Learning For The Workplace

Table of Content

31Introduction

2Competency-based, Assessment-driven Learning5

2.1Fordism of the Education System5

2.2Dialectic Conflicts between Standardisation and Flexibility6

2.3Broad Competencies for Flexible Curriculum8

3Experiential Learning9

3.1Experience As a Key for Learning and Growth10

3.2Objective Questionnaire as an Aid to Drawing Out Experience13

3.3Use of Learning Style and Its Effectiveness15

3.4Learning as the Major Process of Human Adaptation as well as the Source of Knowledge Creation21

4Conclusion22

5References23

1 Introduction

The continual development of technologies of production can. lead to radical changes in the workplace. This may require further training for some, but lead to unemployment for others. In this context, the promotion of learning clearly entails a struggle to give value to certain forms of knowledge, behaviour and attitudes over others. In Fields analysis (Field, 1993) of vocational education for example, he argues the value given to this form of learning has three aims: to socialise our consent to the maintenance of status quo, to contribute to employee recruitment through the development of qualifications, and to generate forms of knowledge and behaviour appropriate from the employers perspective. (Thorpe. M. et al., 1993: p.2)

The views expressed above have led to reforms in adult education over the last decade (Field, 1993), which emphasised competency-based framework of education to meet these utilitarian perspectives. Competency-based education and training is receiving a lot of attention as we focus on requirement for competency standards to meet workplace requirements and prepare the workforce for the competitive global economy. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, the framework for National Vocational Qualifications was initiated in 1986. NVQs specify what the workforce would be capable of doing in the particular occupational field.

In the area of maritime training in Singapore Polytechnic, where I am a faculty member, there is considerable international pressure to implement competency-based education. Proponents of competency-based education claim that it provides clear expectations for the learners as well as the employers. It provides clear guidelines for assessment procedures and its scientific approach with mainly behavioural objectives are still being rated highly by the employers. This paper attempts to analyse this competency or outcome-based approach in adult education with some cautionary notes on its ways of implementation. However, as competency-based approach has little to offer on how learning happens and how best the learning programs may be effectively developed the paper then argues that learning is best conceived as a process and not in terms of outcomes (Kolb, 1993: p.143). New learning paradigms should be built on the existing framework of learners knowledge base. As Kolb puts it,

"The fact that learning is a continuous process grounded in experience has important educational implications. Put simply, it implies that all learning is relearning. How easy and tempting it is in designing a course to think of the learners mind as being as blank as the paper on which we scratch our outline. Yet this is not the case. Everyone enters every learning situation with more or less articulate ideas about the topic at hand. " (Kolb, 1993: p.145).

Kolb is referring to the experiential status of individual learners in a learning situation. We never start with a tabula rasa. So, it seems worthwhile for a facilitator to enquire about this status for each individual learner, which could then make the appropriate connections easier for new adaptations of knowledge. This awareness of the experiential status is perhaps equally helpful for the learner, which could give the learner a clear perspective on his/ her possible learning routes necessary for making the learning more meaningful. Hence, this paper further argues that in a learning situation, it will be prudent to assess the learners existing beliefs in the subject domain based on his/ her experiential past before attempts are made to refine the learners belief system to a higher level. The approach contrasts from the traditional classroom based teaching where a topic is addressed in a sequential manner from A to Z without much regard to learners present belief system on the subject at hand. Finally, the paper endorses the learning process, to be a holistic process of adaptation to the world, whereby new knowledge is created through transactions between objective accumulation of previous human cultural experiences and the subjective life experiences of the learner. (Kolb, 1993: p. 152)

2 Competency-based, Assessment-driven Learning

"Competency based assessment, in its present form, threatens to become the new Fordism of the educational system. The proliferation of competency specifications and the increasing precision with which competencies are stated parallels the parcellization of the work-force and labour process. As competencies are differentiated more finely, so it becomes more and more possible to narrow the scope of initiative and field of responsibility of each individual in (his or ) her work; the coherence and the goals of the organization accordingly becomes less rather than more intelligible. " (Field, 1993: p.48).

This is the technology-focused approach to learning and Boud (1989: p.41) refers to this as freedom from distraction. Learning goals and competencies required are derived from analysing the needs and expected behavioural change of learners. These programmes are tested on learners and feedback from them is used to continuously improve the content, delivery and also the assessment format. The assessment practices for such programmes are based on behaviourist psychology, as behavioural changes are easier to measure and quantify.

2.1 Fordism of the Education System

The competency-based approach in education could be paralleled to Fordism in mass production where work processes were repackaged into smaller, repeatable and measurable steps to reduce the grips of the skilled workers (Field, 1993: p.41). This is likely to result in performance improvement when the nature of work is highly repetitive without much demand for changes in processes involved. The approach is perhaps suitable for specialised industries, where narrow skills are sought after. Arguably, even in such industries, the workforce would be restricted to the specialised plants or processes and such training would encourage more employer control and less flexibility for the workforce. As Field (1993: p.42) puts it:

Training for the Fordist production worker, such as was needed, took place on the line and was so empty of any wider content than repetition that there was serious policy concern over the utter absence of any wider awakening of the young mind to civic virtues, to culture, to discoveries in technology and science which would produce the new, white-hot future.

Additionally, the behaviourist process of well-defined outcome-based approach is criticised for its lack of attention to context (Prior 1989). Candy and Harris (1990) reported poor retention of such decontextualised training for a particular competency. However, it is also argued that competency-based courses have clear-cut outcomes with well-defined assessments. These assessment processes have a way of changing teacher and student behaviour (Field, 1993) and thus, may be used as a tool for effecting change in an educational system.

2.2 Dialectic Conflicts between Standardisation and Flexibility

In its conventional forms, as Field (1993: p.48) points out, the competency movement

seeks to impose uniformity of standards of performance and its measurement, in order to strengthen employer control over labour, and support strategies to add value through the more efficient distribution of the work-force. Yet in order to work towards these ends, it also has to allow for flexibility in the face of constant technical and organisational change, as well as the movement of labour and its skills between different employers.

Field is referring to the dialectic conflicts between standardisation and flexibility in competency-based approach. The need for flexibility in training is also far from consensual as the employers attempt to manage the risks created by the unpredictability of their investments in human resource development (Field, 1993).

In a technical domain there is support for the competency-based approach as pointed out by Mezirow:

There is nothing wrong with this rather mechanistic approach to education as long as it is confined to task-oriented learning common to the technical domain of learning It is here such familiar concepts as education for behaviour change, behavioural objectives, need assessment, competency-based education, task analysis, skill training, accountability and criteria-referenced evaluation are appropriate and powerful. (Mezirow, 1981)

On the other hand, from the viewpoint of liberal education Jarvis attacked behaviourist approaches for at best confusing the processes of learning with the outcomes and at worst ignoring the processes altogether (Jervis, 1987).

The positive aspect of a competency-based model is that it makes education and training more relevant to the workplace requirements (Harris et al. 1995). In theory, competency-based education should combine theory with practice and reduce the gap between the mind and the hands. However, in practice, there is a danger that the model may be conceptualised in behavioural terms, when the competence is broken down into the performance of discrete tasks. In such circumstances the model could be pedagogically unsound (Chappell, 1996; Hyland, 1994). It is claimed that behavioural models ignore connection between tasks and according to Hyland (1994) these connections are important for performance where synthesis of knowledge and skills are necessary.

2.3 Broad Competencies for Flexible Curriculum

To cater for progressive individual development without emphasizing end-state of a competency-based framework a trainee could be led through stages of development to reach his optimum potential. The broad competencies of such a flexible curriculum, applicable in maritime training sector, is suggested in Table 1 below, which encompasses three aspects, vocational, social and individual to equip one with a capacity to assess ones educational needs and to supplement the shortfall of requirements with new knowledge and skills.

TABLE1: BROAD COMPETENCIES FOR A FLEXIBLE CURRICULUM

Core Competency

Competencies for Progression

Competencies for Life/ Awareness skills

To impart every trainee a basic levels of competence for his or her immediate participation in activities on board the vessel.

To equip the trainee with a broad body of flexible knowledge base, which could serve as pre-requisites for his progressive development in various specialised areas of maritime technology, which the industry needs.

To equip the trainee with other essential life-skills and awareness skills such as skills in healthy living, providing first aid, working in a team or leaving in harmony with the environment.

I am involved in maritime education, where the workforce is expected to change their employers or their places of work (as they get transferred from ship to ship) on frequent basis. Hence, if competency-based education is designed with highly specialised or narrow competencies as the course content, it will produce a workforce at worst needing retraining, perhaps every time they get transferred to a different type of ship. More importantly, the competencies, which are taught in decontextualised manner, will have limited retention for the learners. Unless the learning outcomes are made content-specific, grounded in learners prior experience and delivered in a constructivist manner for each learner, the resources expended for a competency-based programme is less likely to be worthwhile.

Kolb (1993) de-emphasises outcome or content-based learning and views learning as the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. In the following section I look at adult learning beyond the outcome-based approach and view it from an experiential perspective, which perhaps holds the key for unlocking new knowledge.

3 Experiential Learning

"An experience is always what it is because of a transaction taking place between an individual and what, at the time, constitutes his environment, whether the latter consists of persons with whom he is talking about some topic or event, the subject talked about being also a part of the situation.The environment, in other words, is whatever conditions interact with personal needs, desires, purposes and capacities to create the experience which is had. Even when a person builds a castle in the air he is interacting with the objects which he constructs in fancy. " (Dewey, 1963: p.42-3).

While cognitive learning theories emphasise acquisition, manipulation and recall of abstract symbols and behavioural learning theories deny any role for consciousness and subjective experience in the learning process, experiential learning suggests an integrated perspective of learning, which combines experience, perception, cognition and behaviour (Kolb, 1993). Kolb also pointed out the strong emphasis of this experiential perspective in the work of Dewey, Piaget and Lewin. In the next section I attempt to depict the commonalties of their models of learning, where the dimension of experience played a key role.

3.1 Experience As a Key for Learning and Growth

Dewey described learning as dialectic processes integrating experience and concepts as well as observation and action. He claimed that the crucial educational problem is that of postponement of immediate action until observation and judgement have intervened (Dewey 1938: p.69). The following figure depicts this formation of a purposeful action from an original impulse modified through judgmental intervention, which constitutes the learning process.

For Piaget, the dimensions of experience and concept, reflection and action form the basic continua for the development of adult thought. Development from infancy to adulthood moves from a concrete phenomenal view of the world to an abstract constructionist view, from an active egocentric view to reflective internalised mode of knowing (Kolb,1993: p.141). Thus, there seems to be continuous transaction between accommodation of new experience and assimilation of the same into ones existing schema leading to a higher level of cognitive functioning. Again as pointed out by Kolb below, the type of intelligent adaptation resulting from balanced tension between accommodation and assimilation depends on the dominance of one or the other of these two processes. Referring to Piaget, Kolb observed the following:

When accommodation processes dominate assimilation, we have imitation --- the moulding of oneself to environmental contours or constraints. When assimilation predominates over accommodation, we have play --- the imposition of ones concept and images without regard to environmental realities. The process of cognitive growth from concrete to abstract and from active to reflective is based on this continual transaction between assimilation and accommodation, occurring in successive stages, each of which incorporates what has gone before into a new, higher level of cognitive functioning. (Kolb, 1993: p.141)

Figure 2 illustrates Piagets view of the learning process as seen from the experiential perspective.

Figure 3 is adapted from Lewins cycle of adult learning as described by Kolb (1984). Here, the concrete experience is given the focal point of the learning process, which provides a subjective personal dimension leading to individual constructivist growth for the learner. Much of the individual and organisational ineffectiveness could be traced to the lack of observation and reflection (Kolb, 1993), as this feedback process may not take place as a spontaneous follow up action after each concrete experience. Thus, perhaps there is a distinct requirement to initiate such action by nudging the learners into a reflective mode. I would like to argue that many times this could be achieved through raising judicious queries to coax the learners to re-examine the concrete experience from various perspectives, which, in turn, may lead the learners to higher levels of knowledge concepts and generalisations. So, it is stressed that concrete experience alone may not be the key to the progressive growth of the body of knowledge for the learners unless there is perhaps a facilitated mechanism to initiate reflective observations about this experience. In the next section I argue that this facilitated mechanism could take the form of objective type questionnaires on the experience to set the learners into a reflective mode.

3.2 Objective Questionnaire as an Aid to Drawing Out Experience

In an adult learning situation, many times the learners have rich diverse experience on the topics of the course curriculum. This is applicable for the advanced maritime courses at the Singapore Polytechnic, where I am actively involved. The learners bring with them their existing belief system for the subject in hand, some of that could be very relevant, while others would need modification. So, when introducing new ideas for the subject in hand, perhaps the key issue would be not to resort to a method of substitution of the learners old belief systems. Instead, provide scenarios, which will encourage learners to review their existing belief structure and if found pertinent they will modify these to suit their new level of understanding. As Kolb (1993: p.146) advocated,

. ones job as an educator is not only to implant new ideas but also to dispose of or modify old ones. In many cases, resistance to new ideas stems from their conflict with old beliefs that are inconsistent with them. If the education process begins by bringing out the learners beliefs and theories, examining and testing them, and then integrating the new, more refined ideas into the persons belief systems, the learning process will be facilitatedOn the other hand, when the content of a concept changes by means of substitution, there is always the possibility of a reversion to the earlier level of conceptualization and understanding, or to a dual theory of the world where espoused theories learned through substitution are incongruent with theories-in-use that are more integrated with the persons total conceptual and attitudinal view of the world.

Hence, as suggested by Kolb above, perhaps each education process should begin by tapping into the learners experiential past, relating the topic-in-hand to the learners theories-in-use. One way of doing that would be to expose the learners through leading questions e.g. by using a number of objective type questions, which may prompt the learners to re-live their experience on the topic-in-hand. This should encourage reflection and if required, modification of the learners belief structure. This process would simulate an environment where the learners can claim ownership of the new level of knowledge and understanding on the topic-in-hand rather than considering the same being thrust onto them by the lecturer. Additionally, from the outcome of such a transaction further learning steps could be planned in an adaptive way, which will cater more precisely to the learners needs while accrediting prior learning of the learners on the topic-in-hand. Kolb endorses such a view (1993) when learning involves transactions between the person and the environment and such an approach, thus, helps to go beyond the notion that learning and educational processes are strictly limited to the province of institutions and classrooms. His frustrations are clear in the following extract:

The casual observer of the traditional educational process would undoubtedly conclude that learning was primarily a personal, internal process requiring only limited environment of books, teacher, and classroom. Indeed, the wider real-world environment at times seems to be actively rejected by education systems at all levels. (Kolb, 1993: p.150)

Hence, as argued above, in trying to facilitate constructivist growth of the knowledge structure in a learner and to emphasize the strength of experiential aspect in such processes, perhaps one would do well to raise the relevant queries in the minds of the learners; thereby catalysing reflection and higher levels of generalisation.

A discussion on experiential learning cannot be deemed to be complete unless we include the instruments learning style inventories, which help us to determine the individual learning styles of learners. This is addressed in the next section.

3.3 Use of Learning Style and Its Effectiveness

Recent educational research.shows that students are characterised by significantly different learning styles: they preferentially focus on different types of information, tend to operate on perceived information in different ways, and achieve understanding at different rates. Students whose learning styles are compatible with the teaching style of a course instructor tend to retain information longer, apply it more effectively, and have more positive post-course attitudes towards the subject than do their counterparts who experience learning/teaching style mismatches.

(Felder, 1993: p.286)

The use of learning style in increasing the effectiveness of learning and teaching is not universally recognised. However, as aptly recognised by Rogers (1996), it seems that during our diverse exposure in learning and as we progress through life, we do tend to develop our own learning styles. The key points of the widely used Kolbs Learning Style Model, adapted from explanations given by Felder (1996) and Rogers (1996) are given below. They define the four distinct types of learners identified by Kolb.

Some of us are found to be proficient as reflectors. They tend to be imaginative people; they generate creative, divergent perspective of knowledge. According to Felder (1996) they are Type 1 learners. They could be grouped as Why?-learners, who respond well to explanations of how course material relates to their experience, their interests, and their future careers. Felder also claimed that to be effective with Type 1 students, the instructor should function as a motivator.

Some become proficient as theorists. They tend to be analytical people; they try to make coherent pictures out of complex material. They speak in general rather than concrete terms (Rogers,1996). According to Felder (1996) they are Type 2 learners. They could be grouped as What?-learners, who respond to information presented in an organised logical fashion and benefit if they have time for reflection. Felder also claimed that to be effective with Type 2 students, the instructor should function as an expert.

Some become proficient as experimenters or pragmatists. They generate convergent perspective of knowledge and they tend to be successful in school education system, as most assessment approaches focus on convergent skills. Convergent knowledge brings to bear a number of facts or principles on a single topic: problems have right or wrong answers (Hudson, 1966). According to Felder (1996) they are Type 3 learners. They could be grouped as How?-learners, who learn by trial-and-error in an environment that allows them to fail safely. Felder also claimed that to be effective with Type 3 students, the instructor should function as a coach, providing guided practice and feedback.

Some become proficient as activists. They tend to be dynamic, intuitive people; they pursue knowledge growth through discovery learning. According to Felder (1996) they are Type 4 learners. They could be grouped as What if?-learners, who like applying course material in new situations to solve real problems. Felder also claimed that to be effective with Type 4 students, the instructor should stay out of the way, maximising opportunities for the students to discover things for themselves.

Rogers (1996) stated that we tend to use all of these styles and we do not confine our learning efforts to one type alone. But we feel stronger at learning through one approach rather than through any of the others. Hence, we should be aware that in any learning group there would always be people with a range of different learning styles. Consequently, Rogers (1996) concluded that the instructors should adopt a wide range of teaching-learning activities in order to help those who prefer to learn through active engagement with experience, those who prefer to reflect critically, those preferred to develop more generalised views, and those who prefer to experiment and test out other peoples theories.

Commenting on the learning cycle, Fardouly (1998) expressed concern that the expectations of educators are somewhat biased, as they are more inclined to validate the way theorists learn. According to him, the aim of all education is to produce analytical theorists even though about 70% of learners are not analytic learners. On the use of learning styles, he noted the following:

We learn better, as well as feel good about ourselves, when someone is teaching us in our most comfortable style. The process of learning which best encourages well-rounded skill development, is one which moves through all the learning styles. .All students need to be taught in all four ways, in order to be comfortable and successful part of the time while being stretched to develop other learning abilities. They will also learn from each other as they each excel at different places in the learning cycle. (Fardouly,1998: p.3)

Figure 4. gives a perspective view of the Kolbs learning style concept, which is superimposed on the experiential learning diagram. The figure shows the two major differences in our learning activities, namely, how we perceive and how we process. While perceiving, some of us prefer to receive information by sensing or feeling while others are more at ease to think things through as we take new information. Fardouly (1998) defined these two groups as follows:

Sensing/ feeling people

connect experience to meaning (connected knowing)

perceive through their senses

immerse themselves in concrete reality

are intuitive.

Thinking people

separate themselves from the experience(separate knowing)

stand back and analyse what is happening

reason experience

perceive with a logical (cognitive) approach.

In processing information, some of would be active doers while others would prefer to be reflective observers or watchers. Again Fardouly (1998) defined these two groups as follows:

Watching people

reflect on new things

filter them through their experience to create meaningful connections.

Doing people

act on new information immediately

reflect only after they have tried it out

need to do it in order to make it theirs and extend it into their world.

These four combinations of perceiving and processing determine the four different learning styles (Fardouly, 1998) and are included in the Figure 4.

To determine a persons learning style, Kolb developed an instrument called Learning Style Inventory by answering questions contained in the Self-Scoring Inventory and Interpretation Booklet (Kolb, 1985). The other widely used learning style inventory is by Honey and Mumford and is called the Learning Style Questionnaire (Honey et al., 1982). More recently Index of Learning Styles by Solomon and Felder (Felder et al. http://www.crc4mse.org/ILS/ILS_explained.html ) are being mentioned in the literature, which has forty four questions to categorise learners style of learning in the following categories:

Active and reflective learners

Sensing and intuitive learners

Visual and verbal learners

Sequential and global learners (Felder, 1996).

However, the validity of Learning Style Inventory is still to be conclusively proven. (Allison et al., 1988). Even though it is possible to identify the learning styles of individual learners, Robotham questioned the appropriateness of learning style approach in teaching, when individuals are exposed to only a limited number of learning activities to which they are, in theory, best suited. (Robotham, 1995). Therefore, he advocated that training should seek to move beyond the enhancement of performance within a narrow spectrum of activities, and consider the development of foundation skills, such as self directed learning, when the learner would choose the appropriate learning style to suit the learning situation.

3.4 Learning as the Major Process of Human Adaptation as well as the Source of Knowledge Creation

.concept of learning is considerably broader than that commonly associated with school classroom. It occurs in all human settings, from schools to the workplace, from research laboratory to the management boardroom, in personal relationships and the aisles of the local grocery. It encompasses all life-stages, from childhood to adolescence, to middle and old age. (Kolb, 1993: p.149)

Thus, Kolb stated that experiential learning should be viewed from a broader perspective, whose domain goes beyond an individual human functioning, such as cognition or perception. Instead, it should be seen as an integrated process of human adaptation, where thinking, feeling, perceiving, behaving are all there ------ encompassing various concepts such as creativity, problem-solving, decision-making etc. Learning connects all experiential life situations such as school, work, leisure and other exposures ---- thus, making it a holistic adaptive process, continuing through various stages of life. This continuous nature of exposure, according to Dewey, has an active side, which changes the objective conditions under which experiences are held. Kolb refers to this as the transactional relationship between the learner and the environment, which gives a dual meaning to the term experience ---- one subjective and personal and the other objective and environmental and once they are related, both are essentially changed. Learning is thus seen as a transactional process between objective environmental knowledge and subjective personal knowledge, resulting in new knowledge creation. Dewey noted these as civilised objective accumulation of previous human cultural experience and the individual persons subjective life experiences. Hence, as Kolb puts it.to understand knowledge, we must understand psychology of the learning process, and to understand learning, we must understand epistemology ---- the origin, nature, methods and limits of knowledge. (Kolb, 1993: p.153).

4 Conclusion

This paper attempted to analyse the present trends in outcome-based adult education and its pitfalls when such practices are focused on a narrow range of competencies as the course content. It was pointed out that in lieu of emphasising on content or outcome, the stress should be on the process of adaptation and learning. Learning was also seen as a process of knowledge creation through transformation of experience in both subjective and objective forms.

5 References

Allison, C. and Hayes, J. The learning styles questionnaire: an alternative to Kolbs inventory?. 1988. Journal of Management Studies, Volume 25 Number 3.

Boud, D. Some Competing Traditions in Experiential Learning, in S. W. Weil and I. McGill (eds.), Making Sense of Experiential Learning, Open University, Milton Keynes.

Carlson, R. 1989. Vitae Scholasticae, 8:1, Cited at http://nlu.nl.edu/ace/index.html (Malcolm Knowles: Apostle of Andragogy)

Chappell, C. 1996. "Quality & Competency Based Education and Training", in The Literacy Equation, pp. 71-79. Red Hill, Australia: Queensland Council for Adult Literacy.

Dewey, J. 1963. Experience and Education, Collier Books, New York.

Fardouly, N. 1998. Learning Styles and Experiential Learning. Cited at http://www.fbe.unsw.edu.au/Learning/instructionaldesign/styles.htm

Felder, R and B Solomon. "INDEX OF LEARNING STYLES" at http://www.crc4mse.org/ILS/ILS_explained.html

Felder, R. 1996. Matters of Style. ASEE Prism, 6(4), 18-23.

Felder, R. 1993. Reaching the Second Tier: Learning and Teaching Styles in College Science Education. J. College Science Teaching. 23(5), 286-290.

Field, J. 1993. Competency and the pedagogy of labour, in M. Thorpe, R. Edwards and A. Hanson (eds.), Culture and Processes of Adult Learning, London, Routledge.

Gorz, A. 1989. Critique of Economic Reason, London, Verso.

Harris, R.; Guthrie, H.; Hobart, B.; and Lundberg, D. 1995. Competency-Based Education and Training: Between a Rock and a Whirlpool. South Melbourne: Macmillan Education Australia.

Hudson, L. 1966. Contrary Imaginations. Harmondsworth, Penguin.

Hyland, T. 1994. Competence, Education and NVQs: Dissenting Perspectives. London, Cassell.

Jarvis, P. 1987. Adult learning in the context of teaching, Adult Education (US) 60.

Kolb, D. A. 1984. Experiential Learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. New Jersey, Prentice-Hall.

Kolb, D. A. 1985. LSI Learning-Style Inventory. Boston, McBer & Company, Training Resource Group.

Kolb, D. A. 1993. The process of experiential Learning, in M. Thorpe, R. Edwards and A. Hanson (eds.), Culture and Processes of Adult Learning, London, Routledge.

Knowles, Malcolm S . 1970 . The modern practice of adult education . New York , Association Press .

Mezirow, J. 1981. A critical theory of adult learning and education, Adult Education (USA) XXXII.

Prior, L. 1989. Evaluation research and quality assurance, in J. Gubrium and D. Silverman (eds.), The Politics of Field Research: Sociology Beyond Enlightment, Beverly Hills, Sage.

Rogers, A. 1996 Teaching Adults, Buckingham, Open University Press.

Thorpe. M,, R. Edwards and A. Hanson 1993. Introduction, in M. Thorpe, R. Edwards and A. Hanson (eds.), Culture and Processes of Adult Learning, London, Routledge.

Learning for the Workplace:

Competency-based versus the Experiential Perspective

Fig3. Lewins view of learning process from the experiential perspective

Assimilation into existing concepts

Assimilation into existing concepts

Assimilation into existing concepts

Fig 2. Piagets view of learning process from the experiential perspective

Higher level of cognitive functioning

Existing level of cognitive functioning

Active experimentation leading to the next concrete experience.

Existing level of knowledge concepts and generalisations.

Abstract conceptualisation leading to higher level of knowledge concepts and generalisations.

Reflective feedback on the concrete experience on a personal basis.

Accommodation of concepts or schemas as new experience

Accommodation of concepts or schemas as new experience

Accommodation of concepts or schemas as new experience

Fig1. Deweys view of learning process from the experiential perspective

Formation of purposeful action a rather complex intellectual operation

Impulse of experience gives ideas their moving force

Judgement on observation and knowledge-recall to decide what is significant

Observation of surrounding conditions

Knowledge of what has happened in similar conditions in the past

Here-and-now concrete experience, used to validate and test existing knowledge concepts & generalisations.

Activist

Reflector

Experimenter

Theorist

Concrete Experience

Reflective

Observation

Abstract

Conceptualisation

Active

Experimentation

Fig 4. Kolbs Learning Style model superimposed on the experiential learning cycle.

Sensing/ Feeling

Watching

Doing

Thinking

ABSTRACT

Competency-based education is receiving a lot of attention as we focus on the requirement for competency standards to meet the workplace requirements. In the Singapore Maritime Academy of the Singapore Polytechnic, there is considerable international pressure to implement a competency-based programme (STCW 78 & its Amendments in 95) to prepare the shipboard workforce for the competitive global economy. The paper attempts to analyse this competency or outcome-based approach in adult education with some cautionary notes on its ways of implementation, particularly, when such practices are focused on a narrow range of competencies as the course content. Additionally, it is pointed out that competency- based approach has little to offer on how learning happens and so, the paper argues that learning is best conceived as a process and not in terms of outcomes and to make this process effective an experiential approach is suggested. Learning is also seen as a process of knowledge creation through transformation of experience in both subjective and objective forms. Hence, the stress of our educational practices should be on the process of adaptation and learning and not solely on content or outcome.

Kalyan Chatterjea, Singapore Maritime Academy

[Published in Journal of Teaching Practice, 1999/2000, Singapore Polytechnic]