t y p e s . S o m e t i m e s i n s t r u m e n t a l numbers a r e p r o v i d e d

f o r a c r o b a t i c s or a b a c k g r o u n d f o r p a n t o m i r a e , b u t t h e

d e f i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s t h a t t h e music c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h e

s o n g s o r d a n c e s a d j a c e n t t o i t . Most a n t i m a s q u e c h a r a c t e r s

26

were professional actors and dancers, capable of a wide

variety of actions and so requiring a wide variety of music.

One unusual work produced in 1634 is worth mentioning

at this point, especially as Vaughan Williaras was familiar

with it. Comus was written by John Milton and set to music

by Henry Lawes. Not produced at court, the libretto shows

marked differences in the masque routine, such as the fact

that only two dances are noted, Comus and his followers 73 doing measures at the beginning of the raasque and a group

of shepherds dancing another prepared dance near the end.

"His [Lawes] settings invariably serve the lyrics, and the

rhythras are primarily verbal, as the profusion of dotted 74

eighth and sixteenth notes in the vocal line reveals." As

observed from the five extant examples, his effects appear

varied according to a delicate text-pain t ing, which is

subtle and appealing, so that at times he achieves a

personal quality foreshadowing the operatic aria for its . ^. 75 mtimacy.

In addition to the vocal music required for the songs

and choruses and the instruraental numbers required for

processionals and entrances, there had to be large amounts

of dance music composed, for the masque was first of all and

above all else, for dancing.

The o r d e r of t he raasquers' d ances and t h e s o c i a l dances remained the same no m a t t e r what v a r i a t i o n s were i n t r o d u c e d . . . . The s t r u c t u r e of t h e S t u a r t m a s q u e , b a s e d on a sequence of m a s q u e and s o c i a l d a n c e s , may be s e e n a s e s s e n t i a l l y choreographic r a the r than l i t e r a r y :

27

1. Dances and songs of t h e a n t i m a s q u e r s 2 . Loud m u s i c and t h e d i s c o v e r y of t h e

s c e n e of t h e masque 3. Song 1 4. Entry dance of the masquers 5. Song 2 6. Main dance of the masquers 7. Song 3 8. The measu re s and t h e r e v e l s 9. Song 4 _g

10 . E x i t dance of t h e masquers

The masquers a lways had t h r e e t e r m i n a l d a n c e s : (1) t h e e n t r y d a n c e , u s u a l l y f a i r l y s h o r t , d e s i g n e d t o g e t t h e

masquers from t h e t a b l e a u where t h e y have been d i s c o v e r e d t o

t h e d a n c i n g f l o o r ; ( 2 ) t h e g r a n d , or main , d a n c e , in which t h e c h o r e o g r a p h y i s t h e most complex and s y m b o l i c ; and (3 ) t h e e x i t d a n c e , s o m e t i r a e s v e r y s h o r t , b a s i c a l l y a

p r o c e s s i o n a l , o c c u r r i n g a f t e r t h e r e v e l s and c o n c l u d i n g t h e

masque.

T y p i c a l l y , t e r m i n a l dances were d i g n i f i e d and raajestic. O f t e n w r i t t e n i n s o n g f o r m , t h e J a c o b e a n o n e s w e r e

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by two s t r a i n s of d u p l e mete r f o l l o w e d by one

or two s t r a i n s of t r i p l e m e t e c . The C a r o l i n i a n t e r r a i n a l

d a n c e s were much t h e same; t h e y d id r e f l e c t some of t h e raore

s o p h i s t i c a t e d c o m p o s i t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s found in t h e s o n g s ,

an i n c r e a s e d u s e of a c c i d e n t a l s , a d v a n c e d h a r m o n i e s , and 77 f r e e r movement i n t h e b a s s and t r e b l e l i n e s . For b o t h

p e r i o d s , t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n was u s u a l l y fo r c o n s o r t s , w i t h

t h e s u r v i v i n g e x a m p l e s b e i n g t r a n s c r i b e d f o r s o l o 78 i n s t r u m e n t s .

28 The raeasures and the r eve l s were always between the

main and exi t dances and seemed to follow ce r t a in o rders of the s o c i a l dances of the day by t r a d i t i o n . The measures included the raore s e r ious dances , the pavane and alraain. The slower of the two was the pavane, characterized by duple rhythm, usually three s t r a i n s , repeated, and in a minor key. When the tempo was s l i g h t l y increased, the pavane became a passaraezzo and the music was composed over a ground b a s s . Also four bea t s to a bar , the almain retained the heavier nature of the pavane, but was a l i t t l e f a s t e r . F requen t ly , i t was used for p r o c e s s i o n a l s , with a p a t t e r n of s t eps forward, then a sraall step backward.

The l i v e l i e r s o c i a l dances were the r e v e l s ; commonly i n t e r s p e r s e d among the graver dances , one of t r i p l e meter dances , the g a l l i a r d followed the pavane . A f i v e - s t e p dance, the g a l l i a r d , was a gay, s p i r i t e d dance and one of the showpieces for the exper t raale dancer . A l e s s showy f i v e - s t e p dance was i t s r e l a t i o n , the sinkapace (cinque-pace). Gall iards were replaced g radua l ly with the t r i p l e t ime d a n c e , s a r a b a n d , o r i g i n a t i n g in Spain and s lower , e i t h e r 3/4 or 3 /8 . Other t r i p l e t ime dances r e q u i r i n g l i v e l y and quick motions were the coranto, the l avo l t a , and duret . The coranto was a favorite in early o t u a r t masques; in 3/2 or 6/4 time, i t had a fast running s tep . The lavolta" was immensely p o p u l a r ; i t r e q u i r e d a l o t of t w i s t i n g , turning action and a leap, or sp r ing , which the l a d i e s did

29

with the help of their male partners. A milder type of

dance was the duret, believed similar to the coranto, but a 79 dance for which no instructions have survived. The

canaries and spagnoletta were additional triple time dances,

both iraported frora other countries and both coraplex in their

required actions. Another very popular dance was the brawl,

or branle, so named because it was executed in a swaying

movement with the couples in round dance form. It consisted

of several parts, of which the last was the gavotte, but not

the gavotte familiar in eighteenth century suites and , 80 dances.

At some masques, those not performed a t c o u r t , c o u n t r y

dances were s u b s t i t u t e d for r eve l s and measures, or for the

b rawls . Although e x i s t i n g in innumerab le v a r i a t i o n s , t he

c o u n t r y d a n c e was d e s c r i b e d by C e c i l S h a r p a s " . . .

p r e - e m i n e n t l y a f i g u r e d a n c e , d e p e n d i n g . . . upon t h e

weaving of p a t t e r n e d , concerted evo lu t ions r a the r than upon

i n t r i c a t e s t eps . . . [with a s p i r i t of] g a i e t y and s imple 81 good humour." F r e q u e n t l y , t h e s e dances were performed

"longways," in long l i n e s , with raen on one s ide and women on

the o t h e r .

Conclusion

When Vaughan Williams named his work a masque, he

associated it with the historical genre reviewed in the

preceding pages; thus, the concept of the masque remained

even as its context changed. When nearly three hundred

30

years later, a new group of English artists had something to

say and needed a mode of comraunication, the masque was a

viable option, at least in Vaughan Williaras' thinking. For, 82 in his essay, "Should Music Be National?," as he discusses

standards of preference that vary araong different ages, the

coraposer suggests that "the clock goes round full circle,"

and that one century may find meaningful what an earlier one

did not. Perhaps he was his own best example, for he found

potential in the masque for an English statement of music

and draraa that could mirror his own and his contemporaries'

conceptions. Just what constitutes a masque for the

composer in the twentieth century is explored in the next

chapter.

31

Notes

Roy Strong, Splendour at Court: Renaissance Specta-cle and Illusion (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973), 19.

2 Stephen Kogan, The Hieroglyphic King; Wisdom and

Idolatry in the Seventeenth-Century Masque (Rutherford, Madison and Teaneck: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1986; London and Toronto: Associated University Presses, 1986), 37.

3 The Inns of Court are four legal societies which

virtually constitute the English University of the Law. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the students occasionally produced their own masques, and some performed in the antimasques at court.

4 Enid Welsford, The Court Masque: A Study in the Re-

lationship Between Poetry & the Revels (Cambridge: Uni-versity Press, 1928), 140.

Mummings and disguisings were entertainments which featured masked participants: mummings revolved around a silent, dice-chance game, while disguisings used scenery and allegory.

^lbid., 130.

^lbid.

^lbid., 135.

Andrew Sabol, Four Hundred Songs and Dances frora the Stuart Masque (Hanover and London: Brown University Press by University Press of New England, 1982), 3.

"'"^ Antimasques were inserted dances or antics designed as a foil for the raasque proper; they were usually of a comic, satirical, active, or pantoraimic nature, and danced by professionals or students.

'-'-Sabol, 7.

'^Stephen Orgel and Roy Strong, Iniqo Jones: The The-atre of the Stuart Court, 2 vols. (London: Sotheby Park Bernet, 1973; Berkeley, University of California Press), 37. [Author's brackets.]

'^lbid., 3 .

Ibid.

32

'^Kogan, 29 . 1 6

John C. M e a g h e r , Method and Meaning in J o n s o n ' s Masques (Not re Dame, I n d i a n a : U n i v e r s i t y of No t re Dame P r e s s , 1966), 68.

17 Ibid., 66-67. At other times music was used for the

practical if less grand reason of concealing the loud noise of moving stage machines.

'^lbid., 100. 19

S t rong , 53. Strong quotes a preface to a t r a n s l a t i o n of A r i o s t o ' s Orlando Fur ioso , as w r i t t e n by Sir John Haring-ton .

20 lb id .

I b i d . 22

Ben J o n s o n , "An E x p o s t u l a t i o n wi th I n i g o J o n e s " (Poems, ed . B. H. Newdiga te , 2 9 6 ) , q u o t e d in A l l a r d y c e N i c o l l , S t u a r t Masques and t h e Rena i s sance Stage (London: George G. H a r r a p & Company L i m i t e d , 1 9 3 7 ) , 1 5 5 . The t endency for syrabols to be " read" e v e n t u a l l y became the r e a s o n behind t h e manuals of m y t h o l o g r a p h e r s and emblem books of t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , such as Cesare R i p a ' s I cono log ia (1593) and Andrea A l c i a t i ' s Emblemata ( 1 5 3 1 ) . The spoken or p r i n t e d d i a l o g u e i n s e r t e d in the masque (as e l abora ted by Jonson) did much to r e i n f o r c e and /o r e x p l a i n t h e d i d a c t i c and mime t i c p u r p o s e s ; r a r e l y were p r i n t e d programs a v a i l a b l e .

23 ^^lbid.

24 Strong, 53.

25 Roy Strong, Art and Power (Berkeley and Los Angeles,

California: University of California Press, 1984), 154.

^^lbid., 160.

^^Kogan, 29. 2 8

Orgel and Strong, 12. Jones used perspective in his stage settings solely for the royal presence.

29 Strong, Art and Power, 157.

30 Kogan, 30. Charles I was frequently chief masquer.

33

^ ^ l b i d . , 276-277.

^^Strong, 171.

Kogan, 27.

^^Strong, 169.

^^Nico l l , 34.

^ ^ l b i d .

^ ' ' l b i d . , 38-39. ^ ^ A n t o n i o F o s c a r i n i , The V e n e t i a n Ambassador t o

Eng land , on the wedding f e s t i v i t i e s a t c o u r t ( 1 6 1 3 ) , as quoted in Mary S u l l i v a n , Court Masques of James I (New York and London: Knickerbocker P r e s s , 1913), 70-71 .

^ ^ S u l l i v a n , 7 0 - 7 1 . Endno te : t he comparat ive p r i c e s r e f l e c t the raonetary values for S u l l i v a n ' s p u b l i s h i n g d a t e of 1913.

'^^Orgel and S t r o n g ' s Inigo Jones i s the source of these genera l d e t a i l s , gathered from an overview of Vol. 1.

^"See N i c o l l , 214, for examples.

^^Edward J . Dent , F o u n d a t i o n s of E n g l i s h Opera (New York: Da Capo P r e s s , 1965), 21-22.

^^Orgel & S t rong , 115.

'*'*Dent, 22.

^^Campion in Orgel & Strong, 116.

'^ O^rgel & Strong, 116.

^"^Dent, 22-23.

'^^Dent, 23.

^^Campion as quoted in Orgel & Strong, 118.

50 Campion, 119.

^Ibid., 120. 52 Nicoll, 58,

gel & Strong. ^^Orgel & Strong, 17. [Author's brackets.]

34 54

One major r e f e r e n c e t o t o r c h l i g h t a s i l l u m i n a t i o n in t h e Banque t i ng H a l l i s made in S t r o n g , 168 . Another h a l l of i m p e r m a n e n t n a t u r e was e r e c t e d in 1638 in o r d e r t o per form B r i t a n n i a t r i u r a p h a n s b e c a u s e t h e k i n g f e a r e d d a m a g e by t o r c h e s t o t h e n e w l y i n s t a l l e d Rubens p a i n t i n g s i n t h e Banque t ing H a l l .

^^Orgel & S t r o n g , 17 .

^^Dent , 2 3 - 2 4 .

^ ^ S a b o l , 2 5 .

^ ^ l b i d . , 2 5 - 2 6 . 59

M e a g h e r , 7 7 , a s q u o t i n g P a r r y , The M u s i c o f t h e

S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r y , Oxford , 196 .

^ I b i d . , 77 .

^ ' Ib id . , 7 7 - 7 8 .

^^lbid., 79. 6 3

Ben Jonson as quoted in Murray Lefkowitz, "Masque," in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (London: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 1980), 764.

^^Sabol, 26-27. Lefkowitz, 764.

66TK-^ Ibid.

^^Sabol, 28.

^^Dent, 29.

Ibid.

Lefkowitz, 764.

^'Dent, 39.

72 Lefkowitz, 765.

73 The measures were the slower, statelier dances done

in the revels, transformed frora the Elizabethan basse danse, done usually in a slow 3/2 meter.

74 S a b o l , 28 . [ A u t h o r ' s b r a c k e t s . ]

35

75

76

77

78

79

80

Ibid.

Ibid., 7.

Ibid., 11.

Ibid.

Ibid., 17.

Ibid. 81 Cecil J. Sharp, The Country Dance Book, Parts I and

II (London: Novello and Company, Limited, 1909; reprint ed., London: Novello and Company, Limited, 1934), 20. [Author's brackets.]

8 2 R a l p h Vaughan W i l l i a r a s , N a t i o n a l Music and Other

Essays (Oxford and New York: Oxford Unive r s i ty P r e s s , 1963; r e p r i n t , 1987), 8.

CHAPTER II

CONTEMPORARY BACKGROUND

Dance of all kinds was flourishing in London in the

early 1920s. Renewed interest in traditional forras and folk

dances was the focus of one group of enthusiasts; another

group found the very new, natural "Greek" movement

expressive and was devoted to furthering it. A third and

powerful contingent of dance supporters was dedicated to

classical ballet as it had been taught throughout Europe and

presented by Sergei Diaghilev's Ballet Russe. Such was the

contemporary environraent that each different kind of dance

was active with its own objectives.

Vaughan Williaras, The Masque, and Dance

Ralph Vaughan Williams' interest in traditional dance

and forms is perhaps best understood in light of his

extensive work in the regeneration and preservation of

England's musical heritage. While other composers dedicated

themselves to the same purpose, none of them made the

traditional elements their own as did this "Grand Old Man"

of English music. His interest in the masque is apparent

throughout his long life.

In 1905 he collaborated with Gustav Holst to provide

the music for a revival of Ben Jonson's Pan's Anniversary, a

masque believed to have been originally performed in 1620

before James I. Further, of the six works for dancing

36

37

composed by Vaughan Williams and listed by Michael Kennedy

in The Works of Ralph Vaughan Williams, five are masques.

Besides Pan's Anniversary, Kennedy lists: (1) On Christmas

Night, 1926, a masque loosely based on Dickens' A Christmas

Carol; (2) Job, A Masque for Dancing, 1930, concert version,

1931, stage version; (3) Masque for English Folk Dance Soci-

ety, 1937 (unpublished); and (4) The Bridal Day, composed in

1939 and first performed in 1953, libretto based on

Epithalamion by Edmund Spenser (1552-1599) and written by

Ursula Wood (later Ursula Vaughan Williams).

Some 53 years after he composed the music for Pan's

Anniver sary, and during the last year of his life, Vaughan

Williams was still considering the masque. Notes included

among the sketches for his ninth symphony reveal these

thoughts concerning the masque's place in British music.

The Masque is a typically English institu-tion. We have never taken kindly to grand opera, delightful as an importation brought to the country by young noblemen on the Grand Tour and set up with all the [pomp] of Italian music and Italian composers and their sopranos and prima donnas as a fashionable entertainment. It has never, and I believe, never will endear itself to the heart of the people. They [the English people] much prefer the ballad opera which is in a language they could under-stand. . . . For masques the great poets of the [land] were pressed into servicewitness Milton's Comus and Ben Jonsan's Pan's Anniversary[and] the finest musicians.

In the collaboration for the revival of Pan's Anniver-

sary, Vaughan Williams composed the music and Holst arranged

the dances for orchstra for what was believed to be the

first recreation of the masque. The occasion was the

38

S h a k e s p e a r e B i r t h d a y C e l e b r a t i o n a t S t r a t f o r d - u p o n - A v o n .

The music i s unava i l ab le for s tudy, but Kennedy inc ludes the

shape of Vaughan W i l l i a m s ' m a s q u e , which f o l l o w s t h i s

s e q u e n c e : i n t r o d u c t o r y i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c , " a t t e n t i o n "

i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c , f a s t dance ( s i m i l a r to a n t i m a s q u e ) , song, en t ry dance, song, pavan, song, g a l l i a r d , r e v e l s , f a s t

3 d a n c e , s o n g , and r e v e l s . Kennedy reproduces a note on the

program by Vaughan Williams which s t a t e s in p a r t :

"In the music to the choruses no a t t e m p t has been raade to r ep roduce the E l i z a b e t h a n s t y l e of rausic, b u t i t i s h o p e d t h a t t h e m u s i c i s a p p r o p r i a t e l y s i r a p l e . The rausic for the 'Mas-q u e r s ' E n t r y , ' the ' P a v a n ' and " G a l l i a r d ' a r e taken from s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y dances . . . . Sorae of these t r a d i t i o n a l melodies are from the composer 's own m a n u s c r i p t c o l l e c t i o n . . . . In the music of the choruses a l s o , c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p h r a s e s from English folk music have been i n s e r t e d . R. V. W."^

When compared to the o r i g i n a l l i b r e t t o , t he b a s i c

sequence reraains the same. There are some c o n t e n t c h a n g e s :

Vaughan Williams replaced the spoken p a r t s with ins t rumenta l

m u s i c and o n e e x t r a hymn, t h e l y r i c s of t h e l a t t e r

con t a in ing r e f e r e n c e s to the speech i t was r e p l a c i n g ; he

s u b s t i t u t e d r a p i d tempo dances based on folk tunes for the

ant imasques , using a change in i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , as we l l ; he

s p e c i f i c a l l y mentions the use of a "masquers' pavan" as one

dancp (poss ib ly in tended to p a r a l l e l J o n s o n ' s main dance) and a g a l l i a r d and a raaypole d a n c e for the r e v e l s ; he

concluded h i s vers ion with a repeat of the r eve l s ( r ep lac ing a l a s t speech) .

39

Eleven years later Vaughan Williams again used the form

when in 1926 he composed On Christraas Night. The cover of

the work describes it as:

A Masque with dancing, singing, and raiming freely adapted frora Dickens' A Christmas Carol by Adolf Bolra and R. Vaughan Williaras with rausic devised as a quodlibet of Folk tunes and Country dances by the latter.

Again, the work eliminates spoken dialogue; miraing is

suggested in the stage directions which refer soraewhat

loosely to the well-known plot. The sequence is as follows:

introductory instrumental music (lento), song, grotesque

dance, song, lento, first dance, second dance, solo dance,

third dance, fourth dance, lento, scene change, lento, scene

change, fifth dance (to "Hunsdon House"), sixth dance (to

"Black Nag"), and song. Motivic coherence is created by the

recurring "Lento" motive, and the familiarity of the tunes

keeps the work light and simple. Indeed, On Christmas Night

is intended for amateur use, and offers no comparison to Job

in intensity or breadth. It does, however, along with Pan's

Anniversary, foreshadow sorae general considerations that

raanifest themselves in Job.

Another composition for dance also appears to point

toward Job; Old King Cole, written and performed in 1923 at

Nevile's Court, Trinity College, for Cambridge folk dancer:.,

is described as a ballet by its composer. From Kennedy's

account, it appears that Vaughan Williams' use of English

folk dances impressed E. J. Dent, who commented.

40

"Whe the r t r a d i t i o n a l E n g l i s h s t e p s and f i g u r e s could be made the foundation of a h ighly e l abora ted b a l l e t i s a ques t ion which I must leave to the s p e c i a l i s t s in choreography. . . . "

K e n n e d y ' s d e s c r i p t i o n r e v e a l s t h a t t h e compose r g a v e

s u g g e s t i o n s f o r t h e d a n c e s , c o s t u r a e s , and p e r f o r r a i n g

p r a c t i c e s on the piano s c o r e . Kennedy himself comments:

. . . t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t Old King Cole has some impor t ance in t h e g e n e s i s of J o b , for t he e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e old d a n c e s must h a v e s e t Vaughan W i l l i a m s t h i n k i n g of more a m b i t i o u s ven tu res of t h i s k ind.

Thus, c e r t a i n p re fe rences appear in Vaughan W i l l i a m s '

masques and dance music p r i o r to Job; the use of folk dance

t u n e s , long e s t a b l i s h e d in the English folk c u l t u r e ; the use

of mime to s u b s t i t u t e for t he spoken or sung d ia logue (On Christmas Night inc ludes very few spoken and sung l i n e s ) ; a r e t e n t i o n of t h e c o n t r a s t i n g d a n c e a p p e a r i n g near t h e

b e g i n n i n g of a work t h a t c o u l d compare w i t h J o n s o n ' s

a n t i m a s q u e ; and t h e use of p a v a n e s and g a l l i a r d s from

s i x t e e n t h century dance s u i t e s .

Vaughan Williams enjoyed p a r t i c i p a t i n g in folk dance as well as w r i t i n g for i t , yet he had some d e a l i n g s wi th o t h e r

t y p e s of d a n c e , a s w e l l . His widow, U r s u l a Vaughan

Wil l iams, e s t ima te s the year to be around 1911 when "Ralph

had met Gordon Cra ig and t h e r e was some d i s c u s s i o n of

t h e i r w r i t i n g a b a l l e t t o g e t h e r so a mee t ing was a r r a n g e d

with Diaghi lev and Nij insky a t the Savoy." Over lunch the four d i s c u s s e d C r a i g ' s idea of Cupid and Psyche as a b a l l e t

s u b j e c t , wi th N i j i n s k y danc ing both r o l e s , b u t Vaughan

41

Williams objected to the idea. The project came to nothing, as the following conversation shows, but the incident does

prove an affiliation on sorae level.

"Let me have the music ," said Cra ig , "and I ' l l f i t in the s to ry . " "Impossible," said Ralph, "you must l e t me have the s c e n a r i o and I w i l l w r i t e rausic for i t . " " I raposs ib le , " said Craig, " j u s t send the m u s i c " - - a n d so t h e y p a r t e d . N e i t h e r s e n t a n y t h i n g to the o t h e r and the projected ba l l e t became another might-have-been. At about the same time, Vaughan Williaras a l so knew and

liked very rauch Isadora Duncan and her brother , Raymond. I sadora inv i t ed him to her studio to see her

dance, as she wanted him to wr i t e music for h e r . She said sadly t h a t had they been in Pa r i s , she would have danced for him "without cos tume"--but her English accompanist would not l ike her to do so. He found the melting beauty of her phras ing exac t l y the s o r t of movement for which he could w r i t e , and he s t a r t e d work on a c h o r a l b a l l e t u s i n g G j i l b e r t M u r r a y ' s t r a n s l a t i o n of The Bacchae.

When Duncan l a t e r disappeared without leaving an a d d r e s s , t h i s p r o j e c t , too, came to nothing, but her i n i t i a l request resul ted in a near-cor