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Another method of measuring differences in QoL is as a difference in
the "standard of living", according to the technical definition of that
term. For example, people in rural areas and small towns are generally
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Quality of Life
reluctant to move to cities, even if it would mean a substantial increase
in their standard of living. Thus the QoL of living in a rural area is of
enough value to offset a higher standard of living. Similarly, people
must be paid more to accept jobs that would lower their QoL. Night
jobs or ones with extensive travel all pay more, and the difference in
salaries can also give a measure of the value of QoL.
There is a growing field of research concerned with developing,
evaluating and applying QoL measures within health related research
(e.g. within randomized controlled trials), especially Health Services
Research. Many of these focus on the measurement of health related
QoL (HRQoL), rather than a more global conceptualization of QoL. They
also focus on measuring HRQoL from the perspective of the patient and
thus take the form of self completed questionnaires. The International
Society for QoL was founded in response to this research and is a useful
source of information on this topic.
2.3 Using free and Public Domain Data
Gene Shackman and Ya-Lin Liu are with the Global Social Change
Research Project (GSCRP), and Xun Wang is a member of the Faculty in
the Sociology Department at the University of Wisconsin, Parkside. Drs
Shackman, Liu and Wang have authored numerous reports for the
GSCRP describing global social, demographic, political and economic
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Quality of Life
change. Many indicators are used to measure national QoL and human
development. These can be divided into single indicators and
component sets. Some emphasize 'objective' and some 'subjective'
measures. They review these approaches and describe public domain
and free data that can be used to measure QoL.
A worthy goal of any government is to improve the QoL of its citizens.
The government will know whether the QoL has improved or what the
QoL is using the one common approach is to use QoL indicators, usually
including measures of at least some of these dimensions: economic well
being, health, literacy, environmental quality, freedom, social
participation and self- perceived well being or satisfaction (André and
Bitondo, 2001).
QoL indicators allow governments to evaluate how well they are doing
compared with, for example, their development goals or the QoL in
other countries. The indicators may also be used by outside observers
or researchers to evaluate countries performance. The comparative
international approach to measuring QoL has been reviewed by Drs
Shackman, Liu and Wang. Some indicators are 'objective' or countable,
such as GDP per capita, infant mortality rate, and literacy rate.
Alternative indicators focus more on individual perceptions of well
being or satisfaction. Some QoL approaches use mainly objective
indicators, while others focus more on the subjective side.
2.3.1 ‘Objectives’ Approaches
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Quality of Life
According to Sharpe and Smith (2005), the best known
composite QoL scale is the United Nations Development
Program's Human Development Index, HDI (UNDP, 2004).
This index is a single value measuring health and longevity,
knowledge (literacy and school enrollment) and standards
of living (GDP per capita). Countries are rated on how well
they are doing on each component compared to the range
of possible values for that component.
The HDI value averages the ratings of the three
components. To calculate an individual country's
comparative rating, the UNDP sets minimum and maximum
values for the components. However, the minima and
maxima and the country ratings themselves can vary
greatly from year to year, even if conditions do not change
much. In addition, the HDI is a comparative rating, so that a
country's HDI score depends on the achievements (or
failures) of other countries. Thus, the score cannot be used
to chart the progress from year to year of any one country,
compared only to its own previous achievements.
Other international composite scales are Prescott-Allen's
(2001) Index of the Wellbeing of Nations and Estes' (1997)
Index of Social Progress. All these scales correlate with
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Quality of Life
each other at a level of 0.89 or above and so seem to be
measuring similar qualities (Shackman, Liu and Wang,
2005).
A composite scale is useful as an overall indicator.
However, a single composite may sometimes be
problematic, as different scales use different indicators or
give different weights to indicators, and the construction of
the composite scale may not always be clearly explained.
Single scales may oversimplify the concept and do not
present information about its components (André and
Bitando, 2001). Finally, many QoL scales also correlate
fairly highly with income per capita and thus may not add
much useful information to this simpler economic indicator.
Thus, a set of key indicators may also be useful, because
they cover a range of topics and avoid the need for
combining or weighting individual components. Several of
the organizations measuring QoL described above (e.g.,
Estes, 1997; UNDP, 2004) also use sets of indicators. In
fact, this is the primary approach of the UNDP. The sets
used by the UNDP and Estes include measures of health,
education, economic well being, environment and
technology, and tend to focus on 'objective' measures. The
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Quality of Life
indicators are aggregate level measures, using the country
as the unit of analysis.
2.3.2 Alternatives
Alternatives to these major approaches include attempting to
measure the non-economic aspects of the QoL; well being as a
hierarchy of needs; and 'Gross National Happiness' (GPI Atlantic,
undated). This last approach "links the economy with social and
environmental variables to create a more comprehensive and
accurate measurement tool" (GPI Atlantic, undated).
Researchers have also tried to measure the more 'subjective'
aspects of QoL, developed subjective QoL scales, and studied the
relationship between subjective and objective aspects.
Subjective QoL has been variously defined, for example:
This dimension covers perceptions, evaluations and
appreciation of life and living conditions by the individual
citizens. Examples are measures of satisfaction or happiness.
(Noll, 2005)
The outcome of the gap between people's goals and perceived
resources, in the context of their environment, culture, values,
and experiences. (Camfield, 2005)
Although the subjective well being does not correlate well with
'objective' measures, a recently developed scale of life
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Quality of Life
satisfaction, the QoL scale (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2005)
correlates highly (.77 and above) with the 'objective' measures of
GDP per capita, infant mortality rate and literacy. On the other
hand, another satisfaction with life scale correlates 0.4 to 0.5
with the major scales, but 0.74 with the Economist Intelligence
Unit's (2005) scale. Thus, as Veenhoven (2004) indicates, it may
be that 'subjective well being' is not a unitary concept, but rather
requires different indicators for different aspects.
Subjective QoL scales are also constructed somewhat differently
than are the 'objective' scales. These scales are, as the label
suggests, from the individual's own point of view.
3.0 The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Quality of Life Index
The Economist Intelligence Unit has developed a new QoL index based on a
unique methodology that links the results of subjective life-satisfaction
surveys to the objective determinants of quality of life across countries. The
index has been calculated for 111 countries for 2005. This note explains the
methodology and gives the complete country ranking.
3.1 Quality of Life Indices
It has long been accepted that material wellbeing, as measured by GDP
per person, cannot alone explain the broader QoL in a country. One
strand of the literature has tried to adjust GDP by quantifying facets
that are omitted by the GDP measure but the approach has faced
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Quality of Life
insurmountable difficulties in assigning monetary values to the various
factors and intangibles that comprise a wider measure of socio-
economic wellbeing.
There have been numerous attempts to construct alternative, non-
monetary indices of social and economic wellbeing by combining in a
single statistic a variety of different factors that are thought to influence
QoL. The main problem in all these measures is selection bias and
arbitrariness in the factors that are chosen to assess quality of life and,
even more seriously, in assigning weights to different indicators
(measured on a comparable and meaningful scale) to come up with a
single synthetic measure. Some researchers have invoked the UN’s
Universal Declaration of Human Rights to identify the factors that need
to be included in a QoL measure. But, even if accepted as a starting
point, that still does not point to precise indicators or how they are to be
weighted. A technocratic and unsatisfying device that is sometimes used
is to resort to “expert opinion”.
3.2 Life Satisfaction Surveys
The starting point for a methodologically improved and more
comprehensive measure of QoL is subjective life-satisfaction surveys
(surveys of life satisfaction, as opposed to surveys of the related concept
of happiness, are preferred for a number of reasons). These surveys ask
people the simple question of how satisfied they are with their lives in
general. A typical question on the four-point scale used in the
Eurobarometer studies is, “On the whole are you very satisfied, fairly
satisfied, not very satisfied, or not at all satisfied with the life you lead?”
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Quality of Life
The results of the surveys have been attracting growing interest in
recent years. Despite a range of early criticisms (cultural non-
comparability and the effect of language differences across countries;
psychological factors distorting responses), tests have disproved or
mitigated most concerns. One objection is that responses to surveys do
not adequately reflect how people really feel about their life; they
allegedly report how satisfied they are expected to be. But people know
very well how satisfied they are. Responses to questions about life
satisfaction tend to be prompt; non-response rates are very low.
This simple measure of life satisfaction has been found to correlate
highly with more sophisticated tests, ratings by others who know the
individual and behavioral measures. The survey results have on the
whole proved far more reliable and informative than might be expected.
Another criticism is that life-satisfaction responses reflect the dominant
view on life, rather than actual QoL in a country.
Life satisfaction is seen as a judgment that depends on social and
culturally specific frames of reference. But this relativism is disproved
by the fact that people in different countries report similar criteria as
being important for life satisfaction, and by the fact that most
differences in life satisfaction across countries can be explained by
differences in objective circumstances. In addition, it has been found
that the responses of immigrants in a country are much closer to the
level of the local population than to responses in their motherland.
Answers to questions on satisfaction in bilingual countries do not reveal
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Quality of Life
any linguistic bias arising from possibly differing meanings and
connotations of the words “happiness” and “satisfaction”. Self reports of
overall life satisfaction can be meaningfully compared across nations.
3.3 The Economist Intelligence Unit’s Index
The survey results cannot be completely taken at face value and use the
average score on life satisfaction as the indicator of quality of life for a
country because of several reasons. First, comparable results for a
sufficient number of countries tend to be out-of-date and many nations
are not covered at all. Second, the impact of measurement errors on
assessing the relationship between life-satisfaction perceptions and
objective indicators tends to cancel out across a large number of
countries. But there might still be significant errors for any given
country. So there is a bigger chance of error in assessing QoL between
countries if a single average life-satisfaction score as opposed to a multi-
component index be taken. Finally, and most important, although most
of the inter-country variation in the life-satisfaction surveys can be
explained by objective factors, there is still a significant unexplained
component which, in addition to measurement error, might be related to
specific factors that we would want to net out from an objective QoL
index.
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Quality of Life
Instead we use the survey results as a starting point, and a means for
deriving weights for the various determinants of QoL across countries,
in order to calculate an objective index. The average scores from
comparable life-satisfaction surveys (on a scale of one to ten) can be
assembled for 1999 or 2000 for 74 countries. These scores are then
related in a multivariate regression to various factors that have been
shown to be associated with life satisfaction in many studies. As many as
nine factors survive in the final estimated equation (all except one are
statistically significant; the weakest, gender equality, falls just below).
Together these variables explain more than 80% of the inter-country
variation in life-satisfaction scores. Using so-called Beta coefficients
from the regression to derive the weights of the various factors, the
most important were health, material wellbeing, and political stability
and security. These were followed by family relations and community
life. Next in order of importance were climate, job security, political
freedom and finally gender equality.
The values of the life-satisfaction scores that are predicted by our nine
indicators represent a country’s QoL index, or the “corrected” life-
satisfaction scores, based on objective cross-country determinants. The
coefficients in the estimated equation weight automatically the
importance of the various factors; the method also means that the
original units or measurement of the various indicators can be used.
They do not, unlike for other indices, have to rely on the potentially
distortive effect of having to transform all indicators to a common
measurement scale. We can also use the estimated equation based on
1999/2000 data to calculate index values for other years or even to
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Quality of Life
forecast an index, thus making it up-to-date and facilitating comparison
over time.
4.0 The Malaysia Quality of Life
The Malaysia QoL is defined as encompassing personal advancements, a
healthy lifestyle, access and freedom to pursue knowledge and a standard of
living which surpasses the fulfilment of basic needs of individuals and their
psychological needs, to achieve a level of social well-being compatible with
the nation’s aspirations.
4.1 The Malaysia Quality of Life Index (MQLI)
To measure the changes in the QoL, the Malaysian QoL Index (MQLI)
was devised. The MQLI is a composite measurement based on ten
selected areas, namely income and distribution, working life, transport
and communications, health, education, housing, environment, family
life, social participation and public safety. These areas are assumed to
be of equal importance for the well-being and the QoL of the population
and as such, were assigned equal weightage. A total of 38 indicators
were used in the computation of the Index (Refer Table 1). The
indicators were selected on the basis of their importance, how best they
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Quality of Life
reflect that particular area and the availability of data on a time series
basis (Refer Table 2). The indicators are aimed at providing an
aggregate measure of the QoL in order to assess the impact of
economic development on the population. In formulating the MQLI, the
data used were for the period 1980-1998, with the exception of data on
environment, which were available only from 1985. The year 1990 was
chosen as the base year as it was a relatively normal year, besides
being sufficiently recent.
Table 1 : Components of Malaysian Quality of Life Index
Area Indicator
Income and Distribution
Real per Capita GNP Gini Coefficient Incidence of Poverty
Working Life
Unemployment Rate Trade Disputes Man-Days Lost Due to Industrial Actions Industrial Accident Rate
Transport and Communications
Private Motorcars and Motorcycles Commercial Vehicles Road Development Telephones Average Daily Newspaper Circulation
Health
Life Expectancy at Birth (Male) Life Expectancy at Birth (Female) Infant Mortality Rate Doctor-Population Ratio Hospital Bed-Population Ratio
Education
Pre-School Participation Rate Secondary School Participation Rate University Participation Rate Literacy Rate Primary School Teacher-Student Ratio Secondary School Teacher-Student Ratio
Housing
Average Housing Price Low-Cost Housing Unit Housing Units with Piped Water Housing Units with Electricity
Environment Air Quality Clean Rivers Forested Land
Registered Voters Membership in Selected Voluntary
Organizations
Public Safety Crimes Road Accidents
Table 2 : The Rationale for the Selection of Areas
Area Rationale
Income and Distribution
Gross income or per capita income reflects welfare or standard of living. Incomes provide the condition that allows individuals to sustain themselves and their families, while the distribution of income reflects equity and distribution of economic resources.
Working LifeWorking life is important because being employed provides a source of income that contributes to the standard of living and QoL
Transport and Communications
Transport and communications are vital factors for progress an development since they relate to the mobility of and accessibility to resources as well as opportunity for employment, education and movement of goods and services.
Health
Health, which includes physical and mental well being, enables people to work productively and participate actively in the social and economic life of the community.
Education
The education systems are the principal instruments for transmitting knowledge and culture from one generation to the next. It provides the foundation from which the technology to sustain and improve the QoL is developed and enhanced.
HousingHousing is a basic social need that is necessary for decent living, security and shelter for the family.
Environment
Environment has a direct effect on the well-being of the population. Air and water pollution and forested land are some indicator of the quality of environment.
Family Life The family unit represents the core institutions within the societal structure and its functioning
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Quality of Life
fulfills the social economic and psychological needs of individuals.
Social Participation
Social participations is the reflection of the people’s commitment and willingness to be involved in social, political, religious and community activities.
Public SafetyPublic safety is essential as it ensures social peace and stability
Table 3: The Index for the 10 Areas of MQLI 1980-1998
AreaYEAR/INDEX
1990 = 100
Income and Distribution1980 = 77.39
1998 = 105.82
Working Life1980 = 106.13
1998 = 118.94
Transport and
Communications
1980 = 87.36
1998 = 112.78
Health 1980 = 83.24
1998 = 109.58
Education1980 = 85.97
1998 = 117.31
Housing1980 = 90.52
1998 = 107.72
Environment1980 = n.a
1998 = 100.94
Family Life1980 = 85.46
1998 = 113.86
Social Participation1980 = 81.55
1998 = 97.98
Public Safety1980 = 78.40
1998 = 72.11
Composites Index1980 = 86.22
1998 = 105.71
Change for Base Year
(1990)
1980 = (-) 13.78
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Quality of Life
1998 = (+) 5.71
4.2 Malaysia Urban Quality of Life
Malaysia witnessed a fast pace of urbanization in 1990 to 2000, largely
contributed by rapid economic growth and transformation. The
population in urban areas increased at an average rate of 4.6% per
annum, about twice the national population growth rate of 2.2%. As a
result, the share in the urban population increased from 51.1% to 61.8%
during the period. The expansion of urban centres as well as the
establishment of new townships and satellite industrial towns also
contributed to this increase. Urbanization generated new economic
activities and created more employment opportunities as well as
provided greater access to modern social amenities.
4.2.1 Concept
The Malaysian Urban Quality of Life Index (MUQLI) was
constructed to measure the changes in the QoL in the urban
areas. MUQLI is a composite measure comprising 12 areas and
29 indicators for the period 1990 to 2000 (Table 4). The
indicators were selected on the basis of their importance and the
availability of data on a timeseries basis, and were assigned
equal weightage.
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Quality of Life
Table 4: Components of Malaysian Quality of Life Index
Area Indicator
Income and Distribution
Real per Capita GNP Gini Coefficient Incidence of Poverty
Working Life Trade Disputes Industrial Accidents
Transport and Communications
Private Motorcars and Motorcycles Public Transports Telephones
Health Infant Mortality Rate Doctor-Population Ratio
Education
Primary School Teacher-Student Ratio Secondary School Teacher-Student Ratio Primary School Average Class Size Secondary School Average Class Size
Housing Average Rental to Household Income Ratio Average Prices of Houses to Household Income
Ratio
Environment River Quality Index Solid Waste per Kapita
Family Life Divorces Household Size
Public Safety Crimes Road Accidents
Community Participation
Registered Voluntary Organizations Rukun Tetangga Members Registered Voters
Culture and Leisure
Library Membership Sports and Recreation Club
Urban Services Expenditure on Social Services Expenditure on Landscaping
4.2.2 Overview
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Quality of Life
MUQLI is calculated on the basis of the urban QoL indices of four
selected cities, namely, Ipoh, Johor Bahru, Kuala Lumpur and
Kuching. The four cities accounted for about 30%of the total
urban population of Malaysia in 2000 (Refer Table 5). The
MUQLI increased by 5.8 points to 105.8 points in 2000,
indicating an improvement in the QoL in urban areas (Table 6).
Table 5: Profile of Selected Urban Areas
State StatusPopulation
(2000 census)Land Area
Main Economic Activities
Ipoh Capital of Perak
451,558 peoples
136.9 sq.km
Trade, Commercial and Industrial activities
Kuantan Capital of Pahang
344,706 peoples
324 sq.km Trade and commercial activities and port services
Kota Kinabalu
Capital of Sabah
305,382 people 344 sq.km Trade and Commercial activities and tourism
Kuala Lumpur
Capital of Malaysia
1,297,526 243 sq.km Trade and Commercial activities, business services, tourism and education
Johor Bharu
Capital of Johor
385,213 185 sq.km Trade, Commercial and Industrial activities and tourism
Kuching Capital of Sarawak
163,846 369 sq. km
Trade, Commercial activities and tourism
Table 6 : MUQLI: Composite Index and Indices by Area, 1990-2000
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Quality of Life
The QoL in urban areas during the period 1990 to 2000
witnessed an improvement as reflected by the upward trend of
the MUQLI. This was mainly due to the significant improvements
in family life, income and distribution, culture and leisure as well
as education. Other areas of QoL that witnessed improvements
were transport and communications health, working life,
housing, urban services and community participation, while the
quality of environment and the state of public safety declined.
The environment index deteriorated as a result of the decline in
the river quality index and the increase in per capita solid waste
collection. The decline in the state of public safety was due to the
rise in crime rates and the number of road accidents. However,
all the four cities recorded an overall improvement in the QoL.
4.3 Malaysia Quality of Life in Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010
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Quality of Life
The Malaysian QoL, as measured by the MQLI, improved during the
1994-2004 period, increasingly by 10.9 points except for public safety
and the environment, all components of the MQLI made good progress.
The improvement in QoL is also reflected in the achievement of all the
Millennium Development Goals ahead of the target of 2015, expect for
HIV/AIDS.
The Millennium Development Goals, as agreed at the United Nations
General Assembly are to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger;
achieve universal primary education; promote gender quality and