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Registers*RegistersToday well see another common sequential
device: registers.Theyre a good example of sequential analysis and
design.They are also frequently used in building larger sequential
circuits. Registers hold larger quantities of data than individual
flip-flops.Registers are central to the design of modern
processors.There are many different kinds of registers.Well show
some applications of
these special registers.
Registers
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Registers*What good are registers?Flip-flops are limited because
they can store only one bit.We had to use two flip-flops for our
two-bit counter examples.Most computers work with integers and
single-precision floating-point numbers that are 32-bits long.A
register is an extension of a flip-flop that can store multiple
bits.Registers are commonly used as temporary storage in a
processor.They are faster and more convenient than main memory.More
registers can help speed up complex calculations.Well discuss RAM
next time, and later well also see how registers are used in
designing and programming CPUs.
Registers
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Registers*A basic registerBasic registers are easy to build. We
can store multiple bits just by putting a bunch of flip-flops
together!A 4-bit register from LogicWorks, Reg-4, is on the right,
and its internal implementation is below.This register uses D
flip-flops, so its easy to store data without worrying about
flip-flop input equations.All the flip-flops share a common CLK and
CLR signal.
Registers
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Registers*Adding a parallel load operationThe input D3-D0 is
copied to the output Q3-Q0 on every clock cycle.How can we store
the current value for more than one cycle?Lets add a load input
signal LD to the register.If LD = 0, the register keeps its current
contents.If LD = 1, the register stores a new value, taken from
inputs D3-D0.
Registers
LD
Q(t+1)
0
Q(t)
1
D3-D0
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Registers*Clock gatingWe could implement the load ability by
playing games with the CLK input, as shown below.When LD = 0, the
flip-flop C inputs are held at 1. There is no positive clock edge,
so the flip-flops keep their current values.When LD = 1, the CLK
input passes through the OR gate, so the flip-flops can receive a
positive clock edge and can load a new value from the D3-D0
inputs.
Registers
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Registers*Clock gating is badThis is called clock gating, since
gates are added to the clock signal.There are timing problems
similar to those of latches. Here, LD must be kept at 1 for the
correct length of time (one clock cycle) and no longer.The clock is
delayed a little bit by the OR gate.In more complex scenarios,
different flip-flops in the system could receive the clock signal
at slightly different times.This clock skew can lead to
synchronization problems.
Registers
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Registers*A better parallel loadAnother idea is to modify the
flip-flop D inputs and not the clock signal.When LD = 0, the
flip-flop inputs are Q3-Q0, so each flip-flop just keeps its
current value.When LD = 1, the flip-flop inputs are D3-D0, and this
new value is loaded into the register.
Registers
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Registers*
A shift register shifts its output once every clock cycle.
SI is an input that supplies a new bit to shift into the
register.For example, if on some positive clock edge we have:
SI = 1Q0-Q3 = 0110then the next state will be:Q0-Q3 = 1011The
current Q3 (0 in this example) will be lost on the next cycle.
Shift registersQ0(t+1)= SIQ1(t+1)= Q0(t)Q2(t+1)= Q1(t)Q3(t+1)=
Q2(t)
Registers
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Registers*Shift direction
The circuit and example make it look like the register shifts
right.
But it really depends on your interpretation of the bits. If you
consider Q3 to be the most significant bit instead, then the
register is shifting in the opposite direction!Q0(t+1)= SIQ1(t+1)=
Q0(t)Q2(t+1)= Q1(t)Q3(t+1)= Q2(t)
Registers
Present Q0-Q3
SI
Next Q0-Q3
ABCD
X
XABC
Present Q3-Q0
SI
Next Q3-Q0
DCBA
X
CBAX
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Registers*Shift registers with parallel loadWe can add a
parallel load, just like we did for regular registers.When LD = 0,
the flip-flop inputs will be SIQ0Q1Q2, so the register shifts on
the next positive clock edge.When LD = 1, the flip-flop inputs are
D0-D3, and a new value is loaded into the shift register, on the
next positive clock edge.
Registers
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Registers*Shift registers in LogicWorksHere is a block symbol
for the Shift Reg-4 from LogicWorks. The implementation is shown on
the previous page, except the LD input here is active-low
instead.
Registers
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i-clickerHow do you implement using the Shift Reg 4 the sequence
1, 3, 7, 15, 1, 3, that is, the sequence 0001, 0011, 0111, 1111,
0001, .
A) D0 =1, D1=1, D2=1, D3=1, SI=1, LD = 1
B) D0 =1, D1=0, D2=0, D3=0, SI=1, LD = 1
C) D0 =1, D1=0, D2=0, D3=0, SI=1, LD = Q3
D) D0 =1, D1=0, D2=0, D3=0, SI=0, LD = Q3
Registers*
Registers
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Registers*Other types of shift registersLogical shifts Standard
shifts like we just saw. In the absence of a SI input, 0 occupies
the vacant position.Left: 0110 -> 1100Right: 0110 ->
0011Circular shifts (also called ring counters or rotates) The
shifted out bit wraps around to the vacant position.Left: 1001
-> 0011Right: 1001 -> 1100Switch-tail ring counter (aka
Johnson counter) Similar to the ring counter, but the serial input
is the complement of the serial output.Left: 1001 -> 0010Right:
1001 -> 0100Arithmetical shifts Left shifting is the same as a
logical shift. Right shifting however maintains the MSB.Left: 0110
-> 1100Right: 0110 -> 0011; 1011 -> 1101
Registers
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i-clickerA switch-tail ring counter is similar to the ring
counter, but the serial input is the complement of the serial
output.List the sequence of states after each right shift until the
register returns to 1001Register content 1001A) 0101, 1011, 1100,
0111, 1010, 0100, 0011, 1001
B) 1100, 0110, 0011, 1001
C) 0100, 1010, 1101, 0110, 1011, 0101, 0010, 1001
D) 1100, 0010, 0101, 1110, 0011, 1101, 1010, 1001
Registers*
Registers
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Registers*Serial data transferOne application of shift registers
is converting between serial data and parallel data.Computers
typically work with multiple-bit quantities.ASCII text characters
are 8 bits long.Integers, single-precision floating-point numbers,
and screen pixels are up to 32 bits long.But sometimes its
necessary to send or receive data serially, or one bit at a time.
Some examples include:Input devices such as keyboards and
mice.Output devices like printers.Any serial port, USB or Firewire
device transfers data serially.Recent switch from Parallel ATA to
Serial ATA in hard drives.
Registers
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Registers*Receiving serial dataTo receive serial data using a
shift register:The serial device is connected to the registers SI
input.The shift register outputs Q3-Q0 are connected to the
computer.The serial device transmits one bit of data per clock
cycle.These bits go into the SI input of the shift register.After
four clock cycles, the shift register will hold a four-bit word.The
computer then reads all four bits at once from the Q3-Q0
outputs.
serial device
computer
Registers
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Registers*Sending data seriallyTo send data serially with a
shift register, you do the opposite:The CPU is connected to the
registers D inputs.The shift output (Q3 in this case) is connected
to the serial device.The computer first stores a four-bit word in
the register, in one cycle.The serial device can then read the
shift output.One bit appears on Q3 on each clock cycle.After four
cycles, the entire four-bit word will have been sent.
serial device
computer
Registers
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Registers*Registers in Modern Hardware Registers store data in
the CPU Used to supply values to the ALU. Used to store the
results. If we can use registers, why bother with RAM?
Answer: Registers are expensive! Registers occupy the most
expensive space on a chip the core. L1 and L2 cache are very fast
RAM but not
as fast as registers.Dunnington. Source INtel
Registers
Sheet1
CPUs
CPUGPR'sSizeL1 CacheL2 Cache
Pentium 4832 bits8 KB512 KB
Athlon XP832 bits64 KB512 KB
Athlon 641664 bits64 KB1024 KB
PowerPC 970 (G5)3264 bits64 KB512 KB
Itanium 212864 bits16 KB256 KB
MIPS R140003264 bits32 KB16 MB
Sheet2
Sheet3
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Registers*Shift versus Multiply and DivideYou can multiply by
powers of two by shifting to the leftA left shift by n is
equivalent to multiplying by 2n
Example:3 * 2 = 6; 3*22 = 120011 1 = 0100; 1000 >> 2 =
0010; 0100 >> 1 = 0010; 1100 >> 1= 1110
-4 en twos complement-2 en twos complement
Registers
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Registers*Why should I user shift instead of multiply?Program 1:
Multiplication
#include ..
main() {scanf(%d,&mul);start = _rdtsc();for (i=0;i
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Registers*Why should I user shift instead of integer
division?Program 1: Division
#include ..
main() {scanf(%d,&mul);start = _rdtsc();for (i=0;i mul;}end
= _rdtsc();printf("It took %llu cycles\n",end-start);return 0;}
Output: It took 912 cycles
Registers
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Registers*Registers summaryA register is a special state machine
that stores multiple bits of data.Several variations are
possible:Parallel loading to store data into the register.Shifting
the register contents either left or right.Counters are considered
a type of register too!One application of shift registers is
converting between serial and parallel data.Most programs need more
storage space than registers provide.Well introduce RAM to address
this problem.Registers are a central part of modern processors, as
we will see in coming weeks.
Registers