Making Wine for Home Use

Making Wine for Home UseKarl L. Wilker, Tavis S. Harris, Marilyn B. Odneal

and Murli R. Dharmadhikari

State Fruit Experiment StationSouthwest Missouri State University

Mountain GroveState Fruit Experiment Station

MS-28 $3.00

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Making Wine for Home UseKarl L. Wilker, Tavis S. Harris, Marilyn B. Odneal

and Murli R. Dharmadhikari

Table of Contents

Overview .................................................................................................................... 2Missouri Wine Grapes .................................................................................................... 6Raw Materials ............................................................................................................... 10Equipment and Supplies ............................................................................................... 12Procedures and Discussion .......................................................................................... 15Making White Wine ....................................................................................................... 21Making Red Wine ......................................................................................................... 24Wine Tasting, Evaluation and Storage ........................................................................... 28

Appendix 1 - ATF Regulations ...................................................................................... 29Appendix 2 - Determination of Titratable Acidity ............................................................ 30Appendix 3 - Weights, Measures, Conversions and Other Useful Information................. 32Appendix 4 - Terminology .............................................................................................. 34Appendix 5 - Sources ................................................................................................... 37Appendix 6 - References .............................................................................................. 39Cellar Notes .................................................................................................................. 40

Published by theState Fruit Experiment Station

of Southwest Missouri State UniversityDepartment of Fruit Science

9740 Red Spring RoadMountain Grove, Missouri 65711-2999

phone: 417-926-4105fax: 417-926-6646

web: http://mtngrv.smsu.edu/

MS-28 $3.00

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Overview

OverviewSome questions may arise if you consider makingwine at home. Is it legal? Is it worth the effort? Arethere a lot of complicated chemical equationsinvolved? Actually, up to one hundred gallons ofwine may be legally produced in a one-adulthousehold, and up to two hundred gallons in a twoor more adult household (Appendix 1). Althoughit may be easier to buy your wine at the store,winemaking is an interesting and understandableprocess that can become a rewarding hobby.Most of all, by making wine for home use, youenjoy the satisfaction of serving your wine tofriends and family and reliving your winemakingadventure over a wonderful dinner.

Wine is traditionally the product of fermentedgrapes. Although wine can be made from otherfruits, this guide deals only with production of tablewines made from grapes. Red and white tablewines range from dry to sweet and have less than14% alcohol.

Making Wine for Home Use is written for thebeginner, therefore, sophisticated laboratoryprocedures are not detailed here. Aging in oakbarrels is not addressed, however the use of oakchips to impart oak character is. The ReferenceSection (Appendix 6) will guide you on to furtherreading. An informative catalog from a reputablesupplier is also a good source of information(Appendix 5).

It is advisable that before you begin to make wineat home, you set up a journal or other recordsystem. A log of your winemaking experiencethrough the years is valuable to your personalimprovement and your value as a resource toothers.

Getting Started. The first decision you need tomake is whether you are going to process fresh orfrozen grapes, or purchase juice or concentrate. Ifyou decide to start with grapes, you will needmore equipment and space. If you are not growingthe grapes yourself, you need to locate a source offresh or frozen grapes. You need about 15 poundsof grapes to yield 1 gallon of juice.

The second decision you need to make is howmuch wine to make. It is legal for a two-adulthousehold to make up to 200 gallons of wine. Ifyou begin with grapes, you will need an outdooror indoor area to process them. You will alsoneed an area to handle and store 3 to 5 galloncontainers of wine during the winemaking processas well as a place to store the bottles of finishedwine. The beginning winemaker is best advised tomake from 5 to 20 gallons of wine and thenexpand from that point if desired.

Once all of the initial decisions are made, you canbegin locating sources, ordering supplies, andfinalizing your home winemaking plans.

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Making Wine for Home Use

The Winemaking Process. Sugar in the grapejuice, through the activity of yeast, is fermented intoalcohol in the wine. The equation for this chemicalchange is: C6H12 O6 2 CH 3 CH 2OH + 2 CO2or literally one molecule of glucose (sugar) isfermented to yield 2 molecules of ethanol (alcohol)and 2 molecules of carbon dioxide gas (bubbles).The alcoholic fermentation also produces heat.

It is necessary to know the level of sugar in thejuice you begin with. Sugar level is measured witheither a hydrometer or a refractometer. Bymultiplying the sugar level (in °Brix) by a factor of0.55, you can estimate the future alcohol level.You want a final alcohol level between 10 and14% for table wines so you need to start out witha juice that has a sugar level from 20 to 24 °Brix.

The first major step in the wine-making process isto extract the juice from the grapes. This step canbe skipped if you begin with purchased fresh juiceor juice from concentrate.

The second majorstep is to fermentthe juice and clarifyand stabilize thewine.

The third major step in winemaking is to bottle thewine and store it properly.

The last step is to evaluate and enjoy your wine.

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Overview

Steps in White Winemaking.

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Steps in Red Winemaking.

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Missouri Wine GrapesMissouri produces a variety of wonderful winesfrom grapes grown in the state. Grapes that areadapted to Missouri include American varietiessuch as Concord, Catawba, Delaware andNorton/Cynthiana and French-American hybridssuch as Chambourcin, Seyval blanc, and Vidalblanc. The vinifera-type grapes grown in Californiaand milder climates are not hardy in Missouri, butthe home winemaker may purchase them as frozengrapes or concentrated juice if so desired.

Missouri grape harvest begins in August and mayextend through early October. The wine grapesdescribed in this section are those recommendedin Growing Fruit for Home Use, a home fruitgrowing guide for Missouri (Appendix 6).Guidelines on harvesting grapes for wineproduction are provided here, in case you want tomake wine from the grapes you grow or purchasefrom a local source.

The Home Vineyard. If you decide to plant asmall vineyard as your source for grapes, you mustfigure out how many vines you will need. Ingeneral, a mature vine will yield from 10 to 15pounds of grapes after it is about 4 years old. Youneed about 15 pounds of grapes to yield 1 gallonof juice. Grapevines are usually spaced apart 8feet within the row with 10 feet between rows. So,if you wish to produce 20 gallons of juice, you willneed about 20 grapevines and about 1,600 squarefeet of suitable planting area.

How to Sample Grapes. When it is getting closeto harvest, early August for some wine grapes insouthern Missouri, you need to collect a berrysample from the vineyard to help determine whento harvest the grapes. It is important that thesample be taken properly, because a small numberof berries must accurately reflect the entire crop.

You must sample each variety of grape separately,even if you plan to blend juice at the end. Take upto 200 berries per sample, equal amounts fromboth sides of each row (e.g., if your rows runnorth and south, take 100 berries from the eastsides of the rows and 100 berries from the westsides of the rows). The berries should be pickedat random, so you can walk down the row andpluck an equal number of berries from each sidewithout looking too closely (try not to “select” onlyripe berries). Put the berries in a plastic bag andbring them to room temperature before sampling.If you will be in the vineyard for a long time, putthe bags of berries in a cooler.

The beginning winemaker may only have theapparatus to sample for sugar. If you use ahydrometer to measure sugar, you will need alarger sample of juice than if you use arefractometer. The more advanced homewinemaker may also test for pH and acidity. If youare just measuring sugar or sugar and pH, you cancrush the berries with your hands by squeezing theplastic bag and then letting the juice run out. If youplan to test for acid as well, extract the juice byprocessing it through a “squeezo” type foodstrainer (photo above) or crush the berries in a

Missouri Wine Grapes

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plastic bag with your hands, strain the juice fromthe pulp in cheesecloth, and then wring out thepulp or pomace in the cheesecloth. Particularlywhen dealing with slip-skin American grapes, it isimportant to crush the berries thoroughly to get anaccurate acid measurement. If you need to storethe berries or the juice in the refrigerator beforeprocessing and/or running tests, you need to bringthem to room temperature before testing.

DeterminingWhen toHarvest.Importantcomponents toconsider whenyou determinewhether thecrop is ready toharvest arecluster integrity,sugar, pH andacid. Beginningwinemakers

often base their harvest decision on clusterintegrity and sugar level alone (photo above -enology technician looking through refractometerto read grape juice sugar level).

A grape cluster of good integrity is not rotting,does not have split berries (which may occur aftera rain), does not have fruit flies and wasps flyingaround it, and is otherwise sound.

Wine grapes, particularly Concord, Catawba andCayuga White, will not usually reach adequatesugar levels (21 - 24 °Brix) in the field, so sugarwill have to be added to the juice. In fact, CayugaWhite is often harvested from 15 to 17 °Brix toavoid the “foxy” labrusca character. Delaware,Chambourcin, Seyval blanc, Vidal blanc, andNorton/Cynthiana may reach these levels. Ifcluster integrity is compromised, however, grapesmust be harvested before the desired sugar level isreached and the juice must be ameliorated with

additional sugar. White grapes should beharvested when the pH is between 3.2 and 3.4and the acid level is between 0.6 and 0.9 g/100mltartaric, whereas red grapes should be harvestedwhen the pH is between 3.3 and 3.5 and the acidlevel is between 0.7 and 0.9 g/100ml tartaric.

How to Harvest Grapes. Harvesting grapes canbe fun if you are prepared and the weathercooperates. You will need grape cutters or pruningshears to cut the bunch from the vine, adhesivebandages and antibiotic ointment in case you cutyourself, comfortable clothing, and clean pickingcontainers. After cutting a bunch of grapes, place itin the picking container; a lug, bushel basket, orother suitable receptacle. Do not throw thebunches down in the picking container becauseyou will break the skins, lose juice, and attractinsects. If you stack the picking containers, makesure the containers on top do not crush the grapesin the containers below. A good plan is to pickgrapes in the morning and process them in theafternoon. If you need to store the grapes beforeprocessing, store them in as cool a place aspossible. Remove rotten berries beforeprocessing.

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Catawba. Catawba isan American Vitislabrusca type grapethat was discovered bythe Catawba river inNorth Carolina. The180-day growingseason in southernMissouri allowsCatawba to ripen fullyand avoid the high acidlevels encountered inother eastern grapegrowing areas.

The pink berries of Catawba are large and theclusters are medium in size. It has the “foxy”labrusca character. The vines are hardy andvigorous with susceptibility to several fungaldiseases including blackrot and downy mildew.Catawba ripens late, a couple of weeks afterConcord.

Catawba is a pink grape that is processed as awhite wine grape. It is not fermented on the skinsso rice hulls are recommended for use inprocessing due to its “slip skin” characteristic. Itmakes a medium bodied, fruity, labrusca wine thatis best made in a sweeter style. The wine is pink toorange in color.

Cayuga White.Cayuga White is ahybrid wine grapereleased from the NewYork AgriculturalExperiment Station atGeneva in 1972.

The clusters and berriesof Cayuga White arelarge and clusterthinning isrecommended. The

vines are vigorous and moderately winter hardywith susceptibility to several fungal diseasesincluding blackrot, downy mildew andanthracnose.

Cayuga White should be harvested at about 15 to17 degrees Brix sugar level in Missouri for thebest quality wine. It is usually picked about twoweeks before Concord.

Cayuga White makes an excellent white wine. Ithas nice, fruity (citrus) notes and could bedescribed as Germanic (Reisling-like) in style. It islight bodied and light green in color.

Chambourcin.Chambourcin is aFrench-Americanhybrid blue-black winegrape with beautifullarge loose clusters ofmedium size berries.The vines should becluster thinned.

The vine is low tomoderately vigorousand is reliably hardyonly in southernMissouri. Chambourcin is susceptible to severalfungal diseases including powdery mildew and, toa lesser extent, downy mildew. Chambourcinripens about the same time as Concord.

Chambourcin is processed as a red wine grapeand is fermented on the skins. Chambourcinmakes a good dry red wine, medium in body andfruitiness, possibly with some subdued berrynotes. The wine color is medium red.

Missouri Wine Grapes

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Concord. The widelyadaptable Concordgrape was selectedfrom the wild in the1840s in Concord,Massachusetts. ThisAmerican Vitislabrusca has thecharacteristic foxiness

associated with labrusca grapes.

Concord has medium size clusters of large berries.Uneven ripening of the berries can be a problem.The vines are very winter hardy and vigorous.They are also quite disease resistant and notattractive to birds, therefore, well-suited to arbors.Concord ripens in late August/early September atMountain Grove in south-central Missouri.

Concord is fermented on the skins, asrecommended for red wine grapes. Since it isfermented on the skins, it does not need rice hullsin processing even though it is a “slip skin”labrusca type. Concord is best made into asweeter style wine that is fruity and candy-like. Toachieve this style, after fermentation on the skins, itshould then be processed as a white wine.Concord is medium in body and is deep blue-purple in color.

Delaware. TheDelaware grape wasfound in DelawareCounty in Ohio in theearly 1800s. Delawareis an American typegrape but does nothave much of thelabrusca foxiness.

The fruit clusters aresmall with small pinkberries that are veryattractive to birds.Delaware vines arevigorous and hardy and are somewhat susceptible

to downy mildew. Delaware ripens early, abouttwo weeks before Concord.

Delaware is a pink grape that is processed as awhite wine grape and is not fermented on theskins. Delaware may require the use of rice hulls inprocessing due to its “slip skin” labrusca trait. Ofthe labrusca types (Catawba, Concord), it has thebest fruity notes and the least labrusca character.The wine is pink to white in color.

Norton/Cynthiana.Norton/Cynthiana is anAmerican grape, Vitisaestivalis, and wasfound in 1835 nearRichmond Virginia.Sometimes calledVirginia seedling, it isthe premium wine grapein Missouri. There issome controversy as tothe name. Some call thegrape Norton andothers Cynthiana, butmost consider both oneand the same.

The medium-sized clusters with small blue-blackberries are attractive to birds in some years.Norton/Cynthiana is very hardy and extremelyvigorous and often must be trained to a high-vigor,divided canopy training system. It is one of themost disease resistant grape varieties, with someresistance even to blackrot. Norton/Cynthiana isthe latest ripening grape in Missouri, about two tothree weeks after Concord.

Norton/Cynthiana is processed as a red wine andis fermented on the skins. Norton makes a dry redwine that is medium in body with some fruityovertones. It is very dark in color. Norton shouldbe used to make a younger style wine. Due to itshigh pH, high acid nature, it is not recommendedfor long aging (much longer than a year) by homewinemakers.

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Seyval blanc. Seyvalblanc is a French-American hybrid grapewith large green clustersand medium sizeberries. Clusterthinning isrecommended.

The vines aremoderately vigorousand moderately hardy.Seyval is susceptible to

fungal diseases including powdery mildew andbunches are susceptible to rot. Seyval blanc ripensabout two weeks before Concord.

Seyval blanc is processed as a white wine and isnot fermented on the skins. Seyval makes a goodall purpose neutral crisp white wine that is light tomedium in body. It is light green to straw in color.

Vidal blanc. Vidalblanc is a French-American hybrid grape.It has large clusters ofmedium to small sizeberries with small russetdots on them. Vinesshould be clusterthinned.

The vines aremoderately winterhardy and susceptibleto several fungus diseases including powderymildew and anthracnose. Vidal blanc is harvestedabout a week or two before Concord. Theclusters resist rot and can stay on the vine for alonger period of time compared to Seyval blanc.

Vidal blanc is processed as a white wine grapeand is not fermented on the skins. Vidal blancmakes a very good white wine with fruity andfloral notes. It can be describes as “Germanic” instyle and is light green to straw in color.

Raw MaterialsThe quality of the raw materials has a direct effecton the quality of the finished product. If you beginwith grapes, they should be free of rot. The sugar,pH, and acid levels of the pressed juice, if notalready in the desired range, need to be adjusted.Purchase fresh yeast and bacteria cultures andstore them properly. Bacteria cultures should bestored in the freezer and the yeast should bestored in the refrigerator. Dates that the materialshould be used by are stamped on packets by themanufacturer. Out-of-date materials should not beused.

Mark the date that you received your chemicalson the label. Make note of the shelf-life if thisinformation is available. Store chemicals in closedcontainers, in a cool, dry place.

Grapes, Juice or Concentrate. The mostimportant supply for any winemaker is, of course,grapes or juice. Are you going to grow your owngrapes? Are you purchasing fresh grapes inseason? Are you purchasing fresh juice? You canalso use frozen grapes or concentrates. Certainvarieties of grapes are readily available inMissouri, whereas others, if desired, must bepurchased out-of-state.

If you grow your own grapes, you need tomeasure the initial sugar level of the juice. Youshould also measure pH and acid if you have theresources. If you purchase fresh grapes, freshjuice, or frozen grapes, you may be able to get thisinformation from the seller. A concentrate willhave a set of instructions included that will directyou to dilute the juice to a sugar level consistentwith the wine you wish to make. It is advisable touse a yeast nutrient (e.g., diammonium phosphateor DAP) to promote yeast growth andfermentation when you are using juice fromconcentrate.

Missouri Wine Grapes / Raw Materials

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Rice Hulls.Slip skinlabrusca grapesthat areprocessed as awhite wine (notfermented onthe skins) willyield more juiceif crushed with

the addition of rice hulls.

Rice hulls are usually sold in 1 pound lots by homewinemaking suppliers. One pound of rice hullsshould be enough for about 200 pounds of grapes.

Sugar. Another raw material that can be veryuseful is sugar. Adding sugar to the juice is not anuncommon industry practice in the East, and willcause the finished wine to have a higher alcoholcontent. The formula for adding sugar is detailed in“Procedures and Discussion” under sugaradjustment formula. By measuring the initial juicesugar level, the winemaker can calculate howmuch sugar to add to end up at a given alcohollevel in the wine (multiply °Brix of sugar by 0.55 toestimate the final alcohol level). These estimatesare subject to some error, but they generate aballpark figure and can be used to produce aconsistent level of alcohol from year to year fromgrapes in which the natural sugars will vary.

Yeast. Second to grapes, the most important livecomponent of winemaking is the yeast, a type offungus. Without yeast, the sugar will not turn toalcohol and the juice will not turn into wine.Grapes often have wild strains of yeast on the skinsurface when harvested, and these will eventuallybegin to ferment if left uncontrolled. These yeastsmay or may not be desirable, so winemakers addsulfur dioxide to control wild yeast and later add acertain dosage of wine yeast to ferment the juice.

Active dry wine yeast typically comes in a 5 grampacket which is enough to ferment 5 gallons ofjuice. Yeast can be purchased in larger packages

as well. Store yeast in the refrigerator and beaware of the expiration date stamped on thepackage. Wine yeast is available in wine and beersupply stores and catalogs.

Malolactic Bacteria. Malolactic bacteriaconvert malic acid to lactic acid during malolacticfermentation (MLF). MFL is an optional step inthe production of red wines that results in reducedacidity (desirable in high acid wine), higher pH,and greater flavor complexity.

Some commercially available bacteria cultures canbe added directly to the wine to initiate malolacticfermentation. The cultures come in packets. Thepacket should be stored in the freezer.

Chemicals. Chemicals of various types can beadded to the wine either to clarify it or to preventspoilage. This guide only presents a few of themost common wine chemicals and their purpose.For specific dosing or usage, please consult themanufacturer, supplier, and where applicable theMaterial Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) - This chemical is added tothe wine to stop bacteriological activity, to inhibityeast growth, and as an antioxidant. A certainamount of SO2 is necessary to prevent wine

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spoilage and oxidation, but too much can lead tosulfur off-flavors and off-odors. Potassiummetabisulfite is 58% SO2. Free SO2 is the activeform in the wine.

Bentonite - This clay material is mixed with waterinto a slurry and added to the finished wine toprecipitate proteins.

Enzymes - Various pectic enzymes can be usedimmediately after crushing the grapes to promotethe settling of the juice before initial racking inwhites. In red wines, enzymes can also work tomaximize color extraction.

Diammonium phosphate (DAP) - A yeastnutrient that promotes yeast growth and activity.

Others - The array of other possible additivesand clarifying agents is too long to list here. Takesome time to look at a wine supply catalog if youneed help with a specific problem. Also, be sure tohave cleaning supplies on hand for your containersand bottles, again making sure that all cleaners arefood safe.

Equipment and SuppliesThe equipment necessary for home winemakingwill vary greatly depending on several factors.First of all, how many grapes will be processedannually? Hand stemming enough grapes for a 5-gallon batch is more realistic than hand stemmingfor a 50-gallon batch. Secondly, how much of afinancial investment will be made in winemaking?How much space and time do you have? Somepieces of equipment would make the job quickerand easier, but may be impractical for the homewinemaker due to size, cost, or the need forfacility improvements (220 volt outlets, aircompressors, etc.)

The beginning winemaker definitely needs ahydrometer (or refractometer) to measure initialsugar level. Fermentation containers, fermentationlocks, racking supplies, cleaning supplies andbottles are also necessary.

Stemmer Crusher (photo left). The first step inmaking wine is to get the juice out of the grape.You need to remove the stems from the berries, byhand or machine, to prevent the absorption of off-flavors from the stems into the wine duringfermentation. After removing the stems, the grapesneed to be lightly crushed to free the juice from theberries. They should not be ground to a pastebecause undesirable components will be releasedfrom the seeds. Splitting the berry, however, isnecessary to facilitate juice extraction orfermentation on the skins.

These processes can be performed by hand onsmaller batches, but for larger batches and toprocess the grapes easily, a commercial crusher orstemmer/ crusher is recommended.

Raw Materials / Equipment and Supplies

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Wine Press (photo left).The other major investmentthat might be needed is awine press. The function of apress is to separate the liquidfraction from any seeds, pulp,and remaining stems. Forwhite wines this is done priorto fermentation, and for redwines it is done immediatelyafter fermentation. Again, forsmall batches a little ingenuitycan save money. A fewcontainers, some food safescreening material, and a wayto apply pressure is all that isneeded. However, if the

funding is available, or the mechanical ability is not,then there are a wide variety of presses availablefrom suppliers; from simple screw type basketpresses to more complex bladder presses ofdifferent designs. Choose the press that will best fityour facility and the size of your production.

Containers. Containers, either food gradeplastic, stainless steel, or glass, will be necessary.Glass carboys (photo lower right - top row center,bottom row left) are available in a wide range ofsizes and are great for white wine fermentation, aswell as for racking, storing, and fining both red andwhite wines. Fermentation locks seal air out whileallowing fermentation gases to escape. Red winesare typically fermented in larger tubs (photo lowerright - top row left) or containers rather thanmultiple carboys. They require “punching-down”(mixing) which promotes even skin contact andhelps remove built up gases and heat. Again, youcan be somewhat creative, but bear in mind onlyfood grade plastics and other materials should beused. If in doubt, consult the manufacturer, orobtain your containers from a food supply or winesupply facility.

Don’t forget that you are going to need bottles foryour finished wine. Standard bottles are 750 ml but

both larger and smaller sizes are available. You willalso need bottle closures, either cork or screw cap,depending on yourpreference.

FermentationLocks (photo right).Fermentation locks orair locks are fittedinto a stopper that fitson the top of yourfermentationcontainer. Even redwines that arefermented in a large,open-mouthedcontainer, will betransferred to a 3 or5 gallon glass carboyand fitted with a fermentation lock. The locks aredesigned in different ways, but all hold a column ofwater between the wine and the outside air. Thelock in the photo is shaped something like a sinktrap. Water is trapped in the middle allowing thegas to escape from the wine but not allowing

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outside air to get in. Yeast, mold and bacteria canbecome trapped in this water. Care should beused when removing fermentation locks fromcarboys so that contaminated water does not leakinto the wine. It is important to keep thefermentation locks clean and sanitized during thefermentation.

Analytical Equipment. Analytical equipment isused by commercial winemakers for qualitycontrol and to determine the overall condition ofthe wine. While most of the laboratory equipmentis unnecessary for the average home winemaker, afew items are useful.

A balance of some form may be necessary tomeasure out chemicals for addition to the wine,although some chemicals are available in tabletform for home winemakers.

A hydrometer (photo left)or a refractometer isneeded to measure theinitial sugar content of thejuice. This will allow thewinemaker to estimate thealcohol of the finished wine.A residual sugar kit maybe used for monitoring thedryness of the wine and theend of fermentation.

A pH meter may be useful to measure the pH ofthe juice or wine. A total acidity laboratory kitwill allow you measure the acidity of the juice orwine.

Kits for determination of free SO2 are availablefrom winemaking suppliers and serve to take theguesswork out of the amount of SO2 neededduring the winemaking process.

If you are making red wine and decide to performa secondary malolactic fermentation, achromatography kit is available to monitor thefermentation and to determine when it is complete.

Miscellaneous Equipment. Miscellaneous itemsthat are necessary include food grade tubing,graduated cylinders, and beakers/cups. Theseitems are used to transfer the wine, to make stocksolutions, or to take measurements. Athermometer is needed to make sure proceduresare carried out at the recommended temperature.A spare refrigerator is very useful to control thetemperature for cold stabilization and/orfermentation.

A wine thief(photo right) isa handy toolthat extracts asmall amount ofwine or juicefrom a carboyfor analysis. Itis a hollow tubewith holes atboth ends.Insert the winethief into thecontainer ofjuice or wine,plug the hole at the top with your finger, and youhave a juice or wine sample. Be sure to clean thewine thief before and after use as well as betweensamples with a sulfur dioxide sanitizing solution.

You will also need some cleaning suppliesincluding brushes, buckets, and towels. Rubbergloves, protective eyewear, ear protection, andrespirators may be needed when working withcertain chemicals or pieces of machinery. Theitems you need depend on the materials andequipment you use. Make sure you follow all thesafety precautions of the manufacturer and/orsupplier.

Cleaning Agents. The main purpose of cellarhygiene is to prevent the contamination of thewine/juice by microorganisms as well as toproduce a superior product. The goal is to remove

Equipment and Supplies / Procedures and Discussion

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soil and spoilage microorganisms from equipment.Remember, wine is a food product, so don’t usecleaners that cannot be effectively rinsed orremoved or contamination may occur. Observe allsafety rules and labels/MSDS sheets to protectyourself and prevent mixing incompatiblechemicals.

A general-use sanitizing solution of potassiummetabisulfite (to yield a concentration ofapproximately 200 mg/L SO2) and citric acid (toreduce pH to 3.0) can easily be prepared.Approximately ¼ level teaspoon of potassiummetabisulfite per gallon of water will yield 230ppm SO2. The amount of citric acid necessary willvary based on water pH (a pH meter or a pH testpaper can be used to measure the pH of yourwater).

Some things may be effectively cleaned withsteam, hot water, or regular soap and water in thesink or dishwasher. Screw caps or other smallitems can be soaked in hot water or boiled forsanitization.

There are also a number of commercial alkalinecleaners available specifically for use in thebrewing, winemaking, or dairy industries. Thesecleaners are designed to thoroughly clean yet beeasily removed by rinsing leaving little to noresidue. Contact a supply house for moreinformation.

For your safety, make sure you are protected withgloves, goggles, and apron when recommended.Make sure you properly use and dispose ofcleaners. If you are working in a garage with nofloor drain, consider using a small plasticswimming pool or tub to wash in so the cleaningsolution is not washed out into the street or aneighbor’s yard becoming a hazard to people oranimals. Again your supplier will be able to helpyou with concerns you may have.

Procedures and DiscussionMany of the procedures discussed in this sectionshould be carried out at certain temperatures.Note the temperature of the surroundings and/orsolutions to make sure procedures are carried outas recommended.

It is also important to measure and weigh outmaterials correctly with measuring spoons and/oran accurate balance or a digital scale. The Weightsand Measures section (Appendix 3) will help youdetermine amounts. Most of the kits and chemicalsyou buy for home winemaking will have thedetailed instructions included either on the label oron a separate paper. Keep the instructions in asafe place and make sure labels do not becomedamaged. Clear packing tape applied overchemical labels will keep them clean and dry.

Remember to keep records of how much materialyou add to each container of wine and when youperform a particular procedure. It is a good ideato put masking tape on each carboy or containerof wine and note each treatment and date on thetape. Remembering what you did to a particularbatch may not seem difficult, but you may besurprised and confused later on if you don’trecord the procedures your performed.

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Measuring Sugar Level. It is necessary tomeasure the sugar level of the juice you plan tomake into wine. The initial sugar level may or may

not be adequate to produce the alcohol leveldesired in the finished wine, and additional sugarmay be needed. The percent sugar in the juice, forall practical purposes, is the degrees Brix. Youneed the following equipment to measure sugarlevel:

1. A hydrometer calibrated to read sugar levelsfrom 0 to about 30°Brix (also called asacchrometer).

(A hydrometer measures the specific gravity of aliquid on the Brix scale).

2. A graduated cylinder or a long glass tube inwhich to put the juice and the hydrometer.

3. A thermometer.

The procedure is as follows. Please note thathydrometers are calibrated to a particulartemperature, usually 68°F. You must compensatefor differences in temperature. A compensationtable will probably be included with yourhydrometer.

1. Fill the graduated cylinder or glass tube withyour sample of juice. Make sure the juice is atroom temperature (68°F) or make temperaturecorrections.

2. Insert the hydrometer and spin it by twisting thetop of it. Wait for it to stabilize.

3. Read the sugar level in degrees Brix at thebottom of the meniscus or the “cup” at the top ofthe liquid level in the tube (drawing left).

A refractometer may be used to measure the sugarlevel instead of a hydrometer. A refractometermeasures the amount the juice can bend lightpassing through it and translates the amount ofrefraction to the Brix scale at room temperature.The advantage of using a refractometer is that youdo not require as much juice to read a sample asyou do with a hydrometer. It is useful for a homegrape grower who must determine when toharvest several cultivars of grapes and mustprocess several samples prior to harvest.

Sugar Adjustment Formula. Adding sugar tothe juice will cause the finished wine to have ahigher alcohol content if fermented dry. Bymeasuring the initial juice sugar level, thewinemaker can calculate how much sugar to addto ultimately end up at a given alcohol level. Thesecalculations are subject to some error, given thatnot all solids in the juice are fermentable sugars,but they provide the ability to control alcohol levelwithin a reasonable amount.

The formula to use is:S=0.125(v)(B-A)

Where S = the amount of sugar in pounds to add

Procedures and Discussion

17


0.125 = the amount of sugar in pounds needed toraise 1 gallon of juice 1 Brix degree

v = the volume of juice in gallons

B=desired final Brix value in degrees (usually 22)

A=current measured Brix value in degrees

For example: Your juice measures 17.5 ° Brix, andyou have 10 gallons of juice.

You want a final Brix of 22 °. So,S=0.125(10)(22-17.5) or S=5.625 lbs.This means you need to add just less than 6pounds of sugar to your juice prior to fermentationto get the desired Brix level.

Sugar can also be added to a finished dry wineimmediately prior to serving. This will allow you toenjoy a sweeter style of wine without some of theproblems of storing a wine containing sugar.Approximately 7.5 grams (about 2 levelteaspoons) of sugar needs to be added to a 750ml bottle to yield the equivalent of 1% residualsugar. Higher residual sugar levels can be achievedsimply by adding more sugar. Make sure not tooverfill the bottle as you add the sugar, or you mayhave to pour the wine into a larger carafe forserving. Sweet wines commonly have residualsugars in the 1-4% range, but certain wines mayhave levels much higher.

Care should be taken to keep unpreserved sweetwines refrigerated to avoid re-fermentation and thepossible buildup of gas and explosion of the winebottle. This is especially dangerous with a partiallyfull bottle secured with a screw cap. These winesshould be consumed within hours of beingsweetened.

pH and Acidity. The pH and acidity are veryimportant characteristics of wine, but the beginnermay not be equipped to measure them.

The pH is the concentration of positive hydrogenions in solution. The more H+ ions, the more acid

the solution. The pH scale goes from 1 to 14,where 7 is neutral, above 7 is basic and below 7 isacidic. The pH of juice for wines should bebetween 3.2 and 3.5. pH is difficult to change andit is best if you begin with a juice with a pH in thedesired range. pH is important in maintainingmicrobial stability, so the wine doesn’t spoil. pH ismeasured on a meter at room temperature or atthe temperature specified on the equipment. ThepH meter must be calibrated using buffer solutionsof pH 4 and pH 7 (or as specified by themanufacturer).

The acidity level is the amount of tartaric, malic,lactic and citric acids in the wine. Acidity isexpressed as grams per liter of tartaric acid sincetartaric is the major acid in wine. Juice for wineshould have acid levels between 0.6 - 0.9 grams/100 ml tartaric (0.6 - 0.9% Total Acidity). Acidityis important since it balances sweetness in thewine. A wine will be flat with too low an acid levelor sour with too high an acid level. Acidity in winesis measured by performing an acid-base titration.A known amount of juice is diluted in distilledwater and a known concentration of base (sodiumhydroxide) is used to titrate (measured amountsmixed into the sample at intervals) to an end point,shown by a phenolphthalein indicator or a pHmeter. Once the endpoint is reached, the amountof base used to reach the endpoint can be insertedinto a formula that will calculate the amount of acidbased on tartaric acid. (See Determination ofTitratable Acidity, Appendix 2.)

Sulfur Addition. The use of SO2 is necessary inthe production of wine to control oxidation and thegrowth of microorganisms capable of spoilingwine. The lower the pH of a wine, the moreeffective SO2 will be in controllingmicroorganisms. The addition of too much SO2,however, can result in the aroma of a burnt matchwhich also gives a burning sensation to the nose.The lower the pH of a wine, the greater thechance the wine will give off an offensive burningodor for a given level of SO2 (the SO2 becomesmore volatile).

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Trying to determine how much SO2 to add to awine without measuring the amount alreadypresent is a guessing game. SO2 is used up as itcontrols oxidation, and as wine is exposed tooxygen during handling (racking, bottling), it needsto be replaced. During the yeast fermentation, theSO2 added to the must is no longer available andneeds to be replaced once the fermentation ofsugar is complete. The addition of SO2 to a mustthat is fermenting is not advisable and will result inthe SO2 being quickly bound to compounds beingproduced. In general, red wines need less SO2 toprotect them from oxidation as the compoundsthat give red wine its color and astringency alsohelp protect it from oxygen. Also, when a red wineis put through malolactic fermentation, some of theSO2 that was bound to other compounds will bereleased and available again as free SO2. SO2additions that occur after the first one made at thecompletion of the yeast fermentation (50 ppm forwhite wine at the first racking and 30 ppm for redwine at racking following malolactic fermentation)will be based on guessing and experience unlessone analyzes for available (free) SO2.

Home winemakers add SO2 in the form ofpotassium metabisulfite (58% SO2). Potassiummetabisulfite is available as a powder or in tabletform which can be directly added to the wine orjuice. If using the powdered form, it should bedissolved in water first. A 1/4 teaspoon will supplyenough SO2 to five gallons of wine to raise theSO2 level about 40 to 45 ppm. This amount ofSO2 should be dissolved in about 25 ml of water.Care should be taken when handling potassiummetabisulfite and the use of a respiratorappropriate for this compound is suggested.Potassium metabisulfite should be kept dry andreplaced every year or two. Older stocks of thiscompound can be used to make sanitizingsolutions where the actual SO2 concentration isnot critical. Tablets may be also be used to addSO2. Note that some tablets must be crushedbefore using.

Yeast Addition. Wineyeast is available inseveral strains, usuallyin 5 gram packagesenough to inoculate 5gallons of juice.

Re-hydrate the yeast bysuspending it in 10times its weight ofwater (e.g., 5 g yeast in50 ml water) at 104°F.

Stir lightly, wait 15 minutes, then stir again.

If adding to cool (60°F) white juice, add the warmyeast/water mixture to an equal volume of juice tobe fermented over a period of 5 minutes to reducethe chances of a cold temperature shock to theyeast (atemperation step). It is important to have atemperature difference of less than 18°F betweenthe yeast starter mixture and the bulk must you areadding it to. This atemperation step may berepeated when working with a cooler must(temperature closer to 50 than 60°F).

MeasuringResidualSugar. Theability tomeasure thedryness of awine (theamount offermentablesugars) is avaluable toolfor the home winemaker. Kits (Clinitest, formerlyDextrocheck, see photo above) are available todetect reducing sugars in wine down to the 0.1 to0.2% level. This level of residual sugar is generallyregarded as being low enough to bottle without theuse of a preservative (sorbic acid) or sterilefiltration to keep yeast from causing a re-fermentation in the bottle. Re-fermentation in thebottle can result in clouding of the wine, off odors,gas bubbles, and the possibility of bottle breakage

Procedures and Discussion

19


if enough sugar is present. The sugar testing kitswill only measure reducing sugars (primarilyglucose and fructose in wine) with sucrose, a non-reducing sugar, going undetected. Sucrose addedto the must will be readily converted into glucoseand fructose by grape and yeast enzymes. Afterthe alcoholic fermentation and fining withbentonite, wine will usually have very little of theseenzymes available. Under these conditions, theconversion of sucrose into glucose and fructose isdependent on the low pH of wine and can takeseveral months or longer. A dry, dark red wine willtend to register higher reducing sugar levels than adry white wine due to the reducing properties ofthe red pigments.

Racking.Racking is theprocess ofmoving thewine from onecontainer toanother, leavingbehindsediments. Thejuice/wine willneed to beracked severaltimes. The firstracking for white wine will be after the pressedjuice has settled. The first racking for red wine istypically a day after pressing, after small solidssettle out of solution.

You will need about 6 feet of food grade tubing(3/8 or ½”), a table or stool, and containers. Youshould have enough hose to reach from thebottom of your full container to the bottom ofyour empty container while the full container is ona table or stool.

Begin with the full (source) container on the table,the bottom positioned at a higher level than theneck of the empty (collection) container on thefloor. Put the hose into the source container belowthe surface and create suction to move the wine

into the hose. One way to do this is to loop thehose into a “U” shape and fill the lower half of the“U” with clean water. Take one end of the hoseand put it in the full container (do not dump thewater into the wine). Lower the free end of thehose into a catch bucket and allow the water todrain, sucking the wine shortly behind. Keep thesource end of the hose submerged. After clearingthe water from the hose, crimp the free end tostop the flow of wine, insert the free end into thecollection container, and release.

Position the hose slightly above the sedimentsurface in the source container, trying not todisturb the sediment layer. Towards the end of theracking, you may tip the source container to createa deeper pool to draw from. On the collectionend, the hose should be below wine surface forwhite wines (to prevent oxidation). For red wines,allowing the hose stay above the wine surface ofthe collection container, letting the wine splash out,will aerate the wine. Aeration can improve redwines destined for longer aging.

Fining. Fining agents are added to wines toclarify, stabilize, and/or improve quality. Whitewines usually need fining with bentonite, andsometimes require further fining. Red wines oftendo not need fining. The use of fining agents isdetermined on a case by case basis. Fining agentscommonly used include the following:

Bentonite - to remove protein haze and stabilizefor future protein haze problems in the bottle.Many wines will clear in their own given time, butmay be prone to producing a haze in the future.

Sparkalloid - to help clarify.

Isinglass - helps to clear and soften wines andunmask fruit flavor.

Gelatin - to remove astringency and harshness.

The use of fining agents usually results in theformation of sediment that requires racking andresults in the loss of wine volume.

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Malolactic Fermentation. Malolacticfermentation (MLF) is the fermentation of malicacid into lactic acid and carbon dioxide bymalolactic bacteria. MLF is an optional step inthe production of red wine that reduces acidity(desirable in high acid wines), raises pH, adds toflavor complexity, and is thought to contribute tobiological stability against further growth ofmalolactic bacteria. Direct addition cultures ofmalolactic bacteria can be purchased and addeddirectly to the wine after the yeast fermentation.

Things that promote malolactic fermentationinclude:

addition of a bacteria starter culture

low sulfur dioxide (limit sulfur dioxide additionsto 30 ppm added to the crushed grapes at thebeginning of the yeast fermentation)

temperature above 64°F

pH above 3.2

ethanol levels lower than 14%

Malolactic fermentations can be monitoredthrough the use of a paper chromatography kit(photo above left) that tracks the appearance oflactic acid and the disappearance of malic acid.The carbon dioxide bubbles given off as part ofthe breakdown can be used as a less accurateindicator of an ongoing malolactic fermentation,however residual carbon dioxide from the yeastfermentation can result in false positives.

Oak Treatment. The use of oak barrels for theaging of wine on a home winemaking scale is notrecommended due to the costs and logistics ofusing oak barrels with small volumes of wine. Oakextractives can be added to wine through the useof oak chips. A suggested rate for chip addition is4 to 7 gramsper gallon. Thechips should beleft in the winefor 1 to 3weeks. Afterthe removal ofthe chips byracking, bottlingshould bedelayed for three to four weeks to allow for theprecipitation of ellagic acid. Ellagic acid isextracted from the oak and is unstable in wine.

Oak treatment can be used for red wines, althoughit is not usually recommended for Concord. Seyvalblanc, a white wine, may be a candidate for oaktreatment.

Cleaning and Sanitation.Several materials areavailable from homewinemaker suppliers forcleaning and sanitizingwinemaking surfaces.Rinsing bottles before theyare allowed to dry willmake them much easier toclean. Bottles and glass

carboys can be sanitized by rinsing with a solutionof 200 mg/L SO2 and enough citric acid to lowerthe pH of the solution to 3.0 or slightly less (a pHmeter or pH test paper will help determine waterpH). Winery equipment should be cleaned andsanitized after a 1 to 2 hour delay in processingbecause microorganisms can readily increase innumber in grape juice (contamination onequipment) and dilute grape juice (after partialcleaning).

Procedures and Discussion / Making White Wine

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Making White WineThe basic steps involved in making white wine aredetailed in this section. Briefly, the process beginswith cool grapes or concentrated juice. If usingconcentrate, follow the instructions provided. Ifusing grapes, start with cool, ripe, clean fruit.Remove the berries from the stems and crush.Press the juice out of the crushed berries and treatthe juice with SO2 and pectic enzyme. Collect thejuice in a glass carboy and keep the juice cool andallow to settle overnight. Adjust the sugar level ifneeded and add yeast to ferment the juice. Whenfermentationhas ceased andthe yeast havesettled at thebottom, theresidual sugar ischecked andthe wine isracked(siphoned) offof the lees. Add50 ppm SO2 after fermentation and racking.Clarify the wine with bentonite (clay) and stabilizeit through a cold treatment. Add 15 - 25 ppmSO2. Rack 1 - 2 more times as needed and thenbottle. Serve at 50 - 60 degrees F. Wine may besweetened with sugar to taste at serving.

The entire process from fruit to bottle should takeabout 4 to 5 months.

White Wine Grape Processing. The winegrapes should be cool (40 - 50°F) before they areprocessed. The home winemaker may not find thisto be practical, but one should try to work withfruit as cool as possible. The fruit should be cleanand free of rot. Discard any rotten or unripe fruitas needed.

The next step is to destem and crush the grapes. Ifyou crush the grapes without removing them fromthe stem, you may produce wine that has anundesirable “stemmy” taste. You should also avoid

crushing the seeds. You can use a mechanizedcrusher or stemmer/crusher for speed, but forsmaller lots, you can destem and crush manually.

You will need a press to properly dejuice thecrushed grapes.

Juice Processing for White Wine. Once thejuice is pressed, add 50 ppm SO2 to control thegrowth of microorganisms (bacteria and yeast)and to reduce oxidation which causes browning.After thoroughly mixing SO2, add pectic enzymeto help clarify the juice. The juice can be stored ina glass container (3 to 5 gallon carboy) with afermentation lock to keep air out while allowingcarbon dioxide to escape. Fill the container as fullas possible.

Settling White Grape Juice. Let the juice settleovernight at a cool temperature between 40 and50°F. A spare refrigerator will work for thispurpose and will improve the chances of insolublematerial settling out because the lower temperaturereduces “wild”yeast activityand thereforethe “turbulence”associated withit.

Wines madefrom settledjuice tend tohave a cleaner,fruitier aromathan winesmade from unsettled juice. Rack the juice off ofthe sediment into a clean fermentation containerwith an airlock. For fermentation purposes, thecontainer can be as full as 75 to 80% when usinglow foaming commercial yeast intended forwinemaking. The exclusion of air is not as criticalat this stage as it is in a finished wine because thewine yeast used in the controlled fermentation willutilize the oxygen.

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White Wine Fermentation. Fermentation is theprocess where the yeast metabolize sugar andproduce alcohol. The sugar content should beraised to between 20 and 22% (°Brix) if

necessary. Brix levelsare determined with ahydrometer orrefractometer. Canesugar from the grocerystore can be used.

Warm the juice to 60°Fbefore adding the yeast.The addition of a yeast

nutrient to promote yeast growth is optional. Usecommercially available dried yeast intended forwine production. Re-hydrate the yeast bysuspending it in 10 times its weight of water(1 gram water = 1 milliliter water) at 104°F. Stirlightly, wait 15 minutes, and then stir again. Addthe warm yeast/water mixture to an equal volumeof juice to be fermented over a period of 5minutes to reduce the chances of a coldtemperature shock to the yeast (atemperationstep). It is important to have a temperaturedifference of less than 18°F between the yeaststarter mixture and the bulk must you are adding itto. This atemperation step can be repeated whenworking with a cooler must (temperature closer to50 than 60°F).

Allow the must (juice and yeast) to sit overnight atroom temperature (68-76°F) before reducing thetemperature to 55-60°F for the fermentation. Aspare refrigerator will work well for this purpose.A special thermostat, available from home-brewing supply stores, may be necessary tocontrol a refrigerator in the 55 to 60°F range. Acool temperature is necessary to control thefermentation and produce a fruity and delicatewine. Fermenting in a cool basement may givesimilar results.

Racking White Wine. Check the end of thefermentation by measuring residual sugar. A whitewine should have a residual sugar level of 0.2% or

less. Visual signs that the fermentation is over are aslowing in the release of carbon dioxide and asettling of the yeast.

The siphoning hose should be kept below thesurface of the wine when racking to excludeoxygen as much as possible. Oxygen contact fromthis point on generally has a negative affect onwhite wine quality. Fifty parts per million (50 ppm)SO2 should be added to the wine once it hasfinished fermenting (residual sugar of 0.2% or less)and has been racked.

Clarification and Stabilization of White Wine.Clarification can be achieved by the addition ofbentonite at a rate of 1 to 2 grams/gallon. This willusually clear most white wines and provide adegree of protein stability.

After bentonite is added, the wine can be held atapproximately 32°F for about two weeks to coldstabilize. If both clarification and cold stabilizationare done at the same time, the wine will only haveto be racked once to remove both sediments. Aspare refrigerator can be used to cold stabilize thewine. If the wine is not cold stabilized, it will beprone to the formation of potassium bitartratecrystals (cream of tartar) in the bottle. Thesecrystals are more of a cosmetic problem than oneof taste.

Making White Wine

23


After cold stabilization, the wine should beallowed to come to room temperature (60 to70°F) before racking off the sediment. Racking ata higher temperature reduces oxygen pickup at theexpense of re-dissolving potassium bitartratecrystals. After each racking, add 15 to 25 ppmSO2.

Sweetening of White Wine. White wines areoften made into a sweet style. This is most readilydone by the home winemaker by the addition ofsugar to the finished wine. Wine bottled with sugarand not intended for immediate consumption willneed to contain a preservative such as sorbic acidto prevent secondary fermentation by yeast.Secondary fermentation in a bottled wine can leadto cloudiness, gassiness, off odors and theexplosion of the bottles. Sorbic acid, usuallyadded as potassium sorbate, inactivates but doesnot kill yeast. The wine should have a relativelylow population of yeast (brilliantly clear). Theeffectiveness of sorbate is enhanced by thepresence of ethanol (greater than 10%) and freeSO2. If SO2 and ethanol are at the proper levels,sorbate additions in the range of 200 to 250 ppmare suggested. Sorbate has some sensoryproperties and may be objectionable to some winedrinkers at the levels used in wines. Sorbate haslittle activity against bacteria. Lactic acid bacteriacan degrade sorbate, producing a compound thathas a strong off odor (geraniums) associated withit. Considering all the pros and cons of sorbateusage, home winemakers are best advised tosweeten their wines immediately prior toconsumption if a non-dry wine is desired, ratherthan to store a sweet wine preserved with sorbate.

Bottling of White Wine. As long as clean,disease-free fruit is used and proper steps tominimize oxygen pickup are followed, most winesshould contain enough free SO2 at this point (50ppm added after first racking and 15 to 25 ppmadded after each additional racking) to protect thewine if it is carefully bottled. Just as in racking, thesiphon hose should stay below the surface of the

wine in the container receiving the wine. Bottlescan be sealed with either corks or screw caps.Corks require special tools to insert and run therisk of causing cork taint in the wine, but they aretraditional and pleasing to the eye. Plastic topcorks that can be inserted and removed by handare also available. Reusable screw caps can makea good seal and are easy to use, but give theconnotation of cheap wine to some people. Ifcorks are used, the bottles should be kept uprightfor a couple of days to allow the release ofpressure from the headspace of the bottle causedby inserting the cork. The bottles should then beplaced on their sides. If bottles are to be reused,they should be cleaned to remove any visiblematerial and then soaked in 180°F hot water for20 minutes. The key to reusing bottles is toimmediately clean them after their use so nomaterial dries on the inner surfaces.

Troubleshooting for White Wine.

Brown color - is a sign of oxidation, usuallyaccompanied with a loss of fruitiness and varietalcharacter. Oxidation is usually a result of excessiveoxygen exposure and/or inadequate free SO2levels. Wine made from moldy fruit will oftencontain oxidative enzymes that are difficult tocontrol with SO2. Avoid browning and oxidationby using clean sound fruit, maintaining adequatefree SO2 levels, and avoiding aeration by keepingthe racking hose below the liquid surface in thecontainer you are racking into. Avoid rackingexcessively cold wine as the solubility of oxygen inwine increases as you lower the temperature.Keep containers of wine full to reduce headspaceas much as possible and use air locks(fermentation locks) and keep them full of water.

Vinegar odor - The smell of vinegar or finger nailpolish in association with a wine is a sign ofspoilage by acetic acid bacteria. These bacteriacan be controlled by the avoidance of excessiveoxygen exposure and the adequate use of sulfurdioxide. This type of spoilage can also be caused

24

by lactic acid bacteria and yeast. The use of cleanfruit and the addition of SO2 to the must prior tothe fermentation helps to reduce this problem.Keep containers of wine full to reduce headspaceas much as possible and use air locks(fermentation locks) and keep them full of water.

Rotten egg odor - is caused by hydrogen sulfide,produced by yeast. This is usually a sign offermentation stress for the yeast during the primaryfermentation, caused by a lack of must nutrients ora temperature shock to the fermenting must. Thismay also occur if elemental sulfur is present in themust. Some strains of yeast are more prone toexcessive hydrogen sulfide production than others.With time, hydrogen sulfide and its relatedcompounds tend to mask the fruitiness in wine.The problem can often be avoided by using yeastnutrients, using properly prepared commercialwine yeast, and keeping proper temperaturecontrol of the fermentation.

Cloudiness - The most common cause of a winefailing to clear is a protein haze which can beremoved with a bentonite treatment. Sometimesbentonite fining needs to be followed by asparkalloid treatment. If pectic enzyme was notused, then pectin may also be a cause ofcloudiness. Sufficient growth of yeast or bacteriawill cause haziness or cloudiness as well.

Crystalline deposit - usually is a deposit ofpotassium bitartrate crystals. These can beremoved by chilling the wine to around 32°F forseveral weeks.

Making Red WineThe basic steps involved in making red wine aredetailed in this section. Briefly, the process beginswith grapes or concentrated juice. Follow theinstructions for concentrate, or if using grapes,start with ripe, clean fruit. Remove the berriesfrom the stems and crush. Treat the crushedberries with 30 ppm SO2. You may also addpectic enzyme, but this is optional. Adjust thesugar level to 22 to 24 °Brix and add yeast toferment. Ferment at room temperature and punchdown the cap of skins at the top of thefermentation vat twice daily. Press the must afterfermentation. Rack with aeration. Add malolacticbacteria if desired and rack at the end ofmalolactic fermentation. Cold stabilize and add 30ppm SO2. Age and add oak chips if desired.Rack 2 - 3 more times with aeration at 2 - 3month intervals. Bottle and serve at 65°F.

The entire process from fruit to bottle should takeabout 9 to 12 months.

Red Wine Fruit/Must Processing. The fruitshould be clean and free of rot. This is especiallyimportant as the juice will ferment in contact withthe skins and mold is detrimental to red wine colorstability. Discard any rotten or unripe fruit asneeded.

The next step is to destem and crush the grapes. Ifyou crush the grapes without removing them fromthe stem, you may produce wine that has anundesirable “stemmy” taste. You should also avoidcrushing the seeds. You can use a mechanizedcrusher or stemmer/crusher for speed, but forsmaller lots, you can destem and crush manually.Manual crushing will work as long as there isenough juice to get the fermentation going. As themust ferments and the cap (skins and seeds thatfloat to the top) is punched down daily, the fruitwill break down further.

Add 30 ppm SO2 to the must using an estimatedvolume. Estimate that every 15 pounds of fruit will

Making White Wine / Making Red Wine

25


yield 1 gallon of liquid. Enzymes can be used topromote color extraction. Only enzymes suggestedfor use with red wines should be used.

Red Wine Fermentation. The must is fermentedin a wide necked container 1/2 to 2/3 full,preferably with a lid to reduce contact with fruitflies. Sugar content should be adjusted to 22 to24°Brix if necessary. Sugar addition can bedelayed until the must is fermenting and forming acap of skins on top. When the cap forms, theactual amount of liquid can be more closelyestimated. The sugar adjustment formula in the“Procedures and Discussion” section can be usedto calculate sugar addition rates. Addition of ayeast nutrient (e.g., diammonium phosphate orDAP) is optional. Prepare yeast the same as forwhite wine, but note that the red must should be ataround room temperature (around 70°F) so thereis less danger of temperature shock to the yeast.Fermentation of the red must is best attemperatures in the range of 77 to 86°F.Temperature over 90°F should be avoided. Aslong as the room where the fermentor is locatedstays in the 70’s, the fermentation should not gettoo hot (assuming the container is not too large).As the must ferments, skins and seeds will rise tothe top. To keep the grape skins in contact withthe liquid for color extraction and to releasetrapped heat, the cap should be broken up andpushed down below the level of the liquid in thecontainer at least twice daily (photo below). The

fermentation should take from 5 to 7 days. Whenthe cap no longer forms and the skins and seedssink to the bottom of the container thefermentation is over. The must can be pressedprior to the end of fermentation (3 to 5 days and 0to 5°Brix) to produce a red wine that requires lessaging.

Pressing Red Wine Must. The must will nothave to be squeezed too tightly since red muststend to press rather easily. The pressed wine

should be placed in a glass carboy with an airlock. Unlike white wine, aerating by allowing thewine to splash while filling containers is desirable.Red wines are much more forgiving in theirexposure to air and splashing allows for therelease of off odors formed during thefermentation. Residual sugar values (Clinitest) for adry red wine will be in the range of 0.2 to 0.4%(some of the coloring material in the wine will reactduring the sugar test).

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Racking RedWine. Afterthe alcoholicfermentationhas ended andthe initial grosslees havesettled, thewine should beracked (photoleft) with

splashing(photo right).

The wineshould be keptin full containerswith air locks.

Oak chips maybe added at thistime (4 to 7grams pergallon) toprovide oakaroma and flavor and to facilitate aging. The use ofbarrels for the storage and aging of wine is notpractical for most home winemakers.

The wine can be inoculated for malolacticfermentation (MLF) at this time if desired.Malolactic cultures that allow for direct inoculationare the easiest to use for the home winemaker.The wine should be kept at a temperature of 64°For above during the MLF. Under optimumconditions and with a direct inoculation culture, theMLF should be complete in about two weeks.Paper chromatography kits can be used to trackthe MLF and determine when it has finished.

Cold Stabilization of Red Wine. Aftercompletion ofthe malolacticfermentation,the wine shouldbe racked withaeration. Add30 ppm SO2.

The wine canbe coldstabilized at thispoint. Hold thewine at 32 to40°F for two ormore weeks. Aspare refrigerator can be used for this purpose.(Photo above - Potassium bitartrate crystals settleto bottom of carboy after cold stabilization.)

Racking three to four more times after coldstabilization, over a period of nine to twelvemonths, should be enough to produce a clear andstable red wine.

Aging Red Wine. For aging red wines, the freesulfur dioxide levels should be kept at 15 to 20ppm (you can use a free SO2 test kit to measureSO2 levels). If you cannot analyze for free SO2levels, 15 to 20 ppm can be added at eachracking. Adding at this level is just an estimate.

If your winestend tooxidize (turnbrown), youmay need toadd moreSO2 in thefuture. If yourwines tend tohave anobjectionable SO2 aroma (prickly, burnt match)you may need to reduce the amount of SO2 addedto your wines in the future.

Making Red Wine

27


Bottling Red Wine. Rack the wine into bottles.Bottles can be sealed with either corks or screwcaps. Corks require special tools to insert and runthe risk of causing cork taint in the wine, but theyare traditional and pleasing to the eye. Plastic topcorks that can be inserted and removed by handare also available. Reusable screw caps can makea good seal and are easy to use, but give theconnotation of cheap wine to some people. Ifcorks are used, the bottles should be kept uprightfor a couple of days to allow the release ofpressure from the headspace of the bottle (causedby inserting the cork), the bottles should then beplaced on their sides. If used bottles are to berefilled, they should be cleaned to remove anyvisible material and then soaked in 180°F hotwater for 20 minutes. The key to reusing bottles isto immediately clean them after their use so nomaterial dries on their inner surfaces.

Troubleshooting for Red Wine.

Brown color - is a sign of oxidation and is usuallyaccompanied by a loss of fruitiness and varietalcharacter. This usually results from excessiveoxygen exposure and/or inadequate free SO2levels. Wine made from moldy fruit will oftencontain oxidative enzymes that are difficult tocontrol with SO2. To avoid oxidative browning,use clean, sound fruit, maintain adequate free SO2levels, keep containers of wine full to reduceheadspace as much as possible, and use air locks(fermentation locks) and keep them full of water.

Vinegar odor - The smell of vinegar or finger nailpolish in association with a wine is a sign ofspoilage by acetic acid bacteria. These bacteriacan be controlled by the avoidance of excessiveoxygen exposure and the adequate use of SO2.This type of spoilage can also be caused by lacticacid bacteria and yeast. The use of clean fruit andthe addition of SO2 to the must prior to thefermentation helps to reduce this problem. Keepcontainers of wine full to reduce headspace asmuch as possible and use air locks (fermentationlocks) and keep them full of water.

Rotten egg odor - is caused by hydrogen sulfide,produced by yeast. This is usually a sign offermentation stress for the yeast during the primaryfermentation, caused by a lack of must nutrients ora temperature shock to the fermenting must. Thismay also occur if elemental sulfur is present in themust. Some strains of yeast are more prone toexcessive hydrogen sulfide production than others.Hydrogen sulfide and its related compounds tendto mask the fruitiness in wine. The problem canoften be avoided by using yeast nutrients, usingproperly prepared commercial wine yeast, andkeeping proper temperature control of thefermentation.

Crystalline deposit - usually is a deposit ofpotassium bitartrate crystals. These can beremoved by chilling the wine to around 32°F forseveral weeks.

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Wine Tasting,Evaluation, and Storage

Wine Tasting.A 12 - 15ounce tulipshaped glass isuseful for thetasting anddrinking oftable wines.Red wineshould beserved at about65°F and whitewine should be

served from 50 - 60°F. To taste the wine, fill theglass 1/3 or less full and swirl the wine around toget the molecules up in the air. Sniff the wine andsavor the aroma and bouquet. To help youdescribe what you smell, you may want to obtainthe wine aroma wheel developed at the Universityof California at Davis (Appendix 5). Taste thewine by taking some in your mouth and rolling itaround your tongue. Note the sweet, sour andbitter tastes and the balance and body of the wine.

If you decide to grow grapes or make wine fromthose locally grown, the best way to learn whatyou like is to visit Missouri wineries and taste thewines in their tasting rooms. Sample, askquestions, and take note of what you like.

Wine Evaluation. The more you learn abouttasting wine, the better you will be in evaluatingyour finished product. Whatever your level ofability, you need to spend some time criticallyevaluating your wine. As your skills in sensoryevaluation evolve, you may devise a score pad orevaluation table that you can fill out for each wineyou make.

First, evaluate appearance. Is the wine clear orcloudy. Is the color appropriate? A color of

dark amber for a white wine indicates oxidationand is not appropriate. Brown color in red winesis also inappropriate.

Second, evaluate the odor or “nose” (aroma andbouquet) of the wine. Do you detect a nice, fruitynose. Do you detect any off-odors?

Third, evaluate the taste. Does the wine tastegood? Are the major components in the winebalanced? Is the taste of the wine consistent withits style? A dry, red wine, for example, should nottaste overly sweet.

Storing Wine. Home wine cellars can be quiteelaborate or very simple. An area with a cool(about 60°F) and even temperature, out of directsunlight, with relatively high humidity and awayfrom strong odors and vibrations is ideal. Availablenow are small wine temperature controlled storageunits, either freestanding or integrated into kitchencabinetry. Wine cellars can be large rooms withtemperature and humidity controls, a tasting area,and an extensive wine library. Most of us arecontent to find a cool spot in the home, out ofdirect sun, to store our wine. Be careful not to putyour wine rack on top of a refrigerator or freezerthat may vibrate and produce heat. Corked bottlesshould be stored horizontally so that the cork iskept moist. Screw capped bottles can be storedupright.

WineTasting, Evaluation, and Storage / Appendices

29

Appendix 1ATF Regulations

Sec. 24.75Wine for personal or family use

(a) General. Any adult may, without payment of tax, produce wine for personal or familyuse and not for sale.

(b) Quantity. The aggregate amount of wine that may be produced exempt from tax withrespect to any household may not exceed:

(1) 200 gallons per calendar year for a household in which two or more adultsreside, or

(2) 100 gallons per calendar year if there is only one adult residing in thehousehold.

(c) Definition of an adult. For the purposes of this section, an adult is any individual whois 18 years of age or older. However, if the locality in which the household is located hasestablished by law a greater minimum age at which wine may be sold to individuals, theterm “adult” will mean an individual who has attained that age.

(d) Proprietors of bonded wine premises. Any adult, defined in Sec. 24.75(c), whooperates a bonded wine premises as an individual owner or in partnership with others,may produce wine and remove it from the bonded wine premises free of tax forpersonal or family use, subject to the limitations in Sec. 24.75(b).

(e) Limitation. This exemption should not in any manner be construed as authorizing theproduction of wine in violation of applicable State or local law. Except as provided inSec. 24.75(d), this exemption does not otherwise apply to partnerships, corporations,or associations.

(f) Removal. Wine produced under this section may be removed from the premiseswhere made for personal or family use including use at organized affairs, exhibitions orcompetitions, such as home winemaker’s contests, tastings or judgings, but may notunder any circumstances be sold or offered for sale. The proprietor of a bonded winepremises shall pay the tax on any wine removed for personal or family use in excess ofthe limitations provided in this section and shall also enter all quantities removed forpersonal or family use on ATF F 5120.17, Report of Bonded Wine PremisesOperations.(Sec. 201, Pub. L. 85-859, 72 Stat. 1331, as amended (26 U.S.C. 5042))(Approved by the Office of Management and Budget under control number 1512-0216)

[T.D. ATF-299, 55 FR 24989, June 19, 1991, as amended by T.D. ATF-338, 58 FR 19064, Apr. 12, 1993; T.D. ATF-344, 58 FR 40354, July 28, 1993]


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Appendix 2Determination of Titratable Acidity

Equipment (can be purchased together in a titrationkit from winemaking supplier):300 ml beaker or large baby food jar5 ml volumetric pipette25 ml buret calibrated by 1/10 milliliters.1% phenophthalein indicator solution0.1 Normal (0.1N or N/10) sodium hydroxide(NaOH) solutionRectangular base and clamp or buret supportGlass rod for stirring

Procedure

1. Fill the buret with 0.1 N NaOH solution.

2. Place 100 to 200 ml of recently boiled distilledwater in 300 ml beaker or other suitable glasscontainer.

3. Add about 3 drops of 1% phenophthaleinindicator solution*.

4. Add in increments (titrate) 0.1N NaOH from theburet to the distilled water until you see a faint pink color. Stir after each addition.

5. Once the faint pink color remains after stirring, note the level of the NaOH in the buret and recordthis value (read the NaOH level in the buret at the bottom of the meniscus) or refill the buret to 25ml.

6. Add 5 ml of room temperature juice or wine to the distilled water using a 5 ml pipette.

7. Add in increments (titrate) 0.1N NaOH from the buret to the distilled water, stirring after eachaddition, until you see a faint pink end point in a white wine sample. A red wine sample will changeseveral shades of green before it reaches the gray or otherwise murky colored (non-green, pinkish-brown) end point*.

Note the volume of 0.1N NaOH you used to reach the end point (subtract the end reading on the buretscale from the beginning amount that you recorded just before running the juice sample).

Appendices

* If you have a pH meter, you can set the end point to 8.2 and then titrate to the pH of 8.2 instead ofusing phenolphthalein indicator.

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Calculation

Tartaric acid is the main acid in grapes so the total acidity is expressed as percent tartaric acid.

The formula used to calculate % Total Acidity is as follows:Tartaric acid, g/100ml = (V) (N) (75) (100) = % T. A.

(1000) (v)

Where V = volume of sodium hydroxide used to titrate to the endpoint

N = normality of the sodium hydroxide (0.1 is recommended)

v = the volume of the juice or wine sample (5 ml is recommended)

If you use 0.1N NaOH and use a 5 ml sample of juice or wine as recommended, the formula is simply%T.A. = (V)(0.15) or literally the volume of 0.1N NaOH used to titrate to the end point multiplied by0.15.

Juice for wine should have acid levels between 0.6 - 0.9 grams/100 ml tartaric (0.6 - 0.9% TotalAcidity)


32

Appendices

Appendix 3Weights, Measures, Conversions and Other Useful Information

Volume/Capacity

U. S. System1 Gallon = 4 Quarts = 8 Pints = 16 cups = 128 Fluid Ounces

Metric System1 Liter (l) = 10 Deciliters (dl) = 100 Centiliters (cl) = 1,000 milliliters (ml)

U.S./Metric Equivalents1 Gallon = 3.785 Liters1 Fluid Ounce = 29.6 Milliliters

Conversion Factors

To convert: Multiply by:gallons to liters X 3.785ounces to milliliters X 29.57liters to gallons X 0.264liters to fluid ounces X 33.81

Weight

U.S. System1 Pound = 16 Ounces

Metric System1 Kilogram (kg) = 1,000 Grams (g) = 1,000,000 Milligrams (mg)

Conversion Factors

To convert: Multiply by:pounds to kilograms X 0.453pounds to grams X 453.592ounces to grams X 28.349kilograms to pounds X 2.204kilograms to ounces X 35.273

Temperature Conversion

°Fahrenheit to °Centigrade - subtract 32, multiply by 5, divide by 9

°Centigrade to °Fahrenheit - multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32

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Chemical Measuring Spoon to Gram Conversion Chart (subject to +/- 20% error)

Chemical 1/4 teaspoon 1/2 teaspoon 1 teaspoon 1 Tablespoon

weighs: weighs: weighs: weighs:

Potassium Metabisulfite (powder) 1.5 grams 2.9 grams 5.8 grams 17.4 grams

Bentonite (powder) 1.0 gram 1.8 grams 3.5 grams 10.4 grams

Sparkalloid (powder) 0.3 gram 0.6 gram 1.3 grams 3.5 grams

Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) 1.2 grams 2.1 grams 4.4 grams 12.5 grams

Other

Parts per million (ppm) = milligrams per liter (mg/L)

To calculate ppm of SO2 when using potassium metabisulfite powder (58% SO2):

1 gram potassium metabisilfite = 30 ppm SO2 in 5 gallons

1.5 grams (1/4 teaspoon) potassium metabisulfite= 45 ppm SO2 in 5 gallons

Percent (%) = milliliters per 100 milliliters (ml/100ml) or grams per 100 milliliters (g/ml)

% sugar multiplied by 0.55 estimates the % alcohol you can expect after yeast fermentation

1 degree Brix = 1 degree Balling = 1% sugar

Water has a direct metric volume/weight relationship

1 gram water = 1 milliliter water

1 kilogram water = 1 liter water

15 pounds of grapes will yield about 1 gallon of juice

One bushels holds about 45 pounds of grapes and one lug holds about 15 - 20 pounds of grapes

One mature grapevine will yield about 10 to 15 pounds of fruit


34

Appendices

Appendix 4Terminology

Term Definition

ATF (BATF) United States Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms. The Federal agencythat regulates the production and sale of alcoholic beverages in the U.S.A.

Alcoholic fermentation The conversion of sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide through the action ofyeast. It is a heat producing reaction.

Amelioration The addition of sugar and/or water to must or wine. This can also refer toadjusting the acid level.

Aroma Grape derived odors in wine.

Balance A term that describes how the parts of a wine blend together so that no oneparticular flavor or characteristic dominates, but all complement each other.

Body This refers to the texture and “mouth feel” of a wine, light or heavy.

Bouquet Odors in wine derived from processing and aging.

Brix Term that expresses the percent sugar concentration in juice.

Buret A graduated glass tube with a small aperture and a stopcock deliveringmeasured amounts of liquid, used in acid base titrations.

Cap Layer of grape solids that float on the surface during red wine fermentation “onthe skins”.

Carboy A glass container with a narrow neck that comes in 3, 5 and 7 gallon sizes, usedfor making wine.

Citric acid One of the acids found in grapes and wine.

Cold stabilization Chilling wine before bottling to remove excess potassium bitartrate in order toprevent its precipitation in bottled wine.

Chromatography An analytical procedure used to determine the levels of malic and lactic acidduring malolactic fermentation.

Crushing Breaking the skin of the berry to release the juice.

Dry Wine without a noticeable sweet taste.

Enology The science of winemaking.

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Fining A process to clarify, stabilize and/or modify wine quality by addition of agentssuch as bentonite clay, egg white, PVPP, gelatin and others.

Flavor A term to describe the smell and taste of a wine.

Foxy Musty, earthy flavor characteristics of native American wines made from Vitislabrusca grapes.

Free run Juice or wine that drains without pressing.

Free SO2 Sulfur dioxide ions in solution not bound to other chemicals and so are free toprevent oxidation, etc.

French-American hybrid Hybrids or crosses between American cultivars of grapes and Europeancultivars of grapes. Also called French Hybrids.

Head space The air space above wine in a closed container.

Heat stabilization Removal of heat unstable protein.

Hydrometer An instrument that measures the specific gravity of a liquid at roomtemperature. A sacchrometer is a hydrometer that is calibrated to read °Brix or% sugar.

Lactic acid One of the acids found in grapes and wine.

Lees Sediment.

Malic acid One of the acids found in grapes and wine.

Malolactic fermentation Conversion of malic acid to lactic acid by lactic acid bacteria.

Must The term for crushed grapes and juice until the end of fermentation.

Nose The odor of a wine composed of aroma, bouquet and other factors.

Oxidation A wine disorder resulting from excessive exposure to oxygen. Browning of thewine is a result of oxidation.

pH Measurement of H+ (hydrogen) ion activity.

Pipette A narrow tube into which fluid is drawn by suction and retained by closing theupper end. A 5 ml pipette is designed to draw 5 ml liquid at room temperature.

Potassium metabisulfite A source of sulfur dioxide (58% SO2) for use in winemaking.

Pomace Material remaining after pressing the must.

ppm Parts Per Million. Milligrams/liter = ppm for example. One milligram is 1/1000th of a gram. One liter equals 1,000 milliliters (which in turn is equal to1,000 milligrams of water by weight).


36

Appendices

Punch down Manually breaking and submerging the cap during red wine fermentation.

Racking Separating clear wine from sediment or lees during production.

Reducing sugar Fermenting sugars that will reduce copper upon chemical analysis.

Refractometer Simple optical instrument that measures the amount a given solution bends lightand so determines the amount of soluble solids in solution (sugars) by measuringthe amount of bend on the Brix scale (distilled water = 0°Brix).

Residual sugar Sugar left in the wine after alcoholic fermentation.

Stuck fermentation Premature cessation of fermentation.

Sucrose Table sugar added to wine that is not a reducing sugar. It is converted toglucose and fructose by grape and yeast enzymes and by low pH conditions.

Sulfur dioxide An antiseptic that prevents spoilage and oxidation in wines when theconcentration in the juice and wine is managed properly.

Tannins Compounds in grapes and wine that impart astringent (pucker) and/or bitterflavor. Tannins are extracted from grape skins, seeds and stems. Oak tanninsare extracted from aging in oak barrels or from oak additives.

Tartaric acid The primary acid found in grapes.

Titratable acidity Acid content determined by titrating must/wine with sodium hydroxide andfollowing a formula. The term is commonly expressed as grams of tartaric acidper 100 ml or % total acid.

Volatile acidity Acetic acid content of a wine that is used as an indicator of spoilage. Vinegar.

Vitis aestivalis A native American grape cultivar or variety.

Vitis labrusca A native American grape cultivar or variety, with “foxy” character.

Vitis vinifera A European grape cultivar or variety.

Wine library A collection of wines where the location of the bottle in storage is crossreferenced to information about the particular wine.

Wine thief A hollow tube with tapered openings at both ends, that is used to extractsamples of juice or wine from larger containers for analysis.

Yeast Fungi that can carry out alcoholic fermentation.

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Appendix 5Sources

GusmerCelluloFiltration, clarification and processing materials for the wine industryEast Coast1165 Globe AvenueP.O. Box 1129Mountainside, NJ 07092-0129(908) 301-1811

Missouri Winemaking SocietyTo promote winemaking as a hobby and to develop an appreciation for winePaul Hendricks2 Matterhorn CourtO’Fallon, MO 63366(636) [email protected]://www.mowinemaking.org/

Presque Isle Wine CellarsWinemaking supplies and equipment9440 West Main Rd.North East PA 16428(800) 488-7492http://www.piwine.com

Prospero EquipmentSmall winery equipment and supplies725 Clemens St.Muscatine, IA 52671(914) 769-6252

Scott LaboratoriesProducts and services for producers of valuable liquids2220 Pine View WayP.O. Box 4559Petaluma, CA 94954-5687(707) 765-6666http://www.scottlab.com


38

Appendices

St. Louis Wine and BeermakingWine and beermaking supplies251 Lamp and Lantern VillageChesterfield, MO 63017(636) 230-8277http://www.wineandbeermaking.com

The Home BreweryHome brewing and winemaking suppliesP. O. Box 730Ozark, MO 65721(800) 321-BREWhttp://www.homebrewery.com

UC Davis Wine Aroma WheelA. C. NobleDept. of Viticulture and EnologyUniversity of CaliforniaDavis, CA 95616(530) 752-0382http://wineserver.ucdavis.edu/Acnoble/WAW.html

VinquiryAnalytical services, consulting & supplies for the wine industry7795 Bell RoadWindsor, CA 95492-8519(707) 838-6312http://www.vinquiry.com

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Appendix 6References

SMSU - Mountain Grove Publications:Contact Pamela Mayer, SMSU - Mountain Grove9740 Red Spring RoadMountain Grove, MO 65711(417) [email protected]://mtngrv.smsu.edu/publications.htm

Dharmadhikari, Murli R. and Karl L. Wilker. 2001.Microvinification: A practical guide to small-scale wine production (soft cover book)Missouri State Fruit Experiment Station.

Rey, Kimberly. 2002.Basic Wine Analysis (set of 3 VHS tapes or a DVD)Mid-America Viticulture and Enology Center.

Avery, John, Patrick Byers, Martin Kaps, Laszlo Kovacs and Marilyn Odneal. 1993.Growing Fruit for Home Use (MS-18)Missouri State Fruit Experiment Station.

Vineyard and Vintage View NewsletterMissouri State Fruit Experiment Station.

Other Selected References:

Cooke, George M. and James T. Lapsley. 1988. Making Table Wine at Home.Contact Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication, University of California6701 San Pablo AvenueOakland, CA 94608-1239or download online version at http://wineserver.ucdavis.edu/WineGrape/Homewine/index.htm .

Konnerth, William M., Douglas P. Moorhead and Marlene B. Moorhead. 1993. Beginner’s Book ofWinemaking. Presque Isle Wine Cellars, Northeast PA.

Ough, G. S. 1992. Winemaking Basics. The Howarth Press, Inc. NY.

Rankine, Bryce. 1989. Making Good Wine: Manual of Winemaking Practices for Australia andNew Zealand. Pan Macmill, Australia.

Yair, Margalit. 1990. Winery Technology and Operations: A handbook for small wineries. TheWinery Appreciation Guild, San Francisco.


40

41

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For a copy of this publication please write to State Fruit Experiment Station,9740 Red Spring Road, Mountain Grove, MO 65711-2999

or visit our website http://mtngrv.smsu.edu

Southwest Missouri State University is a community of people with respect for diversity. The University emphasizes the dignityand equality common to all persons and adheres to a strict nondiscrimination policy regarding the treatment of individualfaculty, staff, and students. In addition, in accord with federal law and applicable Missouri statutes, the University does notdiscriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, ancestry, age, disability, or veteran status in employmentor in any program or activity offered or sponsored by the University.

The University maintains a complaint procedure incorporating due process available to any person who believes he or she hasbeen discriminated against. Southwest Missouri State University is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action employer.

Inquiries concerning the complaint procedure, Affirmative Action Plan, or compliance with federal and state laws and guidelinesshould be addressed to Jana Estergard, Equal Opportunity Officer, Office of Human Resources, Carrington Hall 128, 901 SouthNational, Springfield, Missouri 65804, (417) 836-4252.

Southwest Missouri State University is a community of people with respect for diversity. The University emphasizes the dignityand equality common to all persons and adheres to a strict nondiscrimination policy regarding the treatment of individualfaculty, staff, and students. In addition, in accord with federal law and applicable Missouri statutes, the University does notdiscriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, ancestry, age, disability, or veteran status in employmentor in any program or activity offered or sponsored by the University.

The University maintains a complaint procedure incorporating due process available to any person who believes he or she hasbeen discriminated against. Southwest Missouri State University is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action employer.

Inquiries concerning the complaint procedure, Affirmative Action Plan, or compliance with federal and state laws and guidelinesshould be addressed to Jana Estergard, Equal Opportunity Officer, Office of Human Resources, Carrington Hall 128, 901 SouthNational, Springfield, Missouri 65804, (417) 836-4252.

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