Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

1 | P a g e Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

ISSN: 2249-8389

Lokyata Journal of Positive Philosophy

Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS)

Milestone Education Society (Regd.), Ward No.06, Pehowa (Kurukshetra)-136128

Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013)

Chief-Editor:

Desh Raj Sirswal



Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN 2249-8389)

Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy is an online bi-annual interdisciplinary journal of the

Center for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS). The name Lokyata can be

traced to Kautilya's Arthashastra, which refers to three nvkiks (logical philosophies), Yoga, Samkhya and Lokyata. Lokyata here still refers to logical debate (disputatio, "criticism") in

general and not to a materialist doctrine in particular. The objectives of the journal are to

encourage new thinking on concepts and theoretical frameworks in the disciplines of

humanities and social sciences to disseminate such new ideas and research papers (with strong

emphasis on modern implications of philosophy) which have broad relevance in society in

general and mans life in particular. The Centre publishes two issues of the journal every year.

Each regular issue of the journal contains full-length papers, discussions and comments, book

reviews, information on new books and other relevant academic information. Each issue

contains about 100 Pages.

Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies, Pehowa (Kurukshetra)

Chief-Editor: Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal (P.G. Govt. College for Girls, Sector-11, Chandigarh)

Associate Editors:

Dr. Merina Islam, Dr. Sandhya Gupta

Editorial Advisory Board Prof. K.K. Sharma (Former-Pro-Vice-Chancellor, NEHU, Shillong) Prof.Sohan Raj Tater (Former Vice-Chancellor, Singhania University, Rajasthan) Dr. Anamika Girdhar (Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra) Dr.Ranjan Kumar Behera (Patkai Christian College (Autonomous), Nagaland) Fr. V. John Peter (St. Josephs Philosophical College, Nilgiris, T.N.) Dr. Aayam Gupta (Kurukshetra, Haryana) Dr. Geetesh Nirban (Kamala Nehru College, University of Delhi) Dr. Vaishali Dev (Mahamakut Buddhist University, Thailand) Dr. Narinder Singh (GHSC-10, Chandigarh) Dr. Vijay Pal Bhatnagar (Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra) Mr. Praveen Kumar Anshuman ( Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi, Delhi) Declaration: The opinions expressed in the articles of this journal are those of the

individual authors, and not necessary of those of CPPIS or the Chief-Editor.



In this issue..

P.Kesava Kumar: Against Brahminical Tradition: A Dalit Critique of Indian Modernity (4-17)

Nirmala V.: Influence of Spandasastra on Abhinavaguptas Philosophy (18-20)

Shruti Rai : Philosophy of Language in Siddhnta aiva Philosophy (21-28)

Bhumika Sharma : Relationship Between Dharma and Justice: An Indian

Perspective (29-41)

Reni Pal: Ahimsa and Satyagraha: Gandhi and the XIV Dalai Lama (42-48)

Bhddhiswar Haldar: The Necessity of Gandhian Ethics for Better Future(49-52)

Sima Baruah: What Makes Gandhi a Mahatma? (53-59)

Jatinder Kumar Jain: Jainism in a Globalised World (60-66)

Rinky Chowdhury: Evolution of Varna-srama System into Caste-System (67-69)

K.J.Sandhu & Khusboo: Conceptual Framework of Acculturative Stress

in relation to Organizational Integration of Employees (70-80)

Dinesh Chahal & Nidhi Mehta: Motivation: An Easy Way to Learn (81-86)

EMPIRICAL PAPERS

Shalini Sisodia & Ira Das: Construction of a Scale for Measuring Egotism

(Ahamkaar) (87-95)

P.K.Mona & Prachi Sharma: Psychological Determinants of Hypothyroidism(96-103)

Surila Agrawala & Nidhi Gurbaxani: Quality of Life of Employed and Unemployed

Married Women (104-109)

NEW PUBLICATIONS (110-111)

PHILOSOPHY NEWS IN INDIA (112-114)

CONTRIBUTORS OF THIS ISSUE (115-116)



AGAINST BRAHMINICAL TRADITION: A DALIT CRITIQUE OF INDIAN

MODERNITY

P. Kesava Kumar

I dont know when I was born/but I was killed on this very soil thousand years ago/ dying again

and again to be born again/ I dont know the karma theory/I am being born again and again where I

was dead. 1(Kalekuri Prasasd)

History!/ all these years how could you hide/ the fire in our mouth./how could you

tolerate/inequality and inhumanity.2 (Juluri Gowrishankar)

With a smile on his face/Shambhuka is slaying Rama/ with his axe/Ekalavya is cutting Dronas

thumb away/with his small feet/ Bali is sending Vamana down to pathala/ With needles in his eyes/

and lead in is ears/Manu, having cut his tongue is seen rolling on the graveyard/standing on the

merciless sword of time/and roaring with rage/The Chandala is seen hissing four houndson

Sankaracharya/ Oh..!/ The History that is occurring today/Is the most Chandala history3 (Siva

Sagar)

The burden of reason, dreams of freedom, the desire for power, resistance to power: all of these are

elements of modernity. There is no promised land of modernity outside the net work of power. Hence

one can not be for or against modernity; one can devise strategies for coping with it. These strategies

are sometimes beneficial, often destructive; sometimes they are tolerant, perhaps all too often they

are fierce and violent.4

Introduction

Dalits are oppressed people for many generations due to the caste system of India. Dalits are the

worst victims of the caste system. In the name of caste, they are often degraded, discriminated,

humiliated, insulted and exploited. Caste is an elaborated social system that influences all other

institutions of the society. Caste is an important marker of traditional Indian society. Caste is carried

through the religion. In India, the caste system and the hindu religion, is interlinked and inseparable.

There are various attempts to reform or transform the Indian society to make humane, democratic

and modern. The intellectuals of social reform and Indian nationalist movement forced to negotiate

with colonial modernity on many accounts. The nationalist social aspirations are articulated by the

elite and liberal intellectuals on behalf of the nation, happened to be the people of brahminical class.

They seem to be modern in their appeal and traditional in practice. Through their literary, cultural

and philosophical discourses shaped the Indian modernity. This modernity definitely differs with the

Lokyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389)

Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.4-17



western modernity. To certain extent, they overcome the western imposed tradition-modern

dichotomy. The Indian thinkers like Gandhi and Ambedkar, offers new way to look at Indian self and

essentially differ from western modernity. The contemporary Dalit movement, which is inspired with

the philosophy of Ambedkar is not only critical about the hindu brahminical tradition and also

exposes the Indian modernity for its brahminical bias. The very notion of modernity keeps on

changing with the articulation of the respective social agency. The meaning of modernity undergoes

a significant change with the assertion of dalits in public space, in which the access to these has been

denied for centuries. In this paper I would like to illustrate the complexity and ambiguity of

modernity in relation to dalits through the writings of telugu Dalit literature. In other words, the

paper highlights the distinctive modernity of dalits in contrast with western liberal, colonial and

brahmical modernity. Dalit modernity too attacks the liberal modernity which is based on mere

individualism of western liberalism. Dalit modernity is located in embedded self. In other words, it

argues for reflexive individualism. The source for this kind of individualism is the moral community

based on equality, liberty and fraternity. Dalit modernity even projects different kind of

communitarianism based on the principle of social justice. The communitarian Dalit modernity

attacks the conservative communitarianism of brahminism. However, Dalit modernity mediates both

liberal and communitarian philosophies by showing its limitations and also appraising their strength

in a novel way.

Dalits Entry into Public Sphere

The decade of eighties in Andhra Pradesh is known for a radical assertion of Dalits, women, adivasis

and the Telangana people. These struggles are not only critical about dominant philosophical

thinking, but also put a responsibility to record the past based on these foundations. They made a

conscious attempt to interrogate the dominant traditions in order to liberate them. They have raised

several questions relating to the nature of State and developmental strategy pursued by it. They

created a new universe with alternative value system. Mostly, the knowledge about them could be in

their literary and cultural articulation. Their literature is overshadowed by the philosophical inquiry

into the conditions of the good society, the good person and, the good life. Literature is a primary

means by which a community situates itself in place. The literature in the written form as established

the literature with the advent of print technology. The print culture not only succeeded in

marginalizing the oral forms of larger social groups and also facilitated modern public sphere. For a

long time this sphere is mostly dominated by educated brahminical class, though theoretically this

space is available to everybody. The recent entry of dalits in to this modern space not only created

tension, but also provides alternative philosophical insights through literary and cultural works. This

gives the opportunity to read the politics of modernity in Telugu literature. On one hand, Dalit

literature blatantly opposed the brahminical tradition, and other hand further radicalized the politics

of alternative struggles.

The Karamchedu massacre of 1985 and the Pro-Mandal agitations in 1991 shattered the modern

secular pretensions of various social and political institutions. One of the features of contemporary

Dalit movement is that engaged with the politics of modern public sphere, which is seen as secular

space (in the spheres of literature, cinema, university and political party etc.). It is the Dalit struggles



and their assertion that showed the casteist brahminical character of these spheres. From the decade

of eighties onwards, a considerable number of Dalit middle class is visible in Indian society. Their

presence was felt in the public sphere for the first time. They are resisting the hegemony of the upper

castes in these spaces by asserting themselves in all possible ways. For the upper caste people, it was

as if the space which was so far reserved for them exclusively, suddenly became uncomfortable and

they are becoming irritated with the entry of Dalits into their spaces. One can see the antagonism

between these two in Universities, literary and cultural fields. The University, the city, cinema and

literature are predominantly urban spaces where the above said encounters are very often witnessed.

The upper castes have suddenly picked up a liberal language to corner the Dalits.

With the entry of Dalits into the various public institutions, one common response is that the

objectives of these public institutions have been subverted. To put it in other words, the universe of

values constituting these public institutions has been thwarted. To make sense of this, one has to find

a relevant conceptual framework. Partha Chatterjee offers one. According to him, there are two

worlds: a world of middle class constituted by modern norms of freedom of speech, voluntary

associations and individual capable of choice; another is a world of subalterns constituted by other

concepts which does not come under this modern bourgeoisie rubric. There is a relationship of

pedagogy between the former and the latter. The entry of Dalits into modern public institutions,

cause a rupture between two universes. The universe of public institutions is underpinned by modern

rationality and concomitant values as created by modern-nation-State. The introduction of the

universe of Dalits into public institutions results in, broadly, two consequences. It questions the

nature of translation and application of modern values of liberty and equality in modern public

institutions. Secondly, the visions of public institutions enter into a phase of crises of understanding

and coherence. This interpretation helps us to understand the nature of hatred and conflict in public

institutions. But, it also sets in other agendas of shedding the potential of modernity to liberate Dalits

from the shackles of tradition. Dalits share an ambiguous relationship with modernity.

When modernity entered India, the Indian traditional intellectual community had seen it as a threat to

the Indian social structure. To protect the age old brahamnical societal structure, the upholders of the

tradition moved to keep the tradition intact. They started the process of monopolization of modernity

by embracing the epistemologies of modernity - such as the basic sciences and technical education.

Initially, when modernity opened up new opportunities, with its inherent economic viability, the

Brahmin intellectuals given up traditional epistemologies and embraced modern epistemology purely

for the material prosperity.

The writings reveal that Dalit relation to modernity is complex. It is also, in some sense critical

about the general understanding of modernity, i.e., modern development, science and reason. Dalit

politics refuses to get incorporated into the binaries of nationalism/colonialism and

secularism/communalism. It also resists Universalism, the unmarked and abstract citizen as a centre

of the emancipatory discourse of modernity. It is equally critical about the abstract 'working class'. In

other words, it constantly speaks with and against both the liberal and the radical conception of man

and society.



Ambedkars conception of Modernity

Ambedkar is a culmination of all alternative movements of his time. He is the source and inspiration

of contemporary Dalit movement. Like the elites of his time, Ambedkar, too, tried to overcome the

tradition-modernity dichotomy. His critique of tradition is accompanied by his refusal to accept

ready-made alternatives manufactured in the West. He is critical of both modernity and tradition. He

attacked Hinduism and its claims as religion, but at the same time, he keeps away from the western

thought. He believes that legal and political institutions do not have the capacity to reconstruct social

solidarity, and therefore tries to provide a social basis for a liberal and political ethos. In this sense,

he is critical of modernity. But, at the same time, he highlighted that a social reconstruction cannot be

achieved without taking into account the legacy of tradition. He further considers that legal and

political institutions do not have a capacity to reconstruct social solidarity, and therefore tries to

provide a social basis for the liberal and political ethos which does not mean an uncritical acceptance

of western modernity or indigenous traditionalism.5

Ambedkar does not believe in mere individualism, whereas the individual is the center for liberal and

modern life. He emphasizes community life but disagrees with other communitarians like the

conservative Hindutva forces and Marxists. His philosophy is essentially ethical and religious. He

upholds the moral basis of life while allowing critical reason to operate. Therefore he visualizes a

moral society that is based on the ideals of modernity. He considers Buddhism as the only religion

which can respond to the demands of modernity and culture. Buddhist teachings, he believes, appeal

to reason and experience.

Dalit Critique of Modernity

When modernity entered India, the Indian traditional intellectual community had seen it as a threat to

the Indian social structure. To protect the age old brahamnical societal structure, the upholders of the

tradition moved to keep the tradition intact. They started the process of monopolization of modernity

by embracing the epistemologies of modernity - such as the basic sciences and technical education.

Initially, when modernity opened up new opportunities, with its inherent economic viability, the

Brahmin intellectuals given up traditional epistemologies and embraced modern epistemology purely

for the material prosperity. At this juncture, the whole process of embracing modernity by the

intellectual community of the times, raises very interesting questions. For instance, it asks why

Brahman community embraced modernity? What were the reasons for the monopolization of

modernity? Did they allow modernity to go into corners to transform the basic structure of the

society? If it was not the case, was it the fault of others, who were not able to absorb modernity?

If we asses the impact of modernity on Indian society, the under-privileged sections of the society

hardly benefited from it. If one thinks of possible reasons for this, one can easily come to the

conclusion that the modernity project, in the nineteenth century, was monitored by the social elites of

the times, and came from the Brahmin community. Apart from monitoring and controlling the whole

process of modernization, there were constant conscious interventions by this community to ensure

their interests are secure by not allowing the fruits of modernity into other sections of the Indian

society. This resulted in the halting or postponing of societal transformations. To reserve the fruits of



modernity for them, they constantly realized the price of modernity. Apart from providing new

avenues, modernity has implications for social transformation. The elites have to overcome their own

traditions and cultural beliefs. To resolve this kind of a situation they had started defending their

cultural traditions and simultaneously enjoying the material benefits of the modernity at colonial

times.

The relationship of the Dalits to the modern State, both colonial and post colonial, is ambiguous. It is

important to re-look at political /cultural practices of Dalits to understand the Dalit response to State

and modernity. If one emphasises the discursive aspects of modernity, it offers enormous possibilities

to talk about Dalit suffering/ humiliation and oppression. It can also be said that Ambedkars

argument for creating a moral community is possible only if one emphasizes the discursive aspects of

modern experience.

Further, modernity, as imposed on the third world countries has been attacked from many fronts.

Modernity is considered as a necessary extension of colonialism. Modernity in India came as a

package with colonialism. There is an attack on the general philosophical beliefs of modernity such

as notions of Universalism and its truth claims. There is an attack on the very values of post-

Enlightenment thought, on its conception of secularism and rights etc. As observed by Javeed Alam,

people readily reject terms like secularism on the grounds that they are alien to and lack any affinity

with Indian culture or traditions. However, other terms such as democracy or equality are readily

acceptable.6 This may give a clue to understand modernity which has taken roots in the Indian

context and its complexity.

Modern is historically embodied form of enlightenment. Whatever is entailed under enlightenment as

values, beliefs, principles, ethics, morality and so on, has been thought of as universal not just in an

abstract sense but as something universalizable in the thinking and practices of all human beings.

Colonialism has a historical connection with capitalism and therefore also what we have referred to

as entrenched modernity. The capitalism in the colonies have demonstrative with all the features of

distorted consciousness, racial superiority, arrogant cultural exclusiveness, and intellectual

condescension over and above political control of those inferiors whom it has subjugated.

The writings reveal that Dalit relation to modernity is complex. It is also, in some sense critical

about the general understanding of modernity, that is modern development, science and reason. Dalit

politics refuses to get incorporated into the binaries of nationalism/colonialism and

secularism/communalism. It also resists Universalism, the unmarked and abstract citizen as a centre

of the emancipatory discourse of modernity. It is equally critical about the abstract 'working class'. In

other words, it constantly speaks with and against both the liberal and the radical conception of man

and society. Ambedkar doesn't believe in mere individualism, whereas the individual is the centre

for liberal and modern life. He believes in community life that is rooted in a moral society and is

based on the ideals of modernity. He makes differences with other communitarians like conservatives

(Hindutva forces) and Marxists.



The trajectory of modernity in post-colonial India is a very complicated one. The Brahminical Hindu

elite's engagement with the modernist project is quite interesting. The liberation of the self/nation is

imagined in the spiritual and cultural domains. In its initial phase, Hindu nationalism started internal

social reforms. The project of modernity pursued by these social elites of post-colonial India has

ended up as anti-modern . As Partha Chatterjee notes: the search for the post colonial has been

tied, from its very birth, with its struggle against modernity'. The modernization process carried the

tag of the tradition. This ultimately led to the confrontation of secular state and the Nehruvian ideal

of modernity by the Hindutva forces in contemporary times. In Post-independent India, the

Nehruvian project of 'modernity', 'development', and ' progress through big dams, heavy industries

and scientific institutions benefited the upper caste groups more than anybody else. This lead to the

generation of capital in India but it did not develop a capitalist culture and its values. The upper

caste groups didn't come out of their feudal mindset. On the other hand, Dalits are marginalized and

dislocated. This situation often meets with conflicts and tensions in the nation. Any radical assertion

of Dalits is suppressed by the State. The political institutions become oppressive. Secular democracy

may become a farce. Further, the governability for ruling class becomes a serious problem until and

unless it attends the situation in a real democratic spirit.

On the other hand, the Dalits involvement with the colonial-mediated modernity project was too

complex. In a feudal set up, where Dalits are degraded and humiliated in the name of caste and

social norms, colonial modernity, to a certain extent, facilitated to become conscious of their

objective condition. The institutions set by the colonialsts promised political, legal and social

equality at least theoretically, if not practically. In this respect, Ambedkar is in favour of the active

intervention of the State to bring Dalits into the modern sphere. In early days, Brahminical social

elite too felt the need for modernizing Dalits. For this, they prescribed habits of 'purity' and the need

for 'education' for Dalits. When more Dalits are entering the public space so far reserved for upper

castes, through State-sponsored developmental programmes, it creates antagonism and conflict. With

an increased assertion of Dalits and their struggles, and the marked visibility of Dalits in post-

independent India has frustrated the upper castes. They pick up a new liberal language to counter the

Dalits against the spirit of liberalism. For instance, when Dalits are fighting against the hegemony of

caste, the upper castes dismiss this struggle as casteist. Dalits talking about caste is considered as

parochial and anti-modern by them. Further, they argue for an economic basis for any emancipatory

project of the State. In the anti- Mandal agitation this attitude can be witnessed. Upper castes find

various strategies like this to maintain the status quo in society. Casteism of the upper castes took

modern incarnation in the public sphere, and started articulating their interests in modernist discourse

like, purity and pollution, 'hygiene', 'efficiency' and 'merit'.

One more interesting point is that, the upper castes started discrediting the modern political

institutions in the context of the entry of Dalits into it. They go on propagating that these institutions

got 'corrupted' by blaming the lower caste people. They even go on opposing the very foundations of

the secular democratic State of the nation. They argue that this secular democracy based on the

'rationality' of western colonial model, is not based on indigenous cultural and philosophical

traditions. At this point, Dalits came to the rescue of secular democracy. The Upper caste



intellectuals, by taking the post- modernist position, that 'science is a social construct', started

justifying the philosophies of irrationality and dogmatism as science. It had a negative implication for

Dalits. In this context, Ambedkar and Dalits of post-colonial India, are arguing in favour of the

'scientific reason' of modernity that is rooted in indigenous traditions. This could be seen in the

literary and cultural narratives of dalits of contemporary writings. The modernity manifested in Dalit

literary narratives is different from the reform oriented (brahminical) modern telugu literature.

Telugu Modernity: A Brahminical Intervention

Historically, the social groups, which had acquired political and economic dominance, enjoyed the

privilege over cultural production and others got silenced. Western influenced middle class, those

who later played a major role in molding the nationalist struggles, involved in the production of

literary writings. It is obviously, the upper caste groups ideals and aspirations and their worldview

reflected in literature too. In the post independent India, modern State was unable to uphold the

promised ideals of good life and better society to the vast number of the oppressed of this country. In

the political writings of literature of this time, there emerged an upper caste middle-class man as a

protagonist. He is sympathetic to the lower classes and he articulates their needs and is seen to be

mobilizing the oppressed masses. There are very few writings which talk about dalits and their life.

Those that exist come out as the sympathy of the upper caste writers towards labourers as a part of

the class struggles. The protagonists in the literary writing are always from the upper caste groups.

They are portrayed as shouldering the responsibility to reform/educate dalits. This completely lacks

knowledge about the authentic dalit life and their experiences. These upper caste writers have

constrains to perceive the lives of other communities. These socially sensitive upper caste writers

could not mobilize the support of their communities to their imagined ideals and many of them

moved towards spiritualism. Most of the writers came from Brahmin middle class families. In

latter days, the intensified struggles aspiring the communist ideals too failed to capture the dalit

imagination and the question of caste remained immune to their discourses. Till the 1980s, the entire

literary discourse centered on the concept of the abstract human being, erosive of all cultural markers

like caste, color, religion, region and gender.

However, the modernity in Telugu literature reflected through the reformist agenda of intellectuals of

Telugu society. Modernity is identified with the spoken language than textual language. The

modernity articulated through the genres like drama, novel, short story and free verse than classical

poetry. The issues identified are practice of untouchability, problems of women, importance of

education. For this, either they negotiated within tradition or to reform the tradition in the backdrop

of colonial education. In later days, the progressive agenda of the communist movements are taken

up the project of the modernity in the name of class struggle. They are not explicit in their

articulation about caste or patriarchy. Special reference to this considered as pre modern and

celebrated an identity of the class. The idea of class not only conceals these realistic social identities

but also indirectly helps in maintaining the hegemony of caste and patriarchy. The social agency

mediated the modernity through their writings is mostly brahminical class or broadly upper caste

men. With the emergence of conscious intellectuals from the lower castes and women exposed the



shallowness of the above said modernity. They problematized the writings of their predecessors on

the issues of authenticity and representation. They evaluated them from the unchanged social life

of contemporary times. In other words, the new intellectuals are assessing the literary modernity

through its social functioning. In this process, not only questioned the canons of literature but also

dismissed the celebrated telugu modernists like Gurujada and Sree Sree. Celebration of Jashua, the

dalit writer could be seen as a Mahakavi as against the progressive writer Sree Sree. Normatively the

modernity manifested through the dalit literature is different from the earlier Telugu literary writings.

In telugu society, in the medieval time witnessed the emergence of non Brahmin intelligentsia, like

Vemana, Potuluri Veerabrahmam and argues in favour of denouncement of caste system, social

inequality and oppression.7 Both the nationalists and liberals of later times, fail to understand the

caste system, since most of them are drawn from upper caste. The social reformers such as

Veerasalingam and Gurajada Apparao are considered as the founders of new epoch in modern

telugu literature are confined to the problems of the Brahmins only. While they sought to reform

certain evils of the hindu social system, they failed to grapple with the ideological and institutional

framework of brahminical Hinduism. And these social reformers did not inherit and continue the

medieval bakti tradition, it was discontinued. Given their social background and intellectual and

cultural tradition, they could not profess anti-feudal and anti colonial/caste ideology and

consciousness. Unlike the saint poets they did not revolt against all kinds of social evils. They were

selective in philosophical and ideological standpoint. In that sense they failed to generate and build a

popular cultural and ideological movement against caste system.8 In the nationalist and post-

independent times, Dalit scholars took inspiration from this medieval bakthi tradition.

Manifested modernity in Dalit Literature

Dalit intellectuals negotiated their philosophical views to the larger society through the medium of

literature than any other form. They are organic intellectuals in strict sense of Gramsci, having the

elements of thinking and organizing the community as against the traditional brahminical

intellectuals. In this sense Dalit literature has to be seen as the process in creation of counter

hegemony against brahminical hegemony. Dalit literature has significant in many ways-culturally,

historically and ideologically. Dalit literature enriched with content and description of dalit struggles

for human dignity. There has been constant effort from dalit writers in translating the condemned life

styles and practices of marginalised people into symbols of protest and pride. Dalit writers gave rich

meaning to dalit life that brought respect for them. In the process of writing their own history, they

thoroughly interrogated the existing histories of dominant caste/class groups in their literary

writings.9

An ideal society should be mobile and it should be full of channels for conveying a change taking

place in one part to other parts. In an ideal society there should be many interests consciously

communicated and shared. There should be varied and fee points of contact with other modes of

association. In simple terms, Ambedkar viewed that an ideal society would be based on liberty,

equality and fraternity.10 Ambedkar favors for a democratic tradition that stand for reason rather

negating it. He felt for hindu religious tradition need to undergo a radical reform. Caste is a natural

outcome of certain religious beliefs which have the sanction of shastras. To abolish the sanctity and



sacredness of caste, one has to destroy the authority of the shastras and Vedas. For this, one has to

destroy the religion of both sruti and smriti. Ambedkar not only proposing the indigenous tradition

that stand for reason, but also tries to link up that tradition with the governing principle of politics.

As Ambedkar is the source of inspiration for Dalit movement and so reflected his thought in dalit

literature.

In the process of writing their history, are collecting the memoirs of the collective suffering. Dalit

writer through his writings interrogates the brahminical past, which has the character of humiliation,

atrocious for dalits.11 The suffering of the dalits for generations is identified with the very nature of

brahminical society. The struggle for the human dignity and self respect could be seen as in all the

writings of dalit literature. Human dignity and self respect are the primary source of modernity. The

Human dignity could be attained only through fulfilment of social and economic equality. In

democracy, citizenship is prerequisite for its functioning. In case of dalits, it is negated due to its

casteist nature. The craving for the citizenship could be seen in the writings of dalit literature.12

Against the monopoly of knowledge by the brahminical class, dalits argues that Knowledge is

nobodys property; It is the wealth of all jatis. In fact, Dalits are productive class. The real

knowledge produced out of their collective labour.13

Dalit Novel and Modernity

Chilukuri Devaputras Panchamam, Vemula Yellaiahs Kakka and G. Kalyana Raos Antarani

Vasantham are historic dalit novels of contemporary times, written by the dalits in late nineties. The

commonality of these novels is depiction of dalit life, and argues for the liberation of dalit

community. But these novels are not only located in three different regions ( Rayalaseema,

Telangana and Coastal Andhra respectively), and represents three different political positions. The

imagination of community and the construction of the dalit self too varies. However, struggle against

caste hegemony and assertion of dalits of post colonial India is the common theme of these novels.

These novels inform dalit discourse of modernity.

The novel Panchamam is the story of a dalit becoming a Revenue Divisional officer (RDO) and a

victim of hegemonic social system of upper castes. The hero of the novel Sivayya belongs to a

Madiga community of a village in the Rayalaseema, and his father is an illiterate cobbler. He is a

staunch Gandhian and later attracted towards communism, under the influence of Suresh. Suresh,

dalit youth came to the village of Sivayya as a teacher in a school exclusively run by an NGO for

dalit children. He rebelled against the caste system by organizing dalits against the everyday insults

and humiliations by the upper castes in public space. He quit the job in NGO, and decided to lead the

underground life by joining the Naxalite party for the cause of dalits. At one particular moment,

Sivayya too decided to go in the line of Suresh, but dropped that idea on the advice of his well wisher

and civil rights activist Purushottam. He becomes a Deputy Collector and posted as RDO in his own

region. His sincerity towards his duty and commitment to his community often puts him into trouble.

On one hand, the upper caste landlords are intolerant to this dalit bureaucrat and on the other make

all attempts to bring him under their control. But he stands independent, assertive, truthful and



always committed to justice. He becomes a checkpoint to unlawful exercise of the power of the upper

caste, since he is not obeying for the re- convey of ceiling land in favour of upper caste surpanch,

Seetharamappa. By using his political nexus to his upper caste community in the government,

implicate him in a corruption case. The author argues for the real political power for the

emancipation of the exploited lives of the dalits as in the line of Ambedkar. The novel came to the

conclusion that in a system, dalit even become a big officer like Sivayya or a deputy chief minister

like Krupakararao could not do anything, in a system which favors the upper class. This inability is

effectively used by the upper caste in their favor.14 Further, the novel conveys that there is no other

world (maro prapancham, maro prastanam, these phrases are popular with the progressive writer,

Sree Sree) or Ramarajyam (dream of Gandhi). Dalit people has to struggle by standing the edges of

the untouchability, have to think on standing on the edges of the exploitation, the treatment of

inferiority, get the fistful of self respect from poverty ridden life, and has to learn revolt from the

untouched helplessness.15

The upper caste writers, reformers, nationalists or progressive, often felt the need of the education as

an ideal to resolve all the problems of the dalits. This novel too carries with this ideal, a dalit boy

believes that he can emancipate his community through education and by reaching the highest job.

Soon he realized that it difficult to do stand with his community even constitutionally, unless until

caste and class ridden system collapses. Dalits have to be conscious of the caste exploitation and has

to assert for the rights. In other words, the novel reflects on the shallowness of the promised

modernity in its practice as in the case of dalits. Caste has constrained the freedom of the dalits. So

Dalits anticipating political power based on the total freedom and liberty. Dalit modernity

internalizes the equality and so the rights through struggle. The central character Sivayya symbolizes

the dalit self, as educated, conscious, commited, quest for the justice and even looks coward and

inferior in particular situation due to the caste system. The dalit self travels from the Gandhian to

communist, but not committed to both. In practical life, feel suffocated, isolated, and helpless, though

successfully reached the highest position from an ordinary poor rural dalit life. The modern secular

democracy becomes farce in a caste ridden society. It is believed that whole social system has to be

changed for real democracy. In case of dalits, it is possible only through the collective struggle

against the dominance and exploitation of the upper caste. The author indicates indirectly that

Sivayya and Suresh are complementary to each other in marking the dalit idenity.

Kalyana Raos novel Antarani Vasantham(2000)16 is a landmark in Dalit literary and cultural history

from the Dalit point of view. The novel recorded the collective social experiences and struggles of

Dalit community. The social memory of a community, transmitted over generations, has been put in

a written form. The novel is a written social document of Dalit culture, which is predominantly in

oral tradition. This novel is an attempt to search a collective identity of the Dalit community. It is the

chronicle of life of six generations of Dalits. This records a hundred years struggle of the Dalit

communities. In the context where the elite scholars do not consider lower caste peoples struggles,

culture, philosophy, life styles and history, this novel becomes the source book for culture, history,

politics and philosophy of Dalits. Kalyana Rao explained how the Dalit culture is born from the

lower caste peoples involvement in labor. They spontaneously and naturally composed the songs



from their life. Apart from the value of entertainment, the Dalits used cultural performance

symbolically as a social protest against the dominance of hegemony of upper caste social groups. It

explains Dalit struggles in various forms in a given social conditions. The novel depicts not only the

sufferings of Dalits but also joyful moments in their life. This novel is an attempt towards writing

history, philosophy, politics and culture of Dalits in a comprehensive form. In Antarani Vasantham,

constraints to freedom of Dalits, comes from an enemy who is an upper caste. The idea of freedom

itself indicates for Kalyana Rao, a perpetual flow of resistance by Dalit community to an upper caste

community. Dalit community has been described as a focal point of creativity, resistance to

oppression and a character of purity. This is effectively indicated through central character Yellanna

who eloquently represents a creative, upright and assertive individual. This is one way of expressing

dalit freedom or a mode of being dalit. One of the characters, in difficult times of community life says,

we have born just not to be killed but to live too.17

Antaraani Vasantam is a story of seven generations of dalits. More than that, it is a struggle of dalits

at different points of time. In this novel the lead character named Ruthu is a writer. The novel runs

with the recollection of her memories. The story of dalits narrated for the period of more than hundred

years in the form of women's memories. Her memories go back to four generations before and two

generations after her. The memories are loaded with suffering, pain, agony, anguish and struggle. This is

the case with every dalit life. Precisely because of this, author hints that memories are of not the past but

they have their continuity in present and also projected into future. This novel is a significant piece of

dalit literature to trace back the dalit struggles to generations. The novel focused on a point that dalits

have no freedom without struggle. History reveals for dalits, struggle is not an idea, but a necessity for

the survival of dalits. This has been illustrated by considering different historical contexts, with different

strategies employed by the dalit. The constraint to freedom of the dalits comes from an enemy who is an

upper caste. The novel projects the dalit universe that is filled with both pleasure and pain. Generally, in

the upper caste writings, dalit is a subject of misery and suffering. The writers strategy is to generate

sympathy towards dalit condition. On contrary to this, Kalyana rao depicts the dalit self as assertive and

resists any kind of dominance and exploitation. This Dalit self directly set against the caste hegemony.

The author tried to show that dalit subjectivity is authenticated and had a moral worth since their

involvement in a labour and production process. The dalit culture has lived through the collective social

experiences and continued to the present through oral form. This has been performed through social

memory.18 The novel proves that life, struggle, culture, literature, philosophy and politics are not

different for dalits. Moreover, this novel constructs the history of dalits, which is not available either in

official history or in achieves.

Kakka is the novel about the Madiga community of Telangana region. In the history of Telugu literature

this novel has multifold significance. This is the first novel on Madiga community as such by a Madiga

writer Vemula Yellaiah. At his 40s Yellaiah started writing dalit poetry in late the 1990s. The author's

quest to capture dalit life as a whole he opted the form of novel as a medium of expression. This piece

has been written in the backdrop of Madiga Dandora movement. This novel projects madigaisation

(dalitisation) as an alternative to the predominant upper-caste ideology. It also opens up the internal

contradictions and violence within the community. The other striking feature is that the whole story runs



in Telangana dalit dialect. So far the dominant dialect of costal Andhra has been used in writing of

novels. This novel came from the place where revolutionary struggles are prominently took place. The

writer seems to be uncompromising with radical dalit identity and indirectly criticizes the prevailing left

culture and tries to critically read the left tradition. This novel ends up with conscious educated dalits

along with civil-rights groups together fighting for the cause of dalit struggles of village.

On the other hand the idea of being dalit in Kakka is different. It identifies that constraint to freedom to

dalits is not just from an outsider but also from the very community. The central character kakka faces

too many hardships from within community as well as outsiders. For instance, the mother of kakka

was accused of an illicit relation and was subjected to social boycott by the community. Kakka was

denied an opportunity to take up the duty to perform madigarikam (caste profession) that is

considered a honour in the community. Thus the constraint within the community has projects a

different community and a different kind of self- awareness. And of course, he has to fight a valiant

battle against the other communities, which has traditionally been dominant in the village. It is also

shown that in times of struggle against upper castes, dalits came together and fought valiantly.

These three novels are significant because they involve a deep exploration into dalit culture. They

tried to bring out various positive aspects of dalit culture to the fore. Antaraani Vasantam has

celebrated rich and vibrant cultural traditions of dalit community by going to origins. The novel

Kakka could effectively brought out some of the inhuman social practices of dalit communities,

which may be helpful in reforming of them. Thus a deep exploration of dalit life through novel may

result in strengthening of dalit cultural identity. There is a scope to come up with much more serious

dalit novel in future by touching all aspects of dalit life. The novel Panchamam shows the limitation

of liberal modernity adopted by the constitution of the nation, and felt that it failed to protect the

aspirations of educated dalits in practice. The novel goes back to the Dalit tradition of madigarikam.

It is another kind of protest to assert the Dalit identity against the dominance of the upper caste. The

novel Antarani Vasantham constructs the Dalit identity only through rebellion against the caste and

class dominance.

The above mentioned writings reveals that the dalit writers have definite image of moral order

through which they understand dalit life and history. The dalit modernity proposed by the dalit

writers is based on a social imaginary, which is obviously different from the both colonial and

dominant modernity of the Indian nation. The understanding of a person, dalit selfhood and morality

are shaping the modern identity of dalits through their narratives. Morality has to be articulated

through the respect for others, dignity, integrity, well being and common good. The moral world of

dalit writer has not just emerged out of the ideas of sense of respect for human agency but also from

the fuller understanding of life. Dalit self can be described or evaluated only with reference to the

upper caste people who are surrounded him. In assessing dalit identity, one has to look into from

where he is speaking and to whom. In defining identity, ones moral concern of a subject is not

enough, and also demands a reference to the community. Our being selves are essentially linked to

our sense of the good, and that we achieve selfhood among other selves. We understand ourselves

inescapably in narrative. There is a close connection between the different conditions of identity, or



of ones life making sense. The qualitative distinctions play a crucial role in defining our identity and

making sense of our lives in narrative. The qualitative distinctions give the reasons for our moral and

ethical beliefs. The modern sense of the Dalit self not only linked to and made possible by new

understandings of good but also are accompanied by new forms of narrativity and new

understandings of social bonds and relations.

Conclusion

Modernity has connoted with many meanings such as value, rationality, western, colonialism,

development, capitalism, secularism humanism and so on. Dalit relation to modernity is

complex and even ambiguous. Dalit modernity has to be understood in the context of Dalit liberation

from humiliating, exploitative, oppressive brahminical tradition. Dalit modernity centred on the value

of human dignity and self respect. In persuasion of this, it interrogates the irrational, unjust and

dogmatic practices of hindu social order on the basis of scientific reason. And at the same time tried

to assert its own self, upholds its indigenous tradition by claiming the elements of humane

democratic practices. Dalit modernity overcomes the tradition modernity dichotomy that has been

set in the interests of the Western. In India, the fruits of modernity is enjoyed and monopolized by

the brahminical class in the material level, and at the same time maintained intact with their traditions

in spiritual / religious level. This has been continued from colonial to post colonial times. Dalits are

systematically excluded in this project. Dalits as the victims of the project of development/

progress, of post independent India, are negotiating with larger nation from its fringes. The

modernity appropriated by dalits is rights centred and argued in favor of democratization of

indigenous tradition. They are negotiating with the ideals of modernity to overcome the social

exclusion, exploitation, suffering and humiliation imposed by hindu tradition. The Dalit modernity

has very much mediates the liberal, radical and communitarian philosophies in its own way, both by

associating and differentiating from these political traditions on different points. It is a critique of

Indian modernity essentially carried by liberal Brahmin elite. The dalit modernity proposed by the

dalit writers is based on a social imaginary, which is obviously different from the both colonial and

dominant modernity of the Indian nation. The social imaginary in Dalit intellectuals ignites the sense

of identity to recapture their own history, which is marginalized so far.

Notes & References:

1. Prasad, Kalekuri. (1995). Pidekedu Atmagouravam Kosam Talettinavadni Am Raised for a Fistful of Self-respect) (Translation Lakshminarasiah) In Kesava Kumar and K.

Satyanarayana (Eds.), Dalit Manifesto. Hyderabad: Vishphotana, 20

2. Gowrisankar, Juluri.(1994). Padamudralu. Tenali: Poetry circle. 3. Sivasagar, a dalit writer marking the assertion of dalits in writing their own history against

the brahminical history centred around advaita of Sankara. See Sivasagar. Nadustunna

Charitra (Tr. Laxminasaiah) G.Laxminarasaiah, The Essence of Dalit poetry; A socio-

philosophic study of telugu Dalit poetry, Hyderabad: Dalit Sana publications, 34. And also

see Sivasagar (2004).Sivasgar Kavitvam, Hyderabad: Bahujana Book syndicate, 263.

4. Chatterjee, Partha.(1999).Talking about our modernity in two languages, A Possible India, The Partha Chatterjee Omnibus, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 280.

5. Kesava Kumar .P., Jiddu Krishna Murtis Conception of Tradition and Revolution : A Critical Study. (Doctoral dissertation , University of Hyderabad, 1997), 232.



6. Alam, Javeed. (1999). India: Living with Modernity, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 4. 7. Vemana and Veerabrahmam are non Brahmin philosopher saints and yogis of pre modern

times and confronted the brahminical Hinduism.

8. Satyanarayana. A.(2005). Dalit Protest literature in Telugu : A historical Perspective, Dalits and upper Caste, Esays in Social History , New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers, 81-82.

9. See Sivasagar. (2004).Sivasgar Kavitvam, Hyderabad: Bahujana Book syndicate, 263. 10. Ambedkar, B.R. (1989).(Moon, Vasant. (Comp.)).Dr. Baba Saheb Ambedkar Writings and

Speeches, Vol.1, 57.

11. Yendluri Sudhakar in his poem : I am still a prohibited human being/Mine is an expelled breath/ Trying a barb tree leaf to my aist/And a tiny spittoon to my mouth/Manu made me a

wretched human animal among others/The moment he left a mark of prohibition on my

face/My race/Was gradually murdered history pinched my thumb/Present history is asking all the fingers/Now we want a voice of our own/We want a voice that can choose what can do

good to ourselves. 12. In this Country we want a piece of land/These clouds has to be vanished/These walls must be

collapsed/This silence/ must be bursted / this gum/ must be dried up/ O man/ I want real

citizenship /Could you give me! ..what do I want/I want you/ I want a place/ In your heart/ I

must wash my hands/ at your home/you must come to my hut/ and ask our girl for

marriage/we must become /relatives/friend! This country/must become ours/as we walk hand

in hand/this uneven earth/must become smooth/will you come? What we want now is not

bloody cash/ A fearless voice that discerns what we want/ A new constitution, a new state/A

new earth and a new sky. See Nagesh Babu, Madduri.(1998). Yem kavali, Meerevultu

(tr.Laxminarasaiah), Narasaraopet: Sreeja Publications, 74.

13. When hands/ From over the Mala hamlets/ and Madiga huts / Throw themselves on the fields/Banks of the fields blossomed/Trees flowered/And fields fragrant with crops. See Gowri Shankar, Juluri. Padamudralu. (Tr. Laxminarasaiah) In Kesava Kumar and

K.Satyanarayana (Eds.) (1995).Dalit Manifesto, Hyderabad: Vishphotana, 35-36.

14. Devaputra, Chilukuri.( 2000).Panchamam, Hyderabad: Lifeline Communication, 262. 15. Ibid., 272. 16. Kalyana Rao, G.( 2000).Antarani Vasantham(Untouchable Spring), Hyderabad: Virasam. 17. Kesava Kumar, P. (2005). Emergence of Dalit Novel : An overview, In I.Thirumali (Ed.)

South India Culture, Sagas, New Delhi:Biblimatrix.

18. Kesava Kumar, P. (2005).Performance of Social Memory, In Contextualization of Vikalp, Alternatives August. http://www.vakindia.org/archives/Vikalp-Aug2005.pdf



INFLUENCE OF SPANDASASTRA ON ABHINAVAGUPTAS PHILOSOPHY

Nirmala.V.

Kashmir Saivism in its most recognized sense denotes the monistic philosophy originated and

developed in Kashmir-the northern part of India. The system itself is a later development of the Siva-

centered religious cult which comes under the realm of enormous Tantric tradition. Many branches

and sub- systems were commenced within the wide area of Tantric Saiva Philosophy. Among the

streams of Kashmir Saivism, Spanda- the doctrine which expounds the dynamic nature of reality- has

a significant role. Since it trails an independent nature, most of the scholars considered Spandasastra

as a separate branch1 of Saiva philosophy. Spandakarika is the fundamental treatise of this particular

school and is generally attributed to Vasugupta. The four commentaries viz., vrtti by Kallata; vivrti

by Ramakantha; spandapradipika by Bhttotpala; spandasandoha and spandanirnaya by Ksemaraja

made the theory of spanda more popular and established. In the workshop on Trika Philosophy,

2011, Dr Navjivan Rastogis comment on spanda could be viewed as an extended version of his

anxiety expressed in his Introduction to Tantraloka in 1987.2This depiction indicates that the very

topic is discussed hardly yet. Though the mutual relationship between different streams of the same

area is uncommon, the influence of Spandasastra in the later developments of Kashmir Saivism

should be treated seriously and this paper focuses especially in its influences on Abhinavagupta, the

eleventh century synthesizer of the monistic Saiva philosophy.

Abhinavaguptas inevitable contributions were the milestones in the history of Kashmir Saiva

philosophy. His foremost uniqueness is the thorough and deep knowledge in different streams

simultaneously with which he produced such an irreplaceable work- Tantraloka, which actually is a

source book of the new insights in Indian philosophy and the history of Kashmir. Apart from this

magnum opus Abhinavagupta propounded his novel ideas through the commentaries of post-

scriptural saivite sources as well as various independent works. Like other thought systems3, spanda

theory also contributed much to the development of his new amalgamated philosophy. Although

Abhinava never wrote a commentary on spanda and he nevertheless used to develop this concept.

In particular situations, Abhinava used to define the term Spanda based upon its technical nature. For

eg, in Tantraloka the term is defined as: This is a slight movement, sphurana, scintillating, not

dependent on any other. It is a wave in the ocean of consciousness and consciousness cannot be

without waves.4 While in Paratrisikavivarana, he frequently uses the notion as well as the idea of

spanda. According to the monistic saivism, whole universe is the manifestation of the supreme realty

and habitually this is used to define as the creative power which situates in the same, omnipotent

reality, Siva. So the universal nature of everything is clear from this. To establish the same,

Abhinavagupta seeks the help of spanda theory: All this universe consisting of 36 categories, though

created by Siva who being of supreme Sakti, is of the nature of universal creative pulsation (


Volume III, No. 01(March, 2013), pp.18-20



samanya spanda) rests in that consciousness itself in its own form which is predominantly sakti, ie.,

characterized by particular creative pulsation (visesa spanda).5 The same thing is discussed in the

interpretation of Isvarapratyabhijnakarika 1-14 where spanda is identified with the imperceptible

eternal stir- sphuratta, being the essence of all beyond the limitations of time and space.6

Cognition has an important role in the philosophy of saivite monism. In the system the cogniser, the

cognized and the cognition are same as well as supreme reality ie. Siva. As the process of creation,

realization also related with the dynamic force which known through various terms and basically

with the nature of spanda. Abhinava technically call this as Vimarsa and find similarities with

spanda. Bettina Baumer says that: If we deny self-shining nature to subject, there remains no room

for question and answer. In the cognitive experience such as I Know there is consciousness (not

only of self-luminous self but) of association with a stir (spanda) also. It is self because of this stir

that self is admitted to be of sentient nature7 The creativity and cognition in case of poetry is also

considered as spanda .

Discussing the crux of a text in its very opening part is the uniqueness of Abhinavaguptas style of

interpretation. Almost such discussions also reflect the essence of his philosophical outlook. In

Vimarsini, the commentary of Isvarapratyabhijnakarika, Siva (who is omnipotent as well as

omniscient) is prayed who in the form of I consciousness, changes himself to the consciousness of

this with the help of an external pulsation connoted as spandana:

anantabhavasambhavabhasane spandanam param/

upodghatayate yasya tam stumah sarvada sivam//8

The notion of Svasvabhava is another term which is very common in spanda texts and to be

connected with Abhinavas principle of Ahambhava. Apart from the usage of technical terms,

sometimes he compares the idea of Visarga of kula tradition with spanda and makes his Agamic

exegesis easier9.

In sum, Abhinavaagupta manipulate the theory of Spanda in different manners though he admirably

avoided the question about the independent nature of Spandasastra. Conversely he tries to

incorporate this concept within his highly philosophical school of Kashmir Saivim- Trika. The causes

of this predilection may be viewed as: The lack of establishment of spandasastra, as a cult like krama

or kula. Abhinavagupta was not ready to consider spanda doctrine- explicated very recently- as a

well-organized philosophy, and since the concept basically encompasses some openings, it couldnt

be denied completely.

NOTES:

1. Spanda is considered as an individual system by some scholars while others make an

utterly distinct opinion about its separate existence.

2..There was an acute controversy with regard to the exact status of spanda system i.e.,

whether it was a separate system or a part of Trika system.



3. Rastogi says, His references to some Naiyayikas (Kesamcana Naiyayikanam T.A. 2.12-44),

Vairinca Brahmavadins (T.A.V., III, p. 25), Nastika philosophers subscribing to the negation

of soul and not to the denial of the authority of the Veda (T.A. 6.19-20) invite us to explore

this unexplored area. Similarly his presentation of the Kaumarila view on Vedyata and its

lengthy masterly refutation (T.A. 10.21-57) adds new dimensions to our understanding of

Kumarila. Abhinava's presentation of Siddhanta Saivism in the 4th Ahnika in contrast to the

sister systemsopens a new vista of information throwing new light on the evolution of the

dualistic Saivism in Kashmir. He is an invaluable source of information on Buddhism. He

practically refers to all sects of Buddhism so much so that he remains the only source of

many exclusive theories of Buddhists.

4. Tantraloka 4.184-186. See Samanya and Visesa spandas in Mark Dyckscowski, The Doctrine

of Vibration, p.107-109.

5. Isvarapratyabhijnakarika, 1-2.

6. Bettina Baumer, Abhinavaguptas hermeneutics of the Absolute, p. 87.

7. ibid, p. 17.

8. Bhaskari vol.1, p.47

9. See Jaideva Singh, Abhinavagupta- The trident of wisdom, p.37.

REFERENCES:

Dyczkowski, Mark S.G.(1989). The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and

Practices of Kashmir Saivism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Baumer, Bettina. (2011). Abhinavagupta's Hermeneutics of the Absolute Anuttaraprakriya. New

Delhi: D K Print world.

Dyczkowski, Mark S.G. (1994). The Stanzas on Vibration. Varanasi: Dilip Kumar Publishers.

Padoux, Andre. (1992). Vac: The Concept of Word in Selected Hindu Tantras. Delhi: Sri Sadguru

publications.

Pandey, K.C. (2006). Abhinavagupta: An Historical and Philosophical Study. Varanasi:

Chowkhamba Amarabharati.

Raffaele, Torella. (Ed.) (2002). Isvarapratyabhijnakarika. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Rastogi, Navjivan.(1987). Introduction to The Tantraloka. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Singh, Jaideva (Ed.) (1988). Paratrisikavivarana of Abhinavagupta. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Spandakarika of Vasugupta with Nirnaya by Ksemaraja. KSTS XLIX . Srinagar. 1925.

Tantraloka of Abhinavagupta with the commentary Viveka of Rajanaka Jayaratha. KSTS

23,28,30,35,29,41,47,59,52,57,58, Bombay and Srinagar, 1918-1938.



Philosophy of Language in Siddhnta aiva Philosophy

Shruti Rai

ABSTRACT

Philosophy of language is the centripetal in the schools of Tantra. In the realm of tantric schools, the

non-dualistic philosophy- Kashmir aiva and kta philosophical branches examine the concept of

vk and establishes the identical relation between language, thought and reality. At the same time, Dualistic philosophy of Siddhanta aiva explains the doctrine of language with dualistic approach. In

this context, bindu is one of the key concepts of this school in the context of philosophy of language

also. The ontological aspect of bindu is the main problem of the thesis. This research article is an

attempt to examine the philosophy of language from the Siddhnta aiva philosophy, the dualistic

branch of Tantra tradition.

Key words- Bindu, pati, pau, nda, my and pa.

Philosophy of language is the centripetal in the schools of Tantra, either non-dualistic or dualistic. In

the realm of non-dualistic philosophy of Tantra, Kashmir aiva and kta philosophical branches

examine the concept of vk and establishes the identical relation between language, thought and reality. Dualistic philosophy explains the doctrine of language in a quite different way. Bindu is one

of the key concepts of this school in general and in the context of philosophy of language also. It is

the source for the descending levels of sound, which are related to the nda, tattvas, padrtha and so on. Francesco Sferra throws light into some important observations about the development of

principle of language-

The differences we find in gamas and in early aivasiddhnta literature regarding the status of

words/sound and its differentiation in levels, undoubtedly reflect those extant in other Indian

traditions and, to some extent, reveal a desire and an effort to test and develop the aivasiddhnta in

the arena of the dialectical debate with other traditions. With regard to speculation on vc, rikaha

addresses his critique implicitly to Bharthari (c.450-510) and/or his followers and explicitly to

advaita thinkers, while Rmakaha and Aghoraiva, especially in the Ndakrik and its

commentary, also confront their ideas with those of the mmmsakas and the naiyyikas.1

The literature of Siddhnta aiva provides the rich material for the philosophy of language. In the continuation, the article provides translation of unpublished commentary Ullekhini of

Ratnatrayapark. There are argumentative concepts which are parallel to the philosophy of

language of Bharthari.


Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.21-28



The concept of bindu is crucial in the context of the most of the theories in this school. Different

connotations of bindu are the attestation of its variation for different conceptions in this philosophy.

It is called 1. abda tattva, 2. amogha vk, 3. brahma, 4. kundalini, 5. vidy, 6. akti, 7. para nda, 8. mahmy, 9. anhatavyoma. In the context of creation, it is the material cause of the world as well

as it is the cause of the impurity. The school stands for three primary categories, pati, pau and pa,

where language is presented in the form of bindu and becomes the chain or thread between the pati

and pau to connect them. Whereas bindu as concept is used under the realm of par vk in the

Kashmir aiva and kta philosophy, contrarily, bindu is an independent category in Siddhnta

aiva. The first primary category iva (Paramaiva)2 is addressed as para bindu. The third category pa binds the soul and is responsible for the distinction of pau from pati. Its fifth and the last

category is bindu. Francesco Sferra indicates towards the references and sources, related to bindu

and levels of sounds in aiva-Siddhnta in this way:

References to different levels of sound (nda) or of word (vc) appear in several early aivasiddhnta

scriptures, commentaries and independent works. The argument is usually treated when dealing with

principles (tattva) or categories (padrtha) in particular bindu, or mahmy, and while explaining

the nature and formation of mantras. Scriptural sources differ to various degrees in their accounts.

Apart from the context and from the coverage that each work devotes to this topic, the main

difference between texts lies in the name and the numbers of the levels of sound and, in general, the

way in which the sonic emanation is described.3

The tattvas are significant to the philosophy of language. Numbers of tattvas are thirty-six4, which

emerges at two levels of uddha and auddha adhv. It is the level of indeterminate and determinate.

These are the stages of creation, not forms of language. Bindu is the material cause of the uddha

adhv i.e. pure world. It is also cause of the nda. In relation to nda, bindu is called para nda5.

The theory of nda, as elaborated by Rmakaha, can be seen as the result of an attempt to

assimilate the sphoa theory according to aivasiddhntin tenets. Anyway, uddhdhv6 is the direct creation of iva. The material cause is bindu. Bindu is the source wherefrom tattvas are emerging.

Here, vidy evolves out of bindu, through the successive stages of modification such as nda etc.

Language stays here but not in emerged form, this is the reason that it is called indeterminate.

Indeterminate word shows the existence of language in essence, not as developed form. The pure

creation is characterized by indeterminacy, because it belongs to a higher level than that at which

language evolves. And because determinacy consists in the affection of citi by the words i.e. so long

as the affection of consciousness is not associated with the words, there is no determinacy. Therefore,

the pure creation belongs to the level of indeterminacy. Here, the affection of consciousness by

language is not possible. Bindu as the first dependent category is called iva. The word iva,

however, is very often used for the first primary category, pati, also. Bindu or iva, the first

dependent category, is the material cause of the pure creation and as such it is also called mahmy.

It is eternal like my. The four categories (tattva) akti, sadiva, vara and vidy7 are the effects or

evolutes of it. It pervades the entire creation, it is one. It reveals the powers of knowledge and action

to those who enter into the pure world by subjecting themselves to spiritual discipline. The sphere of

uddha adhv is unlimited. Indeterminacy shows again pati as limitless, extremely subtle as

determinate language always indicates limitedness. Impure world is the realm of material world. Its



material cause is my and also herein the bound live. It is characterized by determinacy, because it

evolves after the evolution of language

Pa is defined by its fivefold categories and bindu is the fifth of the categories of in this way- 1.

mala, 2. rodhaakti, 3. karma, 4. my, 5. bindu. But a dispute arises regarding the categorization of

pa, ordinarily, it is said fivefold and at times it is said fourfold8 by excluding bindu. There is a lack

of definiteness, precision and uniformity in all the statements about pa. But at some places bindu is

not included and the number is stated to be four. And the reason for its non-inclusion is of the two

types of liberation, which is said mukti (liberation), which is para and apara.-

1. Para, higher

2. apara, lower.

The latter is attended, even when there is the bondage of bindu. And the liberated souls with this

bondage are called mantra and the mantrea etc., who belong to the pure creation. Even after a soul

has got freedom from the bondages of karma and my, it is not perfectly free. It has freedom of the

lower type only. The impurity of mala, which is also called pautvamala, is still here. The souls, who

get freedom from the bondages of my and karma, are called vijnkevalas, live in them. Such

souls are of three types9, according to the higher stages of maturity of their pautvamala. They are

called, Mantramahea, Mantrea, Mantra.

Ndakrik throws questions and possible solutions for arising of meaning in the words and

sentences. K.C. Pandey elaborates three possible solutions-

1. The letters of a word, which are the objects of sense of hearing, come in succession one after

another, are lost no sooner than they are uttered and do not affect one another. They therefore

cannot be spoken of as the cause of the rise of the consciousness of meaning.

2. Nor can word or sentence be said to be the cause. For the words and sentences have no being

apart from the letters, such as may be the object of perception.

3. For a word is said to be a collection of letters. But the letters being successive and

momentary, there can never be a collection of them. And because word and sentence are

never perceived, they cannot, therefore be known through inference either10. Nor can the rise

of the consciousness of meaning be said to be due to the last letter of a word11.

aiva Siddhnta philosophy accepts nda as basic element for the theory of meaning. An external

object, which is grasped by the determinative judgment, is related to the buddhi, but, is not the

product of the buddhi itself. On the contrary it has external existence and as such is perceived

through one of the senses. The internal object, which is the reflection of an external object on buddhi,

is determinately judged by the buddhi. Therefore, it must be something that has already been

indeterminately grasped. The object has two aspects-

1. External



2. Internal

Word has direct relationship with the internal meaning, which is also determinative. Here, object or

meaning has two aspects-

1. Indeterminate

2. determinate

But word has capacity to grasp only determinative aspect of object. The process of getting meaning

passes from the indeterminate to determinate. Nda12 gives the subtle inner word to buddhi, by

means of which it determinately grasps the object, reflected it in. The nda is the cause of inner

speech, which is nothing more than akara bindu. Nda really arouses the consciousness of meaning

because it is the cause of inner speech, in terms of which the determinative judgment is formed. The

external articulated sounds are only external forms of it. Therefore they are not real causes of rising

of the consciousness of meaning in the hearer. Thus, nda is an undifferentiated cause of the subtle

inner speech. It is nothing but an embodiment of all the words and their meanings. All of which

exists in the state of undifferentiated unity, exactly as the different colors exists in the yolk of

peacocks egg. After the affection of a sense by an external object, nda that is in the speaker and

objects that is undifferentiated unity of the word and its meaning, presents for the determinative

judgment of the buddhi in the form of inner speech. The buddhi judges. The judgment is expressed in

articulated audible sounds. They manifest the nda in the hearer. It presents an object which is

undifferentiated unity of subtle word and the indeterminate object to buddhi. Buddhi judges in as far

as, it differentiates between the two, and relates them as signifier and signified. This arouses the

consciousness of meaning. This judgment is expressed in articulated sounds. Similarly at the

stimulation of the sense of hearing by an uttered word, the corresponding word and its meaning as an

undifferentiated unity is given rise by the nda. This forms the object of judgment by buddhi and the

consciousness of definite meaning as distinct from the word arises. Speaker determinately

apprehends objects by means of buddhi13, recollects the word that stands for it and then utters the

gross word. Thus, a form of buddhi which is due to its affection by an object is associated with the

remembered word that stands for it. It is the cause of the utterance of the gross word. It is arouser of

the meaning in the consciousness of that hearer, in whose mind the heard word is associated with the

particular meaning. The dualistic aiva holds the soul to be different from the nda. It is because of

this nda, that is the cause of akara bindu, that there is no confusion in the meaning. It is separate in the case of each individual. It is not identical with the self or its powers, because they are

unchanging, but the nda changes. It is a distinct associate of each limited self.

Dualistic aiva asserts that the one who grasps the statement of the gama thoroughly, realizes

abdabrahman. abdabrahman is nothing more than nda, an embodiment of all words and their

meanings in an undifferentiated unity. There are innumerable ndas, as innumerable are the souls.

Nda is the necessary condition of each soul. Theory of nda-brahmanvda develops the philosophy

of music. Siddhntin holds nda to be reality, which is to be grasped through the medium of music. It

is the original motion. It is the unity of all thoughts and expressions. It is the root or the seed, from

which all words and meanings spring or to put it in terms of music, it is the original vibration from



which all musical vibrations and their meanings arise from. Nda is the original vibration that the art

of music represents and suggests.

Dualistic Siddhnta-aiva philosophy keeps some different notion in the context of the relation

between the individual-self and the empirical knowledge. K.C Pandey explains epistemology of the

same school through the comparing with dualistic Nyya-Vaieika14. Accordingly, the relation cannot be admitted to be that of inherence, since knowledge of the same individual grows and

decays. The admission of the relation of inherence between knowledge and soul, as admitted by the

Vaieika, therefore, would mean that soul changes and therefore is transient. This is against the fundamental assumption of the eternality of the soul. Siddhnta aiva dualism therefore maintains

that the growing and decaying empirical knowledge of the individual subject belong to him, not

directly or inherently, but to a condition of his and that this condition is constituted by nda15. Nda,

as a condition of the individual, is an evolution of bindu. It is as innumerable as are the souls, a

limiting condition of each of which it forms separately. It is like a seed of knowledge which is

signified by words at the empirical level. The power of knowledge of each individual self is related

to the nda and as it grasps the objects determinately at the level of my. The determinate

knowledge cannot be explained in terms of buddhi, because determinacy is found in those levels,

which are beyond to my also. Ananta for instance, belongs to the level of ivara, but he also has a kind of determinate knowledge, otherwise the creation of the empirical world would not be possible.

Further, buddhi employs words and presupposes their existence. Bindu, as the cause of the words,

through nda and lower bindu is necessary.

Siddhnta aiva accepts the same hierarchical four levels which are accepted in the Kashmir aiva

philosophy also. rikanha deals with the different stages of separation of meaning and expression from the stage of their undifferentiated unity in nda, under the nda, akara-bindu and vara. Similarly, he deals with the problem of the rise of gross audible word from the most subtle, through

different stages of grossification, under sukm, payant, madhyam and vaikhar.

Francesco comments on the theoretical development of these levels-

Commentarial tradition from rikaha (9th -10th cent.?) to Nryaakaha (first half of the 10th cent.), his son Rmakaha (c. 950-1000) and later, Aghoraiva (12th cent.), attempts to systematize the doctrine on the emanation of sound in accordance with the aivasiddhnta explanation of

principles, and by fixing four levels of it. The standard series is bindu/kundalini=>

nda=>bindu=>abdari/ara, however, as far as we can say at that moment, this does not

correspond perfectly to any of the lists given in the scriptures.16

The levels are significant in the context of manifestation of language. Bindu, nda, bindu, abdar are showing the systematic order of the appearance of language. In the terminology of rikaha, skm is the highest. He identifies par as sukm, with nda17. Skm stands for highest aspect of speech that is distinct from the higher than payant. Francesco notices this theoretical development, in his words-

Especially rikaha and later masters of the 14th century-adopt another series, the one starting with



sukm and ending with vaikhar, referred to above. This series was probably already widespread in advaita circles of time. Since all the aivasiddhnta authors that make use of it, whether they adopt it

or simply mention it, refers to its wrong interpretation in an advaita perspective, equating the higher

level with Consciousness. In point of fact this series is the most frequently used in Pratyabhijkrik

(1.5.13) by Utpaladeva (c.925-975), where we usually find par instead of skm.18

As it has been already said that the schools of Tantra use same nomenclatures in general, the term

skam is one of them. The term skam is used in both the schools of Kashmir aiva and Siddhnta-aiva, which comes at the level of par in Kashmir aiva philosophy. Bharthari identifies sukm with payant, holding that the word sukm does not stand for an aspect of speech, higher than payant, but it is simply an adjunct, qualifying payant. Payant is identified with akara-bindu19. It is exactly what nda is according to the rikaha. According to Bharthari, it is sentiency itself (savidrupa) while rikaha says it as insentient, because it is an evolution of mahmy. Further, rikaha identifies payant with akara-bindu. His conception of payant is fundamentally different. It is unity not of all words and meaning but of a particular word and its meaning. And the

word also at this stage is not split up into letters. It is therefore marked by the absence of all duality

and succession. It is what is manifested by nda, in consequence of affection of a sense by an object.

It is responsible for the sound picture of a particular word, detailed into distinct letters, which

controls the movement of vital air to definite places of articulation, the speech-organs. It is the cause

of madhyam. Payant, that is identical with nda, is the first evolution of bindu or mahmy. It is insentient because the principle of sentiency, pau, is a distinct and separate entity from it. Bharthari holds that the realization of payant is the realization of the ultimate, because payant is the Brahman. But rikanha holds that the realization of distinction of sukm from purua frees a man from subjection to limited experiences. Madhyam is nothing but a clear mental picture of the

successive letters, which const

Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

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