leader style and motivation

TERM PAPER

OF

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

Topic

(Leadership style and motivation)

Submitted to- Submitted by-

Mr.Vaneet Kashyap Neelu Tripathi

MBA

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The most precious moments are those when we get an opportunity to remember and thank everyone who has in some way or the other motivated and facilitated us to achieve our goals.

First of all I thank to GOD ALMIGHTY for giving me power to pen down the term paper in present shape. I thank the entire teaching staff especially Mr.Vaneet Kshyap for sharing his valuable knowledge with us & for providing his able guidance and support. I also thank to my classmate who every time helped me out and encouraged me for carrying out the task.

I fall short of words to thank my family, who stood beside me while completion of my task.

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C o n t e n t s -

I n t r o d u c t i o n

L e a d e r s h i p s t y l e

T y p e s o f l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e

T h e o r i e s o f l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e

I m p o r t a n c e o f l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e

M o t i v a t i o n

E m p l o y e e m o t i v a t i o n

T y p e s o f m o t i v a t i o n

O b j e c t i v e s o f m o t i v a t i o n a n d l e a d e r s h i p

s t y l e

R u l e s o f m o t i v a t i o n

T h e o r i e s o f m o t i v a t i o n

A p p l i c a t i o n o f m o t i v a t i o n a l t h e o r i e s

O b j e c t i v e o f m o t i v a t i o n

S c o p e o f m o t i v a t i o n

s i g n i f i c a n c e

H o w w e i n c r e a s e m o t i v a t i o n

A r t i c l e a n a l y s i s

C o n c l u s i o n

L i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w

B i b l i o g r a p h y a n d r e f e r e n c e s

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I n t r o d u c t i o n

L e a d e r s h i p S t y l e s

“The ability to influence a group towards the achievement of the

vision or set of goal.”

Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction,

implementing plans, and motivating people. Kurt Lewin (1939) led

a group of researchers to identify different styles of leadership. This early study has been very

influential and established three major leadership styles. Although good leaders use all three

styles, with one of them normally dominant, bad leaders tend to stick with one style.

“Leadership styles refer to a leader’s behavior. It is the result of the philosophy, personality and experience of the leader.”

K u r t L e w i n ' s L e a d e r s h i p s t y l e

K u r t L e w i n a n d c o l l e a g u e s i d e n t i f i e d d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s o f

l e a d e r s h i p :

Dictator Autocratic Participative Laissez Faire

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Dictator Leaders

A leader who uses fear and threats to get the jobs done. As similar with a leader who uses an autocratic style of leadership, this style of leader also makes all the decisions.

Autocratic or Authoritarian Leaders

Under the autocratic leadership styles, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader as shown such leaders are dictators.

They do not entertain any suggestions or initiative from subordinates. The autocratic management has been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manger. It permits quick decision-making as only one person decides for the whole group, and keeps it to themselves until they feel it is needed by the rest of the group. An autocratic leader does not trust anybody.

Participative or Democratic Leaders

The democratic leadership style favors decision-making by the group as shown, such as leader gives instruction after consulting the group.

He can win the cooperation of his group and can motivate them effectively and positively. The decisions of the democratic leader are not unilateral as with the autocrat because they arise from consultation with the group members and participation by them.

Laissez Faire or Free Rein Leaders

A free rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself as shown; such a leader allows maximum freedom to subordinates.

They are given a freehand in deciding their own policies and methods. Free rein leadership style is considered better than the authoritarian style. But it is not as effective as the democratic style.

Although good leaders use all three styles, with one of them normally dominant, bad leaders tend to stick with one style

U s i n g t h e r i g h t o n e f o r y o u r s i t u a t i o n

Whether you are managing a team at work, captaining your sports team or leading a major corporation, your leadership style is crucial to your success. Consciously, or subconsciously, you will no doubt use some of the leadership styles featured below, at least some of the time. By understanding these leadership styles and their impact, you can become a more flexible, better leader.

Understanding Leadership Styles

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The leadership styles we look at here are:

Autocratic leadership Bureaucratic leadership Charismatic leadership Democratic leadership Laissez-faire leadership People-oriented leadership Servant leadership Task-oriented leadership Transactional leadership Transformational leadership

.

B u r e a u c r a t i c L e a d e r s h i p

Bureaucratic leaders work “by the book”, ensuring that their staff follow procedures exactly. This is a very appropriate style for work involving serious safety risks (such as working with machinery, with toxic substances or at heights) or where large sums of money are involved (such as cash-handling).

In other situations, the inflexibility and high levels of control exerted can demoralize staff, and can diminish the organization's ability to react to changing external circumstances.

C h a r i s m a t i c L e a d e r s h i p

A charismatic leadership style can appear similar to a transformational leadership style, in that the leader injects huge doses of enthusiasm into his or her team, and is very energetic in driving others forward.

However, charismatic leaders can tend to believe more in themselves than in their teams. This can create a risk that a project, or even an entire organization, might collapse if the leader were to leave: in the eyes of their followers, success is tied up with the presence of the charismatic leader. As such, charismatic leadership carries great responsibility, and needs long-term commitment from the leader.

D e m o c r a t i c L e a d e r s h i p o r P a r t i c i p a t i v e L e a d e r s h i p

Although a democratic leader will make the final decision, he or she invites other members of the team to contribute to the decision-making process. This not only increases job satisfaction by involving employees or team members in what’s going on, but it also helps to develop people’s skills. Employees and team members feel in control of their own destiny, and so are motivated to work hard by more than just a financial reward.

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As participation takes time, this style can lead to things happening more slowly than an autocratic approach, but often the end result is better. It can be most suitable where team working is essential, and where quality is more important than speed to market or productivity.

P e o p l e - O r i e n t e d L e a d e r s h i p o r R e l a t i o n s - O r i e n t e d

L e a d e r s h i p

This style of leadership is the opposite of task-oriented leadership: the leader is totally focused on organizing, supporting and developing the people in the leader’s team. A participative style, it tends to lead to good teamwork and creative collaboration. However, taken to extremes, it can lead to failure to achieve the team's goals.

In practice, most leaders use both task-oriented and people-oriented styles of leadership. 

S e r v a n t L e a d e r s h i p

This term, coined by Robert Greenleaf in the 1970s, describes a leader who is often not formally recognized as such. When someone, at any level within an organization, leads simply by virtue of meeting the needs of his or her team, he or she is described as a “servant leader”.

In many ways, servant leadership is a form of democratic leadership, as the whole team tends to be involved in decision-making.

Supporters of the servant leadership model suggest it is an important way ahead in a world where values are increasingly important, and in which servant leaders achieve power on the basis of their values and ideals. Others believe that in competitive leadership situations, people practicing servant leadership can find themselves "left behind" by leaders using other leadership styles.

T a s k - O r i e n t e d L e a d e r s h i p

A highly task-oriented leader focuses only on getting the job done, and can be quite autocratic. He or she will actively define the work and the roles required, put structures in place, plan, organize and monitor. However, as task-oriented leaders spare little thought for the well-being of their teams, this approach can suffer many of the flaws of autocratic leadership, with difficulties in motivating and retaining staff. Task-oriented leaders can benefit from an understanding of the Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid, which can help them identify specific areas for development that will help them involve people more.

T r a n s a c t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p

This style of leadership starts with the premise that team members agree to obey their leader totally when they take a job on: the “transaction” is (usually) that the organization pays the team members, in return for their effort and compliance. As such, the leader has the right to “punish” team members if their work doesn’t meet the pre-determined standard.

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Team members can do little to improve their job satisfaction under transactional leadership. The leader could give team members some control of their income/reward by using incentives that encourage even higher standards or greater productivity. Alternatively a transactional leader could practice “management by exception”, whereby, rather than rewarding better work, he or she would take corrective action if the required standards were not met.

Transactional leadership is really just a way of managing rather a true leadership style, as the focus is on short-term tasks. It has serious limitations for knowledge-based or creative work, but remains a common style in many organizations.

T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p

A person with this leadership style is a true leader who inspires his or her team with a shared vision of the future. Transformational leaders are highly visible, and spend a lot of time communicating. They don’t necessarily lead from the front, as they tend to delegate responsibility amongst their teams. While their enthusiasm is often infectious, they can need to be supported by “detail people”.

In many organizations, both transactional and transformational leadership are needed. The transactional leaders (or managers) ensure that routine work is done reliably, while the transformational leaders look after initiatives that add new value.

The transformational leadership style is the dominant leadership style taught in the How to Lead: Discover the Leader within You leadership program, although we do recommend that other styles are brought as the situation demands.

U s i n g t h e R i g h t S t y l e – S i t u a t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p

While the Transformation Leadership approach is often a highly effective style to use in business, there is no one “right” way to lead or manage that suits all situations. To choose the most effective approach for you, you must consider:

The skill levels and experience of the members of your team. The work involved (routine or new and creative). The organizational environment (stable or radically changing, conservative or

adventurous). You own preferred or natural style.

A good leader will find him or herself switching instinctively between styles according to the people and work they are dealing with. This is often referred to as “situational leadership”.

For example, the manager of a small factory trains new machine operatives using a bureaucratic style to ensure operatives know the procedures that achieve the right standards of product quality and workplace safety. The same manager may adopt a more participative style of leadership when working on production line improvement with his or her team of supervisors.

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E f f e c t i v e L e a d e r s h i p S t y l e s

There are as many effective leadership styles as there are effective styles of parenting. There is much evidence that no one particular style is right for all situations.

Certainly to be a successful leader you will need some terrific skills, knowledge and aptitude, however, it's your leadership style that really gives your business unit (no matter how big or small) its flavor.

An effective leadership style for one individual or one organization may not work for you and your situation:

How well do you think Southwest Airlines or Virgin would run with Jack Welch at the helm?

How much would Herb Kelleher struggle (internally at least) if he were to find himself a leader in The Ford Motor Company?

It is well documented that Winston Churchill was a great leader during World War 2. Yet in peacetime his style was found lacking by the nation that had so recently held him in esteem as a hero leader.

Y o u r s t y l e a s a l e a d e r w i l l b e l a r g e l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t w o

t h i n g s :

1. The culture of the organization you find yourself in2. The quality of leadership, coaching and mentoring you experience as you move through

your career

When you inherit a style from the culture or are overly influenced by another person, you may find yourself feeling frustrated and on-edge. You may have the feeling that you are trying to be someone you are not. You will do well to remember that leadership isn't something that you do; it is an expression of who you are.

Learn about and then try applying the various styles to find the style that works best for you, your team and your organization.

A word of caution. Do not try to make your preferred/(natural) style fit all circumstances. Remain flexible enough to alter your style to fit the particular situation you find yourself in.

F o r c e s

A good leader uses all three styles, depending on what forces are involved between the

followers, the leader, and the situation. Some examples include:

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Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job. The

leader is competent and a good coach. The employee is motivated to learn a new

skill. The situation is a new environment for the employee.

Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job. The leader

knows the problem, but does not have all the information. The employees know

their jobs and want to become part of the team.

Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you.

You cannot do everything! The employee needs to take ownership of her job. Also,

the situation might call for you to be at other places, doing other things.

Using all three: Telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly

and a new one must be established (authoritarian). Asking for their ideas and input

on creating a new procedure (participative). Delegating tasks in order to implement

the new procedure (delegative).

Forces that influence the style to be used included:

How much time is available?

Are relationships based on respect and trust or on disrespect?

Who has the information - you, your employees, or both?

How well your employees are trained and how well you know the task.

Internal conflicts.

Stress levels.

Type of task. Is it structured, unstructured, complicated, or simple?

Laws or established procedures such as OSHA or training plans.

P o s i t i v e a n d N e g a t i v e A p p r o a c h e s

There is a difference in ways leaders approach their employee. Positive leaders use rewards, such

as education, independence, etc. to motivate employees. While negative employers emphasize

penalties. While the negative approach has a place in a leader's repertoire of tools, it must be

used carefully due to its high cost on the human spirit.

Negative leaders act domineering and superior with people. They believe the only way to get

things done is through penalties, such as loss of job, days off without pay, reprimand employees

in front of others, etc. They believe their authority is increased by frightening everyone into

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higher level of productivity. Yet what always happens when this approach is used wrongly is that

morale falls; which of course leads to lower productivity.

Also note that most leaders do not strictly use one or another, but are somewhere on a continuum

ranging from extremely positive to extremely negative. People who continuously work out of the

negative are bosses while those who primarily work out of the positive are considered real

leaders.

U s e o f C o n s i d e r a t i o n a n d S t r u c t u r e

Two other approaches that leaders use are:

Consideration (employee orientation) - Leaders are concerned about the human needs of their

employees. They build teamwork, help employees with their problems, and provide

psychological support.

Structure (task orientation) - Leaders believe that they get results by consistently keeping

people busy and urging them to produce.

There is evidence that leaders who are considerate in their leadership style are higher performers

and are more satisfied with their job (Schriesheim, 1982).

Also notice that consideration and structure are independent of each other, thus they should not

be viewed on opposite ends of a continuum. For example, a leader who becomes more

considerate does not necessarily mean that she has become less structured.

See Blake and Mouton's M a n a g e r i a l G r i d as it is also based on this concept.

P a t e r n a l i s m

Paternalism has at times been equated with leadership styles. Yet most definitions of leadership

normally state or imply that one of the actions within leadership is that of i n f l u e n c i n g . For

example, the Army uses the following definition:

“Leadership is influencing people -- by providing purpose, direction, and motivation --

while operating to accomplish the mission and improving the organization."

The Army further goes on by defining "influence" as a:

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Means of getting people to do what you want them to do. It is the means or method to achieve

two ends: operating and improving. But there¹s more to influencing than simply passing along

orders. The example you set is just as important as the words you speak. And you set an example

-- good or bad -- with every action you take and word you utter, on or off duty. Through your

words and example, you must communicate purpose, direction, and motivation.

While "paternalism" is defined as (Webster):

a system under which an authority undertakes to supply needs or regulate conduct of those under

its control in matters affecting them as individuals as well as in their relationships to authority

and to each other.

Motivation

Motivation is the activation or energization of goal-oriented behavior. Motivation may be internal or external. The term is generally used for humans but, theoretically, it can also be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation. According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in the basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a desired object, hobby, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism, morality, or avoiding mortality.

S e v e n R u l e s o f M o t i v a t i o n

#1 Set a major goal, but follows a path. The path has mini goals that go in many directions. When you learn to succeed at mini goals, you will be motivated to challenge grand goals.

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#2 Finish what you start. A half finished project is of no use to anyone. Quitting is a habit. Develop the habit of finishing self-motivated projects.

#3 Socialize with others of similar interest. Mutual support is motivating. We will develop the attitudes of our five best friends. If they are losers, we will be a loser. If they are winners, we will be a winner. To be a cowboy we must associate with cowboys.

#4 Learn how to learn. Dependency on others for knowledge supports the habit of procrastination. Man has the ability to learn without instructors. In fact, when we learn the art of self-education we will find, if not create, opportunity to find success beyond our wildest dreams.

#5 Harmonize natural talent with interest that motivates. Natural talent creates motivation, motivation creates persistence and persistence gets the job done.

#6 Increase knowledge of subjects that inspires. The more we know about a subject, the more we want to learn about it. A self-propelled upward spiral develops.

#7 Take risk. Failure and bouncing back are elements of motivation. Failure is a learning tool. No one has ever succeeded at anything worthwhile without a string of failures.

Objectives of leadership and motivation-

Reaction to Change

Command-and-control leadership is the primary style in our society. It is accepted because efficiency is created by repetitive action, teaching people to resist change. Once acquiring a skill, they do not want to learn another. The worker adapts to level three with an occasional trip to level two.

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Worker responsibility is just the opposite, it motivates people to thrive on change by seeking challenges, finding ways to achieve goals. Level one is the leader of changing technology, finding ways to create efficiency. (Click on image)

Reaction to Efficiency

The efficiency of advancing technology is forcing change. It is up to the individual or business to decide which side of change they want to be on, the leading edge or trailing edge. The leading edge is exciting while the trailing edge is a drag. Playing catch-up drains motivation while leaders of change inspire motivation.

With today’s changing technology, an individual must be willing to abandoned old skills and learn new ones. The ability to adapt is achieved through self-development programs. Because level one thrives on change, they adapt to whatever methods gets things done with the least amount of effort. This brings us to work habits.

In level one, management and front line workers, together, are searching for ways to solve and prevent problems. Decisions are made on the front line where alternative methods are analyzed. Being able to prevent problems is a motivating force. In level three management makes all decision, as a result, management must find ways to solve all problems and find alternative methods. Front line employees may be aware conflicts, but they don’t have the authority to take action and have learned not to be concerned. Supervisors are only concerned with elements that management thinks are important.

Under command-and-control leadership, management considers the opinions or concerns of people on the front line to be trivial. As a result, management takes action only when problems become too big to ignore. If workers have conflicts with their supervisors, they will find ways to increase the magnitude of problems, creating a combative environment. A downward spiral of management implementing more control and workers resisting control develop. Under worker responsibility, management and workers unite to prevent or solve problems. (Click on image)

Reaction to Learning Habits

In level two, young workers are establishing work habits, developing attitudes and learning a professional skill. Out of training and on the job, motivation level will depend on the leadership style they work under. Under command-and-control leadership, ambitions will be associated with maintaining the status quo. Under worker responsibility, ambitions will be associated with opportunity. They will continually expand their skills as the need or as opportunity arises.

Reaction to Goals

Self-motivated people are goal motivated. Once they conquer one goal, they establish another. Every goal is a learning process that requires all the elements in level one. Companies that attract and keep this type of person stay on the leading edge of technology. The CEO is a visionary in customer service and employee leadership. The employees' goals are the same as the CEO’s. 

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If the CEO desires control, then he will lead in such a way that trains subordinates to lead by control. As a result, the employees' goals are quitting time and payday.

Reaction to Recognition

Recognition is important; it builds positive self-esteem. By itself, its benefits are short lived. Long-term benefits are achieved when the employee feels the job could not have been done without them. This means they were faced with a challenge, which means, they had the responsibility and authority to take action. This environment is found in level one.

Self Motivated Projects

Self-motivated projects' is the ability to start and finish what one has started. Most people, working alone, do not finish what they start.

The ability to finish challenging projects is the secret to being a winner. First requirement is interest, then asking questions which inspires' the learning process. With information, a challenge is presented and a goal set. When action is taken, the barriers of persistence, risk, fear and failure become a challenge by itself. 

Self-motivated projects are difficult because no one cares if they succeed, which is another barrier. This is why most people quit before they get a good start. People, who find ways to overcome barriers and hang in there, are the winners. They develop skills and confidence, which are required steps to larger projects.

Team Motivated Projects

Everyone can be inspired to achievement in a team-motivated environment. With a common goal, team members support each other until success is achieved. In this environment, others do care and team members are needed for achieving the goal. For this reason, team motivation is extremely powerful. The exchange of ideas, information and testing the results, adds to the motivating force. As a result, each member seeks to be a leader of quality input.

Motivation concept

I n t r i n s i c a n d e x t r i n s i c m o t i v a t i o n

Intrinsic motivation comes from rewards inherent to a task or activity itself - the enjoyment of a puzzle or the love of playing. This form of motivation has been studied by social and educational psychologists since the early 1970s. Research has found that it is usually associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by students. Intrinsic motivation has been explained by Fritz Heider's attribution theory, Bandura's work on self-efficacy, and Ryan and Deci's cognitive evaluation theory. Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

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attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the amount of effort they put in),

believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not determined by luck),

Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades.

Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. Money is the most obvious example, but coercion and threat of punishment are also common extrinsic motivations.

In sports, the crowd may cheer on the performer, which may motivate him or her to do well. Trophies are also extrinsic incentives. Competition is in general extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity.

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to over justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic incentives sometimes can weaken the motivation as well. In one classic study done by Green & Lepper, children who were lavishly rewarded for drawing with felt-tip pens later showed little interest in playing with the pens again.

M o t i v a t i o n a l t h e o r i e s

T h e i n c e n t i v e t h e o r y o f m o t i v a t i o n

A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done by associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect would be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become habit. Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people. These two sources are called intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, respectively.

Applying proper motivational techniques can be much harder than it seems. Steven Kerr notes that when creating a reward system, it can be easy to reward A, while hoping for B, and in the process, reap harmful effects that can jeopardize your goals.

A reinforce is different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something to the environment.

D r i v e - r e d u c t i o n t h e o r i e s

There are a number of drive theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept that we have certain biological drives, such as hunger. As time passes the strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength

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is reduced. The theory is based on diverse ideas from the theories of Freud to the ideas of feedback control systems, such as a thermostat.

Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance when preparing food, the drive model appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and, after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger. There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of drive reduction open for debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how secondary reinforces reduce drive. For example, money satisfies no biological or psychological needs, but a pay check appears to reduce drive through second-order conditioning. Secondly, a drive, such as hunger, is viewed as having a "desire" to eat, making the drive a homuncular being - a feature criticized as simply moving the fundamental problem behind this "small man" and his desires.

In addition, it is clear that drive reduction theory cannot be a complete theory of behavior, or a hungry human could not prepare a meal without eating the food before they finished cooking it. The ability of drive theory to cope with all kinds of behavior, from not satisfying a drive (by adding on other traits such as restraint), or adding additional drives for "tasty" food, which combine with drives for "food" in order to explain cooking render it hard to test.

Cognitive dissonance theory

Suggested by Leon Festinger, this occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an incompatibility between two cognitions. For example, a consumer may seek to reassure himself regarding a purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that another decision may have been preferable.

Another example of cognitive dissonance is when a belief and a behavior are in conflict. A person may wish to be healthy, believes smoking is bad for one's health, and yet continues to smoke.

C o g n i t i v e t h e o r i e s

Goal theory

Goal theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected by three features: proximity, difficulty and specificity. An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than mastering algebra. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified

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goal is to get the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal.

Douglas Vermeeren has done extensive research into why many people fail to get to their goals. The failure is directly attributed to motivating factors. Vermeeren states that unless an individual can clearly identify their motivating factor or their significant and meaningful reasons why they wish to attain the goal, they will never have the power to attain it.

Models of behavior change

Social-cognitive models of behavior change include the constructs of motivation and volition. Motivation is seen as a process that leads to the forming of behavioral intentions. Volition is seen as a process that leads from intention to actual behavior. In other words, motivation and volition refer to goal setting and goal pursuit, respectively. Both processes require self-regulatory efforts. Several self-regulatory constructs are needed to operate in orchestration to attain goals. An example of such a motivational and volitional construct is perceived self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is supposed to facilitate the forming of behavioral intentions, the development of action plans, and the initiation of action. It can support the translation of intentions into action.

U n c o n s c i o u s m o t i v a t i o n

Some psychologists believe that a significant portion of human behavior is energized and directed by unconscious motives. According to Maslow, "Psychoanalysis has often demonstrated that the relationship between a conscious desire and the ultimate unconscious aim that underlies it need not be at all direct ." In other words, stated motives do not always match those inferred by skilled observers. For example, it is possible that a person can be accident-prone because he has an unconscious desire to hurt himself and not because he is careless or ignorant of the safety rules. Similarly, some overweight people are not hungry at all for food but for fighting and kissing. Eating is merely a defensive reaction to lack of attention. Some workers damage more equipment than others do because they harbor unconscious feelings of aggression toward authority figures.

Psychotherapists point out that some behavior is so automatic that the reasons for it are not available in the individual's conscious mind. Compulsive cigarette smoking is an example. Sometimes maintaining self-esteem is so important and the motive for an activity is so threatening that it is simply not recognized and, in fact, may be disguised or repressed. Rationalization, or "explaining away", is one such disguise, or defense mechanism, as it is called. Another is projecting or attributing one's own faults to others. "I feel I am to blame", becomes "It is her fault; she is selfish". Repression of powerful but socially unacceptable motives may result in outward behavior that is the opposite of the repressed tendencies. An example of this would be the employee who hates his boss but overworks himself on the job to show that he holds him in high regard.

Unconscious motives add to the hazards of interpreting human behavior and, to the extent that they are present, complicate the life of the administrator. On the other hand, knowledge that unconscious motives exist can lead to a more careful assessment of behavioral problems.

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Although few contemporary psychologists deny the existence of unconscious factors, many do believe that these are activated only in times of anxiety and stress, and that in the ordinary course of events, human behavior — from the subject's point of view — is rationally purposeful.

Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory

Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Professor Steven Reiss has proposed a theory that finds 16 basic desires that guide nearly all human behavior.

The desires are:

Acceptance, the need for approval Curiosity, the need to think Eating, the need for food Family, the need to raise children Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional

values of one's clan/ethnic group Idealism, the need for social justice Independence, the need for individuality Order, the need for organized, stable,

predictable environments

Physical Activity, the need for exercise

Power, the need for influence of will

Romance, the need for sex Saving, the need to collect Social Contact, the need for friends

(peer relationships) Status, the need for social

standing/importance Tranquility, the need to be safe Vengeance, the need to strike back

In this model, people differ in these basic desires. These basic desires represent intrinsic desires that directly motivate a person's behavior, and not aimed at indirectly satisfying other desires. People may also be motivated by non-basic desires, but in this case this does not relate to deep motivation, or only as a means to achieve other basic desires.

Other theories

Reversal theory

C o n t r o l l i n g m o t i v a t i o n

The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many different approaches of motivation training, but many of these are considered pseudoscientific by critics. To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many people lack motivation

Early programming

Modern imaging has provided solid empirical support for the psychological theory that emotional programming is largely defined in childhood. Harold Chugani, Medical Director of the PET Clinic at the Children's Hospital of Michigan and professor of pediatrics, neurology and

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radiology at Wayne State University School of Medicine, has found that children's brains are much more capable of consuming new information (linked to emotions) than those of adults. Brain activity in cortical regions is about twice as high in children as in adults from the third to the ninth year of life. After that period, it declines constantly to the low levels of adulthood. Brain volume, on the other hand, is already at about 95% of adult levels in the ninth year of life.

Organization

Besides the very direct approaches to motivation, beginning in early life, there are solutions which are more abstract but perhaps nevertheless more practical for self-motivation. Virtually every motivation guidebook includes at least one chapter about the proper organization of one's tasks and goals. It is usually suggested that it is critical to maintain a list of tasks, with a distinction between those which are completed and those which are not, thereby moving some of the required motivation for their completion from the tasks themselves into a "meta-task", namely the processing of the tasks in the task list, which can become a routine. The viewing of the list of completed tasks may also be considered motivating, as it can create a satisfying sense of accomplishment.

Most electronic to-do lists have this basic functionality, although the distinction between completed and non-completed tasks is not always clear (completed tasks are sometimes simply deleted, instead of kept in a separate list).

Other forms of information organization may also be motivational, such as the use of mind maps to organize one's ideas, and thereby "train" the neural network that is the human brain to focus on the given task. Simpler forms of idea notation such as simple bullet-point style lists may also be sufficient, or even more useful to less visually oriented persons.

Drugs

Some authors, especially in the transhumanist movement, have suggested the use of "smart drugs", also known as nootropics, as "motivation-enhancers". The effects of many of these drugs on the brain are emphatically not well understood, and their legal status often makes open experimentation difficult.

Objective of the Study To study of motivation helps managers understand what prompts people to initiate action. Also to study what influences worker choice of action and why they persist in their action over time. To do so effectively, vision and creativity are required in addition to on-going awareness of the bottom line.

Scope of the StudyTo study of motivation for managers used to increase productivities and competence of employees. The target populations in this study interview both worker in blue and white collar from top to bottom level who have been experiences in workplace for more than 10 years included 5 males and 5 females which were selected 4 persons who work in top management

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level and 6 persons from bottom level. The study was done in January, 2005 Applications of motivation-

Education

Motivation is of particular interest to Educational psychologists because of the crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields.

Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and how they behave towards subject matter. It can:

1. Direct behavior toward particular goals 2. Lead to increased effort and energy 3. Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities 4. Enhance cognitive processing 5. Determine what consequences are reinforcing 6. Lead to improved performance.

Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.

There are two kinds of motivation:

Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what they are learning is significant.

Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like money or good grades).

H o w w e I n c r e a s e M o t i v a t i o n

You want to make things happen the ability to motivate yourself and others is a crucial skill. At work, home, and everywhere in between, people use motivation to get results. Motivation requires a delicate balance of communication, structure, and incentives. These 21 tactics will help you maximize motivation in yourself and others.

1. Consequences – Never use threats. They’ll turn people against you. But making people aware of the negative consequences of not getting results (for everyone involved) can have a big impact. This one is also big for self motivation. If you don’t get your act together, will you ever get what you want?

2. Pleasure – This is the old carrot on a stick technique. Providing pleasurable rewards creates eager and productive people.

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3. Performance incentives – Appeal to people’s selfish nature. Give them the opportunity to earn more for themselves by earning more for you.

4. Detailed instructions – If you want a specific result, give specific instructions. People work better when they know exactly what’s expected.

5. Short and long term goals – Use both short and long term goals to guide the action process and create an overall philosophy.

6. Kindness – Get people on your side and they’ll want to help you. Piss them off and they’ll do everything they can to screw you over.

7. Deadlines – Many people are most productive right before a big deadline. They also have a hard time focusing until that deadline is looming overhead. Use this to your advantage by setting up a series of mini-deadlines building up to an end result.

8. Team Spirit – Create an environment of camaraderie. People work more effectively when they feel like part of team — they don’t want to let others down.

10. Recognize achievement – Make a point to recognize achievements one-on-one and also in group settings. People like to see that their work isn’t being ignored.

11. Personal stake – Think about the personal stake of others. What do they need? By understanding this you’ll be able to keep people happy and productive.

12. Concentrate on outcomes – No one likes to work with someone standing over their shoulder. Focus on outcomes — make it clear what you want and cut people loose to get it done on their own.

13. Trust and Respect – Give people the trust and respect they deserve and they’ll respond to requests much more favorably.

14. Create challenges – People are happy when they’re progressing towards a goal. Give them the opportunity to face new and difficult problems and they’ll be more enthusiastic.

15. Let people be creative – Don’t expect everyone to do things your way. Allowing people to be creative creates a more optimistic environment and can lead to awesome new ideas.

16. Constructive criticism – Often people don’t realize what they’re doing wrong. Let them know. Most people want to improve and will make an effort once they know how to do it.

17. Demand improvement – Don’t let people stagnate. Each time someone advances raise the bar a little higher (especially for yourself).

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18. Make it fun – Work is most enjoyable when it doesn’t feel like work at all. Let people have fun and the positive environment will lead to better results.

19. Create opportunities – Give people the opportunity to advance. Let them know that hard work will pay off.

20. Communication – Keep the communication channels open. By being aware of potential problems you can fix them before a serious dispute arises.

21. Make it stimulating – Mix it up. Don’t ask people to do the same boring tasks all the time. A stimulating environment creates enthusiasm and the opportunity for “big picture” thinking.

Master these key points and you’ll increase motivation with a bit of hard work.

Employee Motivation

With every job these is one common problem that people face, which is getting stuck in the machine of time and routine. This leads to boredom, and is known to be a de-motivator by the experts. It is for this reason that human resource managers are asked to ensure that there are activities and varied ways and means to keep employees motivated from time to time.

Today, the large multinational companies are taking stock of the problem and are doing all that they can to ensure that employees are happy and ever enthusiastic about their work. This is vital in order to get the maximum out of them and to keep employee burn out at bay. And ensuring this lies in the hands of the managers.

Basically, in order to keep employees motivated there are 7 strategies that can be adopted, which are as follows:

. Providing positive reinforcements for the tasks accomplished and setting higher goals to be achieved. Setting down certain effective rules and regulations to be followed in the office. Seeing that fair rules are set in the office. Looking into employee needs and seeing that they are comfortable in their work environment. There should be work related goals set from time to time. There should be regular appraisals and platforms where employees can share their on the job experiences. There should be consistent and constant on the job rewarding and incentives

M o t i v a t i n g E m p l o y e e s : M o s t E f f e c t i v e L e a d e r s h i p S t y l e

AbstractPart of being a successful leader is knowing what things lead to failure as well as what things leads to success. Effective leadership must have cognitive, interpersonal, and political skills; project management skills; and technical expertise (Yukl, 2006). Leaders must also be able to

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envision, organize, socially integrate, and externally span to ensure that his team is effective and efficient in achieving goals, maintaining team cohesion, and keeping the decisions compatible with the organization’s needs. Leadership must be able share this complex monitoring with his employees/teams in order to track information on trends and developments (Yukl, 2006). Leadership should be able to also develop strategic plans to address the organization’s requirements by considering long-term objectives, the organization’s strengths and weaknesses, core competencies, current and new strategies, and outcomes of these strategies (Yukl, 2006).

Leadership style most effective to motivate employeesthe most effective leadership style in motivating employees is the transformational leadership style. The transformational leadership style empowers its employees by creating an environment, which is motivating and stimulating (Yukl, 2006). Motivating employees creates the belief in the goals of the organization and provide the employees with a feeling of belonging, which existed in the unit before his arrival. The transformation and motivation that this type of leadership offers encourages the followers to be more aware of the importance of their jobs, “it induces them to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the organization or team; as well as activating their higher order needs” . They also inspire their followers and display great passion, enthusiasm and energy in bringing out desired change in an organization. This type of leadership is always visible and leads from the front...

Importance of motivation

Motivation plays a critical role in achieving goals and business objectives and is equally as important for companies that work in team-based environment or in a workplace comprised of workers that work independently. Making sure that each employee's workplace goals and values are aligned with the organization's mission and vision are important for creating and maintaining a high level of motivation which often leads to higher productivity, improved work quality and financial gain across all departments.

Four Reasons Why Motivation is Important

Everyone wants to be successful. But to be successful, there is an important thing you must have and that is motivation. Here are four reasons why motivation is important for success:

1. Motivation helps you get started.

Have you noticed the difference between working on something you like and working on something you don't like? I'm sure you can feel the difference. When you're motivated about something, you can work on it effortlessly. Nobody needs to force you to work. Nobody needs to tell you to move. In fact, you are waiting for the opportunity to work. Since getting started is perhaps the most difficult part of getting things done, being motivated is tremendously helpful for you.

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2. Motivation helps you keep moving.

Getting started is one thing but keep moving is another thing. Whatever you do, there are always obstacles along the way that can hinder you from achieving success. If you don't have motivation, it's easy to get discouraged when you meet such obstacles. That's why motivation often makes the difference between winners and losers. Winners are those who can go through challenges and difficulties thanks to their motivation. Losers, on the other hand, are those who can't go through challenges and difficulties since they lack the necessary motivation.

3. Motivation makes you do more than necessary.

If you are motivated about something you will voluntarily do more about it than what is required from you. You will naturally go further and dig deeper than other people since you love to do it. While other people will only do what is necessary, you do more than that. In such situation, there is a good chance that you will be more successful than others.

4. Motivation makes the journey fun.

People who don't have motivation will think that the journey to success is long and difficult. Those who are motivated look at it differently. The journey is still long, but it's an enjoyable journey. Not only can they endure it, they actually have fun along the way. Of course, there are always times when things aren't good, but motivation enables you to endure such difficult times.

As you can see, motivation helps you in many different ways. It helps you get started, it helps you keep moving, it helps you do more than others, and it makes the journey fun. No wonder motivation plays an important role in your journey to success

Significance

1. Motivation has become increasingly important for organizations and companies of all sizes who want to reach their organizational objectives in a competitive marketplace. Top performers of an organization consistently provide high quality work, maintain a high level of productivity and overcome obstacles or challenges. Helping all employees maintain a high level of motivation can help keep employees committed to working hard and contributing as much value as possible to the organization.

Types

2. Motivation can be increased or encouraged in several ways, and managers who serve as leaders within the organization can help convey the right messages to engage employees and help them grow within their positions. Motivation can be increased with incentives, feedback, rewards programs and ensuring that the workplace meets basic needs and requirements for each employee. Common types of motivational tactics include: events that raise employee morale ; training and education to help employees learn new skills and grow within their positions; recognition programs to highlight hard work and reinforcing positive messages during company or team meetings.

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Benefits

3. Motivational strategies can help improve employee performance, reduce the chances of low employee morale, encourage teamwork and instill a positive attitude during challenging times. Employees with a high level of motivation typically work harder and can overcome common workplace challenges with ease; this helps the organization reach its objectives and improve operations overall.

Effects

4. Any company or organization that notices a significant decline in productivity, high employee turnover or cannot reach its goals successfully may need to consider the role of motivation among its employees. Low motivation can trigger a variety of events that impact the organization in a negative way both in the short-term and in the long-term; unmotivated staff members are at risk for resigning, delivering poor quality work and even making it difficult for other employees to do their jobs in an efficient manner.

Prevention/Solution

5. Reducing the risk of low motivation amongst employees typically requires a strategic plan and a combination of different activities and tactics that help improve employee morale. Companies who invest time and resources towards improve their employee's well-being and workplace experience can look forward to a high return on their investment as employees become more productive, maintain a positive attitude, commit to their roles and duties and maintain a strong work ethic.

When a manager is able to effectively understand what motivates people in his organisation, they are then able to effectively address the needs and factors of the environment that the employees work in.People are a vital business resource

M o t i v a t i o n a n d L e a d e r s h i p S t y l e s

Leadership style influence level of motivation. However, throughout a lifetime, man’s motivation is influenced by changing ambitions and/or leadership style he works under or socializes with. Command-and-control leadership drains off ambition while worker responsibility increases ambition.

Leadership Style versus Motivation

Leadership Style Motivation TypeMotivation is

Based on:Personality Type Efficiency

Limited supervision

Self motivated Creativity Leader of ideas or people. High

Team motivated

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Worker with decision making

responsibility

Independent

Achiever

Mixed styles

Goal motivated Opportunity

Personality type and efficiency depends on leader's skill and/or the work environment he's created.

Reward motivated Materialism

Recognition motivated

Social status

High level of supervision

Command-and-control

Peer motivated To be like others

Status quo

Dependency

Resist change

Low

Authority motivated

Follows policy

Threat, fear motivated

Reacts to force

Self-motivated or visionaries will not accept authority controlled environments. They will find a way to escape if trapped.

In a team-motivated environment, dependency types will become inspired and strive to be acceptable with independent thinking coworkers.

Associates influence the level of Individual motivation.

Conclusion-

One of the most important factors that lead one to their goals is the drive. This drive is known as motivation. It is a zest and determination with a kind of excitement that leads one to persevere to reach greater heights, in no matter what avenue of their life; be it – personal or professional. The drive may come from an internal or external source. The individual determines this.

The factors that motivate an individual keep changing as one climbs the ladder of age and maturity. And also, achievement of one goal sets the ball rolling for another one to be achieved. Thus, to be motivated is a constant need. There are times when one faces a period of de-motivation and everything seems bleak. It is then that they need to find what would motivate them back into action.

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For every individual there is a variable driving force. In fact, it is not just a single factor, but a combination of factors that lead people to achieve their goals. The fact is that with routine monotony steps in and then everything seems like stagnant waters. It feels like there is nothing new.

Breaking this cycle of monotony has helped many bounce back with enthusiasm. This is why human resource managers create a training calendar, which will take away employees from the routine they are stuck to, as well as enhance their skills in various areas.

each week comes to a close. There are people who redefine their goals and ambitions from time to time in order to fill them with newer levels of enthusiasm to achieve greater feats. One needs to take stalk every now and then and find the motivator required to carry them through.

Literature ReviewBasic Need One most noted theorist is Abraham Maslow; he carried out his investigations into human behavior and developed the hierarchy of needs theory. Maslow suggested that there are five sets of goals which may be called basic needs. These five are physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem.

The Effectiveness of Motivation Theory

Motivation Theories: A Literature ReviewMotivation is an important concept for managers to understand. Motivation affects direction, intensity and duration (Locke & Gary, 2004). High task motivation has been found to correlate with high firm growth (Miner, Smith, et. al., 1989). Berman and Miner (1985) studied CEOs, COOs, executive VPs and group VPs and found that those “who reached the highest levels of large business firms [had] higher motivation to manage than individuals with less achievement” (377-391). There are many things that affect motivation, such as personal preferences, job satisfaction and organizational factors (Wherry & South, 1977). According to Locke and Gary (2004), most people are in situations; particularly work related ones, due to their own personal choices. Latham and Pinder (2005) found that “goal-setting, social cognitive and organization justice theories are the three most important approaches to work motivation to appear in the last 30 years” (485). Self-efficacy significantly impacts motivation. Lindner (1998) also supports this. Wabba (1974) discusses behavioral choices and motivation. Personal faith also plays a role in motivation. I Corinthians 10:31 states, “Whether, then, you eat or drink or whatever you do, do all to the glory of God” (NASB). The Bible consistently gives examples of those motivated by their belief and faith in God. When Peter and the disciples were threatened with imprisonment for spreading the gospel, Peter responded with “we must obey God rather than men” (Acts 5:29, NASB). Their desire to follow God overshadowed concern for physical or earthly consequences. Dysfunctional thinking also can affect motivation (Locke & Gary, 2004).

Gandhi's Leadership Style

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Abstractthis paper analyzes the leadership style of Mahatma Gandhi, and how his life experiences helped him develop into an effective leader. The paper also describes his reliance on the principles of nonviolence and civil disobedience in his fight for the independence of India.

From the Paper"One of the most remarkable and inspirational figures of the twentieth century, Mahatma Gandhi, became an influential political and spiritual leader not only in his native India but across the globe. His reliance on the principles of nonviolence and civil disobedience inspired millions as he helped to promote the cause of Indian independence and served as an advocate for all who suffered without a voice. Certainly, the events of Gandhi's early life were crucial in the development of his leadership skills and enabled him to become a charismatic figure..."

Analysis of Articles-

1. “Emotionally Intelligent managers and transformational leadership style”.

The main objective of the present study was to identify the dimension of transformal leadership it terms of certain defining attributes critical for enhancing change of transformation of organization through leader sub co ordinate interaction modality. Transformation of organization may follow r approach through HR level policies or it may result from leadership intervention. The former approach takes longer time whereas the latter approach may be difficult yet more practical due to simultaneous intervention exercised through various level of leadership involves within the organization

2. “Marrying intrinsic motivation”.Hence one can find that for real success even though external factor matters and do play an important factor, it is what is within a person and how the person drive himself that ultimately matters .This is intrinsic motivation .all of us have is to varying degree within us, but those who hone it and push themselves for it to show itself prominently, are those who exceed and expose and espouse their intrinsic motivational qualities.

3. “Leadership style and motivating employees”. The transformal leadership style has 6 distinct dimensions each of them reflective of managerial

leadership behavior as interfaced in an organizational context uniquely demonstrating changes/transformation created by leadership impact. Thus the leadership is perceived going beyond the task domain to change transformation niche by way of influencing soft organizational process. The strong linkage between the dimension of emotional intelligence as part of managerial temperament or emotional capability that enormously influence the soft aspects of the organization.

1. “Are Your Leadership Styles Marketable?”

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How is your leadership style supporting the basic needs of supportive relationships? Do you build or breakdown trust? Do you listen or just listen to what you want to hear? Do you mind read what motivates people or do you watch what makes them smile, hear what puts hope in their voice and also ask them? Do you analyze and implement as money saving alternatives as possible instead of cutting your human resources too quickly? If your own attitude and actions support productive and respectful employee relationships, you will get an A motivation rating with your employees who want supportive relationships from both their managers and peers. The camaraderie from this style will be the glue that raises morale or the organization’s motivation.

2. “Tempered Strength: Studies in the Nature and Scope of Prudential Leadership.”Moral leadership matters. As world politics enter a new and dangerous era, judgment, constancy, moral purpose, and a willingness to overcome partisan politicking are essential for America's leaders. Tempered Strength finds the alternative standard of leadership that Americans are seeking in the classical philosophy of prudence.

R e f e r e n c e s a n d b i b l i o g r a p h y -

Hofstede, Geert (1977). C u l t u r e a n d O r g a n i z a t i o n s : S o f t w a r e o f t h e M i n d new York: McGraw-

Hill.

Lewin, K., LIippit, R. and White, R.K. (1939). "Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social

climates." J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 10, 271-301 Newstrom, John W. & Davis, Keith (1993).

O r g a n i z a t i o n a l B e h a v i o r - H u m a n B e h a v i o r a t W o r k . New York: McGraw-Hill.

Schriesheim, Chester A. The Great High Consideration- High Initiating Structure Leadership Myth: Evidence on its

Generalizability. T h e J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , April 1982, 116, pp. 221-228.

Return

U.S. Army Handbook (1973). M i l i t a r y L e a d e r s h i p .

Tannenbaum, R. & Schmidt, W. How to Choose a leadership Pattern. H a r v a r d B u s i n e s s R e v i e w , May-June 1973, No. 73311 (originally published in March-April 1958 issue).

Rao.Menka,(2009). “Marrying Intrinsic Motivation and Employee Empowerment”, HRM Rivew, vol.34, p.p.20-25.

Sayeed,Omar Bin&Shankar.Meera.(2009). “Emotionally Intelligent Managers & Transformational Leadership Styles”,The journal of Industrial Relationship,vol.44,Nov.4,p.p.493-510.

Barbuto,J,E.(2005), “Motivation and Transformational,Charismatic and Transformational Leadership: a text of Antecedents”,Journal of leadership and organizational studies,11(4):26-40.

http://www.oppapers.com/essays/Work-Motivation/49956

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