Latin 3a 2021 Word Study Compilation 1 - quia.com

1 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

Latin 3a 2021 Word Study Compilation 1

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Word Study 1

Format has been changed to 11 pt. font throughout, including the title, with no underlines, and spaces

between paragraphs were removed.

Analysis of Misericordia

The word misericordia, misericordiae, is a first declension noun that is commonly translated as

compassion, but can also be translated as pity, sympathy, or mercy. It has a Spanish cognate misericórdia

meaning mercy or pity, and an Italian cognate misericordia, which could be translated as compassion or

mercy. Misericordia could be split up into two separate latin words, misereo which means to feel pity, or

to have pity and cor which most commonly means heart, but could also be translated as mind soul or

spirit. In the next few paragraphs, varying translations of misericordia will be examined in several

different documents.

In a paragraph from The Good Samaritan, a certain Samaritan was making a journey, when he

came across a man who had been stripped and beaten by robbers. As a result, he then felt compassion for

the man and helped him. Samaritanus autem quidam, iter faciens, venit secus eum et, videns eum,

misericordia motus est. et adpropians alligavit vulnera eius, infundens oleum et vinum; et inponens illum

in iumentum suum, duxit in stabulum, et curam eius egit. However a certain Samaritan, making the

journey, came by him and was moved by compassion, approaching him to bind up his wound, pouring in

oil and wine; and setting him upon his mule, led him into an inn, and took care of him (Luke, Vulgate

146-150). In this passage, compassion seems to be the best translation, as it conveys the Samaritan’s

feelings of sympathy as well as his desire to help/care for the man.

On the other hand, in a letter in a collection of Letters written by Cicero, he talks about combat

between men and elephants in a theater, pitying the elephants: amissa fugae spe, misericordiam vulgi

inenarrabili habitu quaerentes supplicavere. After having lost hope of escape, they begged with their

expression searching for mercy of the indescribable general public (Cicero, Epistulae ad Familiares 7.1).

In this context, the most sensible translation of misericordia is mercy. This is because it shows that the

elephants want the general public to help them and they want them to stop killing them.

Another passage in which misericordia appears is in the Prodigal Son, when the son returns to his

father after being away: cum autem adhuc longe esset, vidit illum pater ipsius, et misericordia motus est,

et adcurrens cecidit supra collum eius, et osculatus est illum. And rising, he came to his father. However,

when he was still far off, his father saw him, and was moved by pity, and attending to him fell above his

neck, and kissed him (Luke, Vulgate 171-173). Here, misericordia is best translated as pity, this is

because the father feels bad for the son who comes home upset, but does not put himself in the shoes of

his son or feel like he needs to make his son feel better; he just is happy that the son is home.

In conclusion, the word misericordia has several specific meanings - compassion, pity, sympathy,

or mercy.. Further, it can be used to denote a more active feeling, as in wanting to help someone and

feeling what they are going through. Finally, it can serve as a more passive feeling, as in acknowledging

the feelings of another person (or animal) and not wanting to act on it.

3 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

Word Study 2

A Paradigmatic Prototype

Many wildlife lovers know that foxes can sprint a maximum velocity of thirty miles per hour, but

did you know that this cute critter has an equally riveting linguistic past? Even though the etymology of

the English term is murky, a much clearer rhetorical genealogy can be established for the word in Latin:

“vulpes,” meaning “fox,” is descended from the Proto-Italic word “wolpeis.” Entering into Latin, the

word became volpes in early use, before the o turned into u and formed the more modern vulpes, which

was used by such great authors as Phaedrus, Vergil, Hyginus, Horace, and Jerome. Although the basic

idea of vulpes is clear between these authors, the actual definition is far harder to tie down, as it

comprises a complex and multi-faceted idea in our deficient mother tongue.

Just like in English, the meaning of a Latin word depends on its context, and vulpes is no

different; depending on the author and placement, it can take on very different senses. The first and most

simple of these is quite literal: to refer to a physical fox. For example, in his Eclogues, Vergil writes,

describing a singing competition, “...and may he yoke foxes” atque idem iungat vulpes et mulgeat hircos,

and may he yoke foxes and milk heifers (Vergil, Eclogues 3.90). In this usage, he is clearly referring to

capturing corporeal wild foxes, which would be no mean feat. He is not the only one to utilize this most

simple use: another more fantastical but still basic use of the word can be seen in Hyginus’ work De

Astronomica. Speaking of the dog which pursued the Teumessian Fox, he writes, “He [Amphityron]

brought it to Thebes when he came, where there was a fox, who, it was said, was able to outrun many

dogs” Quem ille ducens secum Thebas pervenit, ubi erat vulpes, cui datum dicebatur, ut omnes canes

effugere posset, he brought it to Thebes when he came, where there was a fox, who, it was said, was able

to outrun many dogs (Hyginus, De Astronomica 2.35.4). Although this fox possessed supernatural

celerity, the barebones concept is analogous; the term designates a small wild animal with a bushy tail and

red fur.

However, although these two authors chose to use this first meaning of the word, other authors

did not necessarily comply to these constraints. For instance, Phaedrus, who himself took his inspiration

from the ageless Aesop, writes, “A fox sitting in a high tree saw a raven and began to speak to him” celsa

residens arbore, hunc vidit vulpes, deinde sic coepit loqui, a fox sitting in a high tree saw him and began

to speak (Phaedrus, Fabulae 1.13.2). To the zealous zoologist, it is obvious that foxes are incapable of

human speech, but in his creative take on a simple word, the great fabulist of Macedonia pairs a

stereotypical personality with the woodland beast: craftiness, shrewdness, and cheating. Retelling stories

that involve articulate foxes commenting on such things as grapes Fame coacta vulpes alta in vinea, uvam

appetebat, a fox, being brought to a vineyard by his hunger, desired a bunch of grapes (Phaedrus, Fabulae

4.10.1) and masks Personam tragicam forte vulpes viderat, by chance, a fox had seen a tragic mask

(Phaedrus, Fabulae 1.7.1), his choice to cast the lead character as a fox instantly informs the reader that

they are dealing with a soul of cunning and clever nature. Behold, he is not the only one to do this;

Horace follows suit in his rendition of the Fox and the Sick Lion Olim quod vulpes aegrota cauta leoni,

one day, there was a cautious fox who came upon a sick lion (Horace, Epistles 1.73). So, while these two

authors do use vulpes to refer to a real fox, they add a fantastical element to the mix, endowing the beast

with its associated cunning personality and evil flair.

Yet there is a tertiary meaning for vulpes, albeit less intuitive than the first two. Because of

authors such as Phaedrus and Horace, deviousness and underhandedness became so synonymous with the

4 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

animal that vulpes began to be used to refer to a human being who emanated these characteristics.

Writing in 382 A.D., Jerome recounts the words of Jesus as being, “You all say to the fox, ‘Behold I am

driving out and am making people pure today and tomorrow, and on the third day, I will be finished” Et

ait illis: Ite, et dicite vulpi illi: Ecce ejicio dæmonia, et sanitates perficio hodie, et cras, et tertia die

consummor, and say that: truly, and you all say that to the fox: Behold, I am driving out demons, and

today I will be making people pure, and tomorrow, and on the third day I will be finished (Luke 13.32).

The “fox” that Jesus mentions here is King Herod; by His word choice, He does not mean that Herod in

any way resembles an actual fox, but instead is cunning and manipulative, similar to the foxes in the

stories of Phaedrus; the only variation here is that the word refers to a real person who was foxlike in

nature.

Utilizing these examples, an accurate scope of vulpes’ uses can be defined. In most realistic

contexts, the noun is used much as in English - to describe an actual wild fox. If, however, the word is

discovered in a fabulistic contexture, it most often refers to a talking fox who uses deceit and trickiness to

get his way, such as in the fables of Phaedrus. Lastly, it can also refer to someone who embodies these

stereotypical fox characteristics through their wiliness, lies, and guile. This is similar to the English word

outfox, which, rather than referring to an actual fox, is a verb meaning to outwit.

Even after all these etymological acrobatics, however, there is yet another question begging

attention: if English words such as lion and elephant come from Latin roots, why do we not use the word

vulpes as well? The answer to this astute observation can be found in a custom dating back to ancient

times of using nicknames to refer to wild animals rather than the original term. The logic behind this was

that if someone said lion or bear the literal animal in the forest might come bounding out, thinking that it

was being summoned. For this reason, they would call bears “honey-eater” or “the brown one.” Vulpes

was considered to be the true name for fox, and thus it collapsed into disuse throughout the turbulent and

superstitious Dark Ages. Moreover, as the word itself took on more negative connotations, it attached

itself through Germanic descent to an English word that describes an animal far more fearsome and

frightening than a fox: a wolf, the sole English cognate from the original vulpes in Latin. Our own

English fox is a linguistic mystery; scholars surmise that it may have come from the Sanskrit pucchas,

meaning tail; others assert that it could have evolved from the interjections “fuh” or “fih,” noises often

expressing disdain. Even with these theories, our own word for fox seems destined to be forever murkier

than its Latin counterpart, whose evolution is far more certain.

Despite not being often used in conversation, fox is a well-known word in English and is often

taken for granted by native speakers, who will forever remain unsure of their word’s past. To the

Romans, however, vulpes, also meaning fox, had a clear-cut history: it descended from the Proto-Italic

wolpeis and eventually transformed into the later term. In addition, the disyllable boasted a triplex

definition: in its simplest sense it referred to a basic fox; however, some authors also used it to speak of

an anthropomorphic fox, usually one who was sly and sneaky. Lastly, the word could also be used to

describe one who fulfilled these characteristics through their deceit, cunning, and trickery. After the

Roman Empire, however, the word gained taboo status during the Dark Ages, and as it grew more

fearsome, it gradually morphed into the more intimidating wolf, now being used in stories such as Little

Red Riding Hood, where the wolf uses foxlike impersonation to deceive his prey. So, even if fox remains

an eternal etymological enigma, vulpes serves as a paradigmatic prototype for a simple word with a

complex linguistic journey and a manyfold definition.

5 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

Bibliography:

Horatius, Quintus Flaccus. Epistularum liber primus. Holles Newcastle, 1743.

Hyginus, Gaius Julius. De Astronomica. K.G. Saur Verlag, 1998.

St. Jerome of Stridon, The Vulgate. Tyndale House Publishers, 2007.

Liberman, Antoly. “Vulpes vulpes,” or Foxes Have Holes. Part I. OUP blog, Mar 16, 2016.

Liberman, Antoly. “Vulpes vulpes,” or Foxes Have Holes. Part II. OUP blog, Mar 23, 2016.

Vergililus, Publius Maro. The Eclogues. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2000.

Word Study 3

Format has been changed to 1.15 spacing and the Works Cited immediately following at the end.

Word Study – Cor

Cor is a very common Latin word used by ancient writers. In Confessions, Book Ten Chapter

One, Augustine writes, “Voco iam facere in corde meo coram te in confessione,” which translates, “I

want to do it in my heart in confession before you.” In Chapter Three the phrase, “excitant cor,” means,

“incite the heart.” Also in Book Ten Chapter Three, it is written, “sed auris eorum non estad cor meum,”

which means, “but their ear is not for my heart.” In Book Ten Chapter Six, he writes, “Domine, amo te,

percussisisti cor meum verbo tuo,” which means, “Lord, I love you, you struck my heart with your word.”

(Augustine, 400 AD) Seneca in Quaestiones Naturales used the phrase, “nec cor involutum,” which

means, “nor a twisted heart.” (OLAT) Cicero in Pro Caelio used the sentence, “nunc meum cor cumulator

ira,” which means, “my heart is piled high with wrath.” (NoDictionaries)

From Wheelock’s Medieval Songs, “reple cordis intimatorum fidelium,” means, “fill the

innermost parts of the hearts of your faithful one.” Also from Medieval Songs, the phrase, “O veni, lumen

cordium,” translates, “O come light of hearts.” (Langton 1570) Finally, in The Three Caskets, “Illa vero

tres cophinos intime respexit et ait in corde suo,…” means, “That girl considered the three caskets and

said in her heart…” (Gesta Romanorum, 1510)

Cor is the Latin word for “heart.” It has contributed many words to the English vocabulary. The

Latin word, Cor, went through French, where the word for heart, Coeur, was modified to Cour and, where

our English words, courage, encourage and discourage come from. Later, Cor found its way to English

and the most common use of the word is, “Cord.” We get the English words Accord (hearts agree),

Accordian (agreeable to hear), Discord (hearts apart), Record (to put into writing the feelings of the heart

to recall later), and Cordial (your heart is in the right place toward someone).

The word Heart can have different meanings. It is an organ in our body that pumps blood, it is a

shape or symbol, it can be a personality trait as in someone has a “cold heart,” it can be an emotion of

compassion, or it can be used to relate to someone’s inner character. It can also mean the central part of

something, for example, the core of an apple is the inner part of the apple. Someone living in the heart of

a city lives in the central part of the city. If a cabin is in the heart of a forest, it refers to the inner part of

the forest.

Ancient writers talked about the heart in different ways. Ovid talked about a wounded heart.

Galen was a physician who made observations about the movements of the organ heart. Aristotle wrote

about the heart as a source of power of the mind and thoughts.

6 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

Some common Latin quotes about the heart are: Cor unum – one heart; cor aut mors – heart or

death; cor ad cor loquitur – heart speaks to heart; and cor meum tibi offero domine prompte et sincere –

My heart, I offer to you, Lord, promptly and sincerely. (Doc Share)

Cite Works

https://lms.uzh.ch OLAT - UZH

nodictionaries.com NoDictionaries

Augustine Confessions 400 AD: An Electronic Edition – James Odonnel

http://docshare04.docshare.tips/

The Gesta Romanorum IV The Story of the Three Caskets, Livius Andronicus, 1510

Veni Sancte Spiritus, Archbishop Stephen Langton, 1570

Word Study 4

Format has been changed to 1.15 spacing and the Works Cited immediately following at the end.

Word Study – Argentum

The word argentum is Latin for silver. The word was used by many ancient Latin authors. Tacitus

wrote in Germania, “Argentum et aurum propitiine an irati di negaverint dubito,” which means: silver and

gold was denied by the gods in favor or wrath, I question. (McKeown) Horace in Epistulae 1, wrote,

“vilius argentum est auro virtutibus aurum,” which translates: silver is cheaper than gold, and gold is to

virtue. (Ars Poetica) In one of his comedy plays, Asinaria, Plautus wrote, “argentum accepi dote

imperium vendidi,” I have accepted silver and sold my kingdom for her dowry.

In Wheelock’s Gesta Romanorum, it describes the wise of the world looking beautiful on the

outside but being earthly on the inside. The Latin from this section is, “Quorum eloquia spledunt sicut

argentum,” which means: whose eloquence shines as silver. In Wheelock’s The Story of the Three

Caskets, the second casket is described. “Secundus erat de argento purissimo,” which translates: the

second was of the purest silver. (The Gesta Romaorum) In Wheelock’s The Vulgate 2, argentum is used

in the following sentence: “Nec appendetur argentum in commutation eius,” which means: It will neither

be bought in place of pure gold, nor will it be weighed out in silver. (The Vulgate)

The Latin word argentum has its origin from the ancient Greek word argyro, meaning silver,

money, or silver plate. It can also mean a brilliant, light greyish-white, or “shiny” color, a silver coin or

the chemical element, argentum (Ag).

Argentum (Ag) is the only element after which a country is named. The country, Argentina, got

its name from the river, Rio de la Plata, which means River of Silver. Portuguese explorers associated the

area with silver, marking it on a map in 1554 as, “Terra Argentum,” which means Land of Silver.

One word that came from the Latin word argentum, is the word argent. It was used in Old French

blazon and passed into the English language. (TheCultureTrip) The word argent did not change in

meaning from the Latin argentum. It means silver, white, or shiny in color. It is sometimes used as a

surname for a metal worker, a person with grey hair, or to refer to someone living near a silver mine.

Towns near silver mines are called “argent towns.” One last way that argent is used today is in heraldry to

describe metal on a coat of arms.

Cite Works

Livius Andronicus, The Gesta Romanorum IV, The Story of the Three Caskets, 1510

7 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

St. Jerome, The Vulgate Iob 28:15, 382 A.D.

J.C. Mckeown, Classical Latin: An Introductory Course, Hacket Publishing, 2010

[email protected]

Erasmus, Desiderius, Adages IV iii to V ii 51, University of Toledo Press, 2006

Theculturetrip.com/south-america/Argentina/articles/real-story-behind-argentina-got-name

Word Study 5

Contendo: From Swiss Army Knife to Butter Knife

It is known today as nolo contendere which in law is understood to mean “no contest,” implying that

contendo at its core means “I contend.” However, in Classical Latin contendo held a wide range of

usages from “bend/stretch” to “hurry” to “assert” to “contend.”

Julius Caesar frequently uses contendo to express the idea of “contending” or waging war in a

military sense: Qua de causa Helvetii quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt, quod fere cotidianis

proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis finibus eos prohibent aut ipsi in eorum finibus bellum

gerunt, for this reason the Helvetii are also set apart from the other Gauls in valor, because they contend

with the Germans in almost daily battles, when they are either keeping them from their own boarders or

they themselves are waging war beyond their boundaries (Caesar, de Bello Gallico 1.1.4).

Caesar does not limit himself to this sole usage of contendo; even within the same book contendo is

used to express the meaning of “rush/hurry/travel.” Ipse in Italiam magnis itineribus contendit duasque

ibi legions conscribit et tres, quae circum Aquileiam hiemabant, ex hibernis educit et, qua proximum iter

in ulteriorem Galliam per Alpes erat, cum his quinque legionibus ire contendit, he himself (Titus

Labienus) hurries by a swift path into Italy and there he conscribed two legions and he led from

encampment three legions, which were bordering Aquileia, and when the path was near to the boundaries

of Gaul passing through the Alps, he set out with his five legions (Caesar, de Bello Gallico 1.10.3).

Above, contendo is used twice, first as “hurry,” and second as “set out.” As the second use of contendo is

representing an idea of beginning a new journey, the meaning “set out” is appropriate for this context as

oppose to “travel” or “hurry,” albeit the same sense of urgency is expressed in both usages.

Marcus Tulius Cicero, one of Caesar’s Classical contemporaries, turned to contendo to express not

physical and military ideas, but instead utilized contendo as a verb of mental action, expressing ideas of

urging, claiming, and speaking passionately. Qua re omni studio a te, mi Brute, contend ut Ciceronem

meum ne dimittas tecumque deducas, wherefore I urge you, my Brutus, in all things which you do, that

you not send away my son and take him with you (Cicero, ad Brutus 1.14.2). Here Cicero casually uses

contendo as “I urge” when he addresses his friend, Brutus, asking him to take his son with him

everywhere and to include him in everything he does. Caesar will also use contendo as “I urge”: Itaque

iter ab Helvetiis avertit ac Bibracte ire contendit, and so he urged them to turn from the Helvetii and go

to Bibracte (Caesar, de Bello Gallico 1.23.1). However, being that de Bello Gallico is a large martial

literary work, it is used with a sense of command and urgency.

Contendo can become either more or less intense in meaning to match the aspect of the audience for

whom the literary work is intended. Just as Caesar’s use of contendo was an intense command, Cicero

also, in an oration against Verres, imploys contendo to mean “demand/press for,” with a sense of

authority, rather than the informal “urge/ask,” as seen in his letter to his friend, Brutus, above. Belli

pericula tempora rei publicae, imperatorum penuriam commemorabit; tum deprecabitur a vobis, tum

etiam pro suo iure contendet ne patiamini talem imperatorem populo Romano Siculorum testimoniis

8 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

eripi, at this time with The Republic in danger of war, he will note the lack of able leaders; then even

though he was depreciated by you, he will even demand it as his own right so that you will not suffer such

a leader to be taken from the Roman people on account of the testimony of the Sicilians (Cicero, Verres

2.5.2).

Sometimes contendo takes on a quite different meaning from any of its recorded dictionary forms.

Se ita a patribus maioribusque suis didicisse, ut magis virtute contenderent quam dolo aut insidiis

niterentur, thus he learned from his own great ancestors, in order that they (the army) might rely on their

valor rather than toil or plots (Caesar, de Bello Gallico 1.13.4). Contendo, used above as “rely,” could

mean “fight” if virtute, dolo and insidiis were ablatives in an ablative of means clause, thereby changing

the translation to “…in order that the army might fight be means of their valor rather than by toil or

strategy.” However, it is also likely that contendo here means “rely,” for the context describes how he

learned from, in a sense relying on, the ways of his great ancestors.

While contendo in the Classical period had a robust store of meanings, during the early Empire its

uses would only broaden. While maintaining its original meanings of “hurry,” “fight,” “urge,” and

“demand” – quicquid putabit esse dignum memoria, / Aesopi dicet; si quid minus arriserit, / A me

contendet fictum quovis pignore, whatever they consider worthy of memory, they say is Aesop’s; if

something worse comes about they will demand that it was mine (Phaedrus, Fabulae Aesopiae 4.21.3-5) -

it gained the new meanings of “bend,” “extend,” “draw back,” and even “think/consider.” Vadit super

antiochiae tractum et usque ad cyrresticam eius regionem parte sua quae vocatur cataonia contendit, it

rises above Antiochia, the part of it which is called Cataonia extends all the way to Cyrrhestica, which is a

part of that region (Pliny, Naturalis Historia 6.7.3). Used here as “extends,” contendo takes on a meaning

that goes beyond the relationships between people, and rather describes the geographical position of the

province.

It is again seen how contendo is used in relation to inanimate aspects, as here Pliny uses contendo as

“bend” in relation to a bow: Ingentes arcus intentos defigunt humi longius; hos praecipui viribus iuvenes

continent, alii conixi pari conatu contendunt ac praetereuntibus sagittarum venabula infigunt, mox

sanguini vestigiis secuntur, they hunt them from far away using huge bows; strong, young men hold these

in place, while others equal in strength bend them, and they inflict wounds with arrows as the beasts past

by and soon tracked them by their blood (Pliny, Naturalis Historia 8.9.9).

Ovid’s Metamorphoses offers a unique meaning for contendo in the following sentence: Cornua

parva quidem, sed quae contendere possis facta manu, puraque magis perlucida gemma, his horns were

small, but you would be able to think they were made by hand, more pure than bright gems (Ovid,

Metamorphoses 2.855-856). Based on the context above it seems that the translation of “think” or

“consider,” though rare, is preferred over “match” or “assert” as the sentence lacks the sense of urgency

necessary for the latter.

During the rise of Medieval Latin the Latin language underwent a major shift from the language of

nobility to one that was also spoken by the peasants and common folk. Literature was no longer intended

to serve as an exercise for the wealthy and well educated but was rather a means of preaching Christianity

and spreading propaganda to the masses. To make these readily and easily accessible, Latin was

simplified both in grammar and its vocabulary forming the dialect known as Medieval Latin; contendo

was no exception to these changes. The originally diverse and complex word was simplified to the base

meaning of “contend,” and it ceded its former Classical meanings such as “hurry/travel,” “bend/stretch,”

“strive/seek” to words such as eo/ire, flecto/flectere, peto/petere respectively.

9 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

Non contendet neque clamabit neque audiet aliquis in plateis vocem eius, He will not fight, nor will

He shout, nor will anyone hear His voice in the streets (Matthew 12.19). Earlier in this paragraph it was

said that Jesus was the chosen judge, and non contendo is used here in a list of sins which Jesus would not

commit; thus, “He will not fight” is used here as he will not cause enmity or hostility in general, in

contrast to the Classical meaning which generally expressed the idea of battle.

Responditque altera mulier non est ita sed filius tuus mortuus est meus autem vivit e contrario illa

dicebat mentiris filius quippe meus vivit et filius tuus mortuus est atque in hunc modum contendebant

coram rege, and the other woman responded that it was not so but your son is dead and mine lives but the

other was saying that on the contrary my son lives and your son is dead and in this way they were arguing

before the king (Kings 3.22). Here again contendo is used to express hostility rather than open battle.

As the Vulgate was the most prominent source for Medieval Latin literature, the two examples above

well represent contendo’s usage during that time, that being fighting and arguing with others, God and the

Word. Today contendo retains the meaning of fighting and arguing, however with respect to law, as in

nolo contendere meaning “no contest”; which is used to mean that the person pleading thus will not

contest their judgment and/or accusation.

Contendo’s meanings are as flexible as its history. During the Classical period it could be regarded

as the ‘swiss army knife’ in Classical Latin literature; and though the authors used it in circumstances

ranging from “hasten” to “fight” to “bend,” its meaning maintained the idea of striving or pursuing of

some sort; for even in instances where contendo was used for bending a bow, there is still the aspect of

striving to pull it back, to hasten, to strive to reach a place, to fight, to strive for victory. Thus, contendo

should be viewed not as many different words but with its core aspect of striving with great effort.

Word Study 6

Whales, the Monsters of the Sea

During week 3 of this course, the word “cete” was used in the story of the girl and the whale. The

word cete is declined from cetus, which means whale, porpoise, dolphin, or sea monster. Despite

requiring a dictionary definition for this word, it is present in the English language, and shares the same

meaning, which is common for most English words since they are usually derived from Latin. The first

usage of cete was in the sentence “Cum autem per mare navigarent, cete grandis ei occurrebat in mare et

navem deglutire volebat.” In English, this reads as “However when they were sailing through the sea, a

large whale came to the ship in the sea and wanted to devour it.” Although the passage is describing a

whale, the correlation with a sea monster is also fitting, as there are several stories depicting a sea monster

swallowing ships or attacking people. An example of an English word in this context is the constellation

Cetus. This constellation is often called “the whale” and is among other sea-related constellations, such as

Aquarius and Eridanus. Despite its name “the whale,” however, Cetus actually depicts a sea monster.

An example in Latin text where cetus is used to describe a sea monster is in the Iliad: “Et

circumdederunt eum Cetea de profundo eorum, & ambulaverunt in viis ejus, & agnoverunt dominum

eorum, & stetit ante illum mare gaudens” (Homer, Iliad 13.27). This sentence translates to “And around

him the Sea Monsters came from their depth, and played in his way, and acknowledged their master, and

the sea stood before him praising.” Looking further back in the passage, it is made clear that the “him”

being referred to is Poseidon, the god of the sea, so it makes even more sense that even the sea monsters

surround him and praise him.

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The Latin connotation for cete was often negative, but this association wasn’t always with sea

monsters. One text reads “Cetos: bellua marina multis formis” (Suidas, Ketos). Although this translates

to “a beast with many forms,” it is said later in the passage that the cetos is an animal and a sawfish is also

mentioned, so it’s implied that in this context, a whale is being referred to. Because of the vague usage

and the word bellua, the translation could go either way.

It is likely that cetus received its double meaning from the Greek word ketus. In Greek

mythology, Cetus was a sea monster fought by Perseus and Heracles. This is the same monster the

constellation is named after, and because the spellings for the Latin and Greek words are so similar, the

meaning probably carried over to the former language from the latter. The meaning “porpoise” also

pertains to the constellation, as the stars form a creature resembling a mix between a whale and a shark.

The face of Cetus shown in images has a dinosaur-like expression, eyes forming a scowl and teeth bared.

All of these factors in consideration, the most appropriate definition for cetus is “sea monster,” however,

to generate a realistic story, “whale” should be used instead.

Word Study 7

Word Study 1: Hunting for Thesaurus

In the English language, a thesaurus is a book that lists words in groups of synonyms and related

concepts. The current English meaning of the word “thesaurus” was established after the publication of

Peter Roget’s Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (1852). This English word comes from the Latin

word thesaurus, which usually means “hoard,” “treasury,” “store,” or “treasure.” This Latin word is

derived from the Greek word θησαυρός, which similarly means either “storehouse” or “treasure.”

Thesaurus is a second declension masculine noun, and it was often used to refer to a treasure, a dear

friend or loved one, a vault for treasure, a chest or strongbox, or a collection. Alternative forms of this

word include thensaurus, tesaurus, and tesorus. (The latter two are Low Latin variations.)

This word has appeared multiple times in the assigned readings. For example, it appears in the

sentence Bonus homo de bono thesauro cordis sui profert bonum, et malus homo de malo profert malum:

ex abuntia enim cordis os loquitur. A good man takes a good thing from the good treasury of his heart,

and a wicked man takes a bad thing from the wicked treasury of his heart: for the mouth speaks from the

abundance of the heart (Vulgate, Luke 6.45-46). In this case, thesauro has the meaning of “treasure,” a

place where treasure is stored, instead of the treasure itself. It is interesting that, in this case, the heart

itself is the treasury from which a good or a bad thing comes. The word here is the second time in the

Gesta Romanorum: Facta nave et omnibus necessariis paratis puella intravit habens thesaurum secum in

magna copia ac milites quinque cum dominabus et ancillis. After the ship was readied and all necessary

things were prepared, the girl entered, having the treasure in great abundance and also five soldiers with

the ladies and her servants with her (Gesta Romanorum, 2.19-21). In this example, thesaurum refers to the

treasure itself, which is the king’s daughter’s dowry. In contrast to the word’s use in the Vulgate, which

refers to the place from which treasure comes, thesaurus describes a dowry. The Vulgate was completed

around 405 AD, and the Gesta Romanorum was written in the early 14th century. Therefore, it is possible

that the usage of this word changed over time from a treasury to the treasure itself.

The word thesaurus appeared in other examples of Roman literature. For example, the variation

thensaurus appears in Seneca’s De Vita Beata: Beneficium conlocetur, quem admodum thensaurus alte

obrutus, quem non eruas, nisi fuerit necesse. A favor must be arranged, a treasure which has been deeply

buried, which you should not dig out, unless it will have been necessary (De Vita Beata, 7.24). In this

11 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

example, the variation of thesaurus is being used to describe the metaphoric treasure of a favor or

kindness. Like the word’s usage in The Story of the Three Caskets, the word is used to describe

something that should be treasured, but, unlike the other story, Seneca does not use the word to describe

material wealth. The meaning of thesaurus is more abstract in the De Vita Beata, since a favor is a service

owed to another person on the basis of duty and honor. Therefore, it follows that the usage of the word

thesaurus was not strictly confined to the description of material wealth such as gold and jewels; instead,

it was often used to describe anything that should be treasured, whether it is tangible or intangible. The

word could be used to describe anything a person values, such as a prized possession, a dear friend or

relative, character traits such as kindness, or even a quality a person in which a person takes pride, such as

beauty or intellect.

The word thesaurus has a treasury of meanings, and the modern English usage of the word

describes a treasury of synonyms and related concepts for many other words in the English language. This

amazing Latin word has many derivatives in other languages, including “thesar” (Albanian), “tresor” or

“tesaurus” (Catalan), “thesaurus” (English), “tesauro” or “tesoro” (Italian), and “thésaurus” (French). All

of these derivatives translate roughly to “treasure” or “store.” The meaning of thesaurus suits the word

itself, for it is a word that should be valued and seen for the treasure that it is.

Word Study 8

Mitto: Sending Definitions

Throughout time, various authors have used the Latin verb mitto to convey different ideas that

relate to the motion of sending something off. One time an author uses mitto is in St. Jerome’s Latin

translation of the Bible. Et abiit et adheasit uni civium regionis illius; et misit illum in villam suam ut

pasceret porcos. And he went away and he joined to one of the citizens of that region; and he sent him

into his own villa so that he may feed the pigs (Jerome, Luke 15.15). This section, translated around 380

CE, is a translation of the passage known as The Prodigal Son, a moralizing tale about forgiveness. At

this point, a boy who has run out of money is following a citizen of the region he is in and is desperately

trying to find food. Mitto in this case is referring to the idea of sending something, here a person, towards

or into another thing, here a house. There is less of the idea of forcing someone away from the subject

than there is the idea of guiding or pushing someone to something else. The use of in in particular

highlights the idea of sending one into rather than sending one away. With this in mind, the best way to

translate mitto here is to use “sent”. “Sent” here feels very purposeful and intentional. In the 13th-century

drinking song, In Taberna, however, mitto takes on a more casual and less personal tone. Ibi nullus timet

mortem, / Sed pro Baccho mittunt sortem: There none fear death, / but they cast their lot in the name of

Bacchus. (Carmina Burana 196.15-6). Even though there is still the idea of sending something using

mitto, it is much more casual, less like handing something over, and more like tossing something with less

accuracy. Thus, translating mitto as casting, or even gambling here is much more effective.

Outside of the passages selected in the Wheelock reader, the same authors use mitto in other

ways. For example, in another section of the Vulgate, St. Jerome uses mitto to mean something different

than how he used it previously. Timor non est in caritate sed perfecta caritas foras mittit timorem

quoniam timor poenam habet, fear is not in love but the perfect love casts out fear because fear has a

penalty (Jerome, 1 John 4.18). Here, mitto is better translated as cast out than sent out because it

encompasses the idea of forcing something away as opposed to sending something towards another thing.

Both the preposition foras and the fact that love is framed as the enemy of fear cement this idea. Again in

the Vulgate, St. Jerome uses mitto. Accusationem quam misistis ad nos manifeste lecta est coram me. The

12 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

accusation which you had evidently sent to us is in the presence of me (Jerome, Ezra 4.18). Again, St.

Jerome uses mitto in a more literal sense of sending. When dealing with the literal sending of letters, it is

best to translate mitto as send.

Looking at the Latin cognates of mitto can further help understand its base meaning. Going back

to the Vulgate, there are more cognates to be found. Nolite iudicare, et non iudicabimini; nolite

condemnare, et non condemnabimini; dimitttite, et dimittetemini; date, et dabitur vobis. Do not judge, and

you will not be judged; do not condemn, and you will not be condemned; forgive and you will be

forgiven; give, and it will be given to you (Jerome, Luke 6.37-8). Here, dimitto is formed from dis + mitto.

The prefix dis implies removal making dimitto most literally translate to cast away. That being said, it is

better to translate dimitto as forgive in this context, implying that one must cast away perceived slights.

This encompasses more of the idea around mitto relating to casting off than it does sending. Caesar also

uses a cognate of mitto in his Gallic Wars, written around 40 BCE. Quare ne committeret ut is locus ubi

constitissent ex calamitate populi Romani et internecione exercitus nomen caperet aut memoriam

proderet. Why let this place bring them together so that where they were standing from the damage of the

Roman people and the name of the army is seizing with destruction or producing memory (Caesar, Gallic

Wars 1.13). Here Ceasar uses cognate committo, formed from the prefix com-, implying togetherness, and

mitto. In this passage, committo is best translated as bringing together, which invokes the ideas of uniting

and gathering i.e. sending things towards each other.

Besides Latin cognates of mitto, there are also English cognates that have survived to the current

age. Words directly from mitto include mission, mess, muss, and missile, all relating to sending or, in the

case of mess and muss, casting things askew. Additionally, there are many English cognates that stem

from the Latin cognates of mitto. This includes permission (per + mitto), emission (e + mitto), submit

(sub + mitto), dismissal (di + mitto, as seen above), and promise (pro + mitto).

Overall, mitto is often best translated as “send” as seen in The Prodigal Son and Ezra 4.18 but it

can be better translated as “cast” or “cast out” in the cases of In Taberna, and John 4.18. It is also worthy

to note that the cognate dimitto fits better into the “cast” category and committo fits more neatly into the

“send” idea. Looking at all of these examples as well as the English cognates, I believe it is best to

translate mitto as “send” as in “send” to, off, or out.

It is curious to see how transitive verbs such as mitto can have both literal and more figurative

meanings. On the more literal side is the use of mitto to mean sending letters, or sending a person. On the

figurative side are translations such as casting out fear or throwing one’s lot. Learning about these

differences can help one better understand how humans use language in all eras.

Word Study 9

All the World is a Species

The Latin word species comes from the Proto-Indo-European root spec which means ‘to observe’

and its Latin cognate is specio which means ‘to look at’. So species as the noun is what is observed. In

Latin literature species was used to indicate something’s outward appearance but in several poetic ways

from the show of nature or a construction of man for great spectacle, to man’s pretext for deception or a

view of a person or thing with nothing of substance backing it up, and finally to a purely biological

classification of type or kind based on common attributes.

Lucretius, describing the season of spring, writes nam simul ac species patefactast verna diei, for

simultaneous also the aspect of a spring day having been opened (Lucretius, de Rerum Natura 1.10). His

use of species refers to the the outward attributes which one observes in nature. Or it was used to mean

simply a spectacle that is created to be visually pleasing. Cicero uses it this way when he writes, vidi

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simul cum populo Romano forum comitiumque adornatum ad speciem magnifico ornatu, I saw at the

same time with the Roman people the forum adorned with magnificent ornamentation towards a spectacle

(Cicero, in C. Verrem 2.1.58). So one uses species for the show of nature’s and one for the show of

man’s beautiful works.

On the other hand when applied to man it was often used in terms of a contrived strategy of an

appearance that was false. Livy in his history relates a story of a group of pipers invited somewhere

under false pretext in order to trick them, per speciam celebrandarum cantu epularum invitant, they

invited through a pretext of celebrating a feast with song (Livy, ab Urbe Condita 9.30.8). And Caesar

describes and justifies a strategy he used in warfare, Caesar…alarios omnes in conspectus hostium pro

castris minoribus constituit, quod minus multitudine militum legionariorum pro hostium numero valebat,

ut ad speciem alariis uteretur; Caesar… stood together all the allied troops in sight of the enemy before

the lesser camps, because he was less powerful in multitude of legions of soldiers before the number of

the enemy, in order to use his allied troops for show (Caesar, de Bello Gallico 1, 51). In both cases

species is used to denote a pretext used for deception.

Other authors use species to denote shallow, unsubstantiated appearances. Vergil’s Dido,

disregarding her vow to her husband in her desire for Odysseus, Ille dies primus leti primusque malorum/

causa fuit; neque enim specie famave movetur/ nec iam furtivum Dido meditator amorem:/ coniugium

vocat; hoc praetexit nomine culpam, (it was) that first day of death and the first cause of the evils; for

neither was she moved by honor or reputation, nor did Dido now consider her love stolen: she calls it

marriage; by this name she concealed her guilt (Vergil, Aeneid 4.169-172). It denotes honor here because

not upholding it brings evil, or perhaps the appearance of honor shown to society which she now has lost

along with her reputation because of her action. And Phaedrus has his fox viewing a dramatic mask say,

‘O quanta species’, inquit, ‘cerebrum non habet!’, “Oh how great an appearance,” he said, “does not have

a brain!” (Phaedrus, Fabulae 1.7). He uses the word species to indicate an appearance used for a spectacle

only – that has no substance behind it. So both Dido’s honor and the mask’s appearance had no substance

behind them.

Authors used this word to refer to visions or dreams. Ovid writes, somnus abit: silet illa diu

reqetitque quietis/ ipsa suae speciem dubiaque ita mente profatur,/”me miseram! Tacitae quid vult sibi

noctis imago”, slumber has gone away: she is silent for a time and she herself seeks again, the vision of

her own repose and she speaks out with a doubtful mind, “Wretched me! What does this vision of the

silent night want for itself?” (Ovid, Metamorphosis 9.473). Livy writes of a group of men unbelieving

what they were hearing, mirabundi velut ad somni vanam speciem, those who were astonished just as at

the empty sight of a dream (Livy, ab Urbe Condita 33.32.7). Species used this way means the empty

appearances of dreams.

Pliny the Elder and the Younger both used the word in the generic sense of type or kind classified

by observation of natural phenomenon. Pliny the Elder, describing pomegranites, notes that, horum

quinque species: dulcia, acria, mixta, acida, vinosa, of these there are five types: sweet, sharp, mixed,

sour, wine-like (Pliny, Naturalis Historia 13.31.7-8). Pliny the Younger, describing his experience of the

Mount Vesuvius eruption writes, mater mea indicat ei apparere nubem inusitata et magnitudina et specie,

my mother points out to him that the cloud appears extraordinary both in size and in kind (Pliny,

Epistulae 6.16.4). Both use species in the modern biological use of identifying by appearance.

Finally, Jerome in the Vulgate uses species to be the appearance of God. God cannot be seen by

mortal man except as some semblance of the appearance of something glorious. He writes in Exodus, erat

14 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

autem species Gloria Domini quasi ignis ardens super verticem nomtis in conspectus filorum Israel,

moreover the appearance of the glory of God was just as the burning of fire about the vortex of the

mountain in the sight of the children of Israel (Jerome, Editio Vulgata, Liber Exodus 24.17). His choice of

species indicates just a thin veneer of something far too overwhelming to be observed with man’s carnal

senses.

Species has come down to contemporary English used mainly the way the Plinys used it as

‘species’ for broad biological classification as type or kind. It also has evolved into other words such as

‘special’ which is from species plus alis (an earlier form of alius) so meaning other than or distinguished

from the common type, and ‘spy’ meaning to observe or someone who observes at its base. The root

meaning of species then has always been something observed, not with a deep and thorough study but a

straightforward, surface appearance. Although the Latin authors creatively applied it to many sorts of

appearances - from the show of spring to the spectacle of the forum, to the deception or emptiness of a

veneer shown to others, a mask for entertainment, or an image in a dream - at its base is a thing’s show,

its outward appearance, which is observed. And as all the world is observed, so all the world is a species.

Word Study 10

The Point Behind Poena

The word poena is a first declension feminine noun, which has the basic meanings of a punishment or

penalty, and, when used in a metaphorical sense, that of hardship or pain. The meaning of the word

should be determined by its context and the surrounding words and their forms. Poena also has an

additional meaning when used as a personification of the goddess of punishment. The final translation of

poena is an idiomatic use that retains the core meaning of penalty.

The origin of the word poena can be traced back to the Proto-Indo-European word, kʷoyneh meaning

payment, punishment, or vengeance. From kʷoyneh comes the Greek word ποινή which means blood

money, monetary fine, or penance. Poena is the Latin descendant of ποινή, which carries the meaning of

both its forebears combining the monetary fine aspect with that of punishment, while adding the

figurative meaning of suffering.

The most frequent meaning of poena is when authors use it to signify punishment. One of the first

usages of poena was by Plautus in his play Amphitryon, which was written sometime around 185 B.C..

He uses it to mean punishment, not fiscal penance. He says, deinde illi actutum sufferet suos servos

poenas Sosia. From there, his own slave Sosia will immediately bear the punishment for that (Plautus,

Amphitryon, 3.4.1002). In this usage, poena means suffering in the disciplinary sense. It is chastisement

and is not used in the metaphorical sense of pain or hardship. Sallust, who lived nearly one hundred years

after Plautus, uses it in the same sense of punishment as Plautus did. Ibi milites … docet oppidum Vagam

non amplius mille passuum abesse, decere illos reliquom laborem aequo animo pati, dum pro civibus suis

… poenas caperent. There, he taught the soldiers that the town of Vacca was not more than a thousand

miles away, that it was fitting for those men to suffer the remaining work with an even spirit, that they

then might take revenge for their own citizens (Sallust, Bellum Jugurthinum, 68). Based on the context of

this passage, the best translation of poena is expiation. Horace uses this meaning in one of his books of

satire, which was written around 35 B.C.. Adsit regula, peccatis quae poenas inroget aequas. May a rule

attend, which may inflict fair punishments to the crimes (Horace, Satires, 1.3.17-18). Horace takes poena

meaning a penalty in relation to a crime or retribution for a misdeed, which is the most common usage.

15 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

These three examples show poena in its most common usage, the usage that lasted unchanged for

hundreds of years.

Cicero, who lived from 106 B.C. to 43 B.C., uses poena in its personified form, referring to the

goddess of punishment in his work, Against Piso. Cicero calls out to the goddess of punishment, Poena,

and the Furies. O Poena et Furia sociorum! O Goddess of revenge and Fury of the accompanied people

(Cicero, In Pisonem, 37.91). Cicero here is using poena to mean the goddess of vengeance, not revenge

itself. This translation is based on the fact that poena is in the vocative case, and also that Poena is

parallel to Furia, meaning the Furies. Another example of Poena used in reference to the goddesses is in

Lucan’s Pharsalia, which was left unfinished by Lucan after his death in 65 A.D.. He says: Eumenides,

Stygiumque nefas, poenaeque nocentum. The Furies, infernal and sin, and the hurtful goddesses of

revenge (Lucan, Pharsalia, 6.695). This is another illustration of poena paired with the Eumenides.

Lucan, like Cicero, uses poena as the goddesses of punishment. Even though these two passages of

literature were written over one hundred years apart, the meaning of poena remained unchanged in that

time.

Poena, when used in a metaphorical sense, means hardship or pain. In one of Seneca’s epistles, written

around 65 A.D., he uses poena in this way. He states, Frugalitatem exigit philosophia, non poenam,

potest autem esse non incompta frugalitas. Philosophy demands economy, not suffering, however, it is

not possible to be frugal as well as inelegant (Seneca, Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales, 5.4). Poena here is

used in a figurative way. Seneca is not talking about punishment, but pain. It is easy to see how this

meaning came into existence. Discipline almost always causes some kind of physical suffering. This

meaning of the word follows naturally from the idea that punishment causes pain.

Poena also has the idiomatic meaning of “to pay the price” when paired with do dare. Phaedrus, who

lived from around 15 B.C. to 50 A.D., uses this meaning in his fable The Fox and the Raven. His story

states, Qui se laudari gaudet verbis subdolis, fere dat poenas. He who rejoices for himself to be praised

with deceitful words, usually pays the price (Phaedrus, Fabulae, 1.13.1-2). Despite its use in an idiom,

poena retains the meaning of penalty. Another example of this meaning is in Juvenal’s third satire.

Juvenal lived in the first and second centuries A.D. It reads, Ebrius ac petulans, qui nullum forte cecidit,

dat poenas, noctem patitur lugentis amicum Pelidae. The drunk and impudent man, who by chance killed

no one, pays the price, he suffers the night of the mourning of his friend Achilles (Juvenal, Satires, 3.278-

80). This second example shows once more how poena can be used in the idiomatic way. Idioms are often

formed from common words, and poena is no different. It was frequently used by writers of both poetry

and prose, and with do dare was a commonly used Latin idiom.

Understanding the history of the word poena gives a better appreciation and comprehension of many

modern words, of varied languages, especially legal terms or words associated with punishment. Poena

has many English derivatives, some of which are subpoena, punishment, penal, and penalty. Many of the

romance languages also have a derivative from poena, some of which include the French peine, the

Spanish pena, and the Italian pena. All these derivatives have punishment as one of their main meanings.

Throughout history the word poena has stayed true to its original meaning, but added subtle nuances. The

word originally meant punishment or, when used metaphorically, suffering, but over time it came to mean

the goddess of punishment, fiscal penalty, and pain, while still carrying its original meaning.

16 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

Word Study 11

A Closer Look at Fructus: Fruit, Law, and Benefits

Of the many unique and interesting Latin words, fructus, a fourth declension masculine noun, it is

original to the Romans; it is not a cognate of Greek or another Indo-European language. Though it can be

used to mean fruit, in a literal sense, it is also used in a more metaphorical sense to mean a product, result,

or reward derived from something or someone.

Perhaps the most literal definition of fructus is fruit. In Natural History, a scientific work written

by Pliny, he uses the word fructus numerous times to catalog and describe fruits of the world. In one

instance when he was comparing a fruit found in Cyprus, Pliny claims, in Cypro, folium ibi latius, fructus

quam reliquis rotundior, in Cyprus, the leaf is larger, and the fruit is rounder than anywhere else (Pliny,

Natural History 13.5.31-21). Here fructus is used in the nominative because it is the subject of Pliny’s

discussion. This is an example where the author is referring to fructus as a food instead of any kind of

deeper meaning. Pliny uses this passage to express the different sizes of fruits based on geographical and

scientific data.

Fructus is also sometimes used to mean a reward or benefit. Cicero, a lawyer, statesmen, and

philosopher, was defending a Roman named Marcus Caelius when he stated, habebitis omniumque huius

nervorum ac laborum vos potissimum, iudices, fructus uberes diuturnosque capietis. You will have,

Judges, the rich and everlasting fruits of all his energies and labors (Cicero, For Marcus Caelius 80.4-

5). In this line of his speech, Cicero was trying to convince the judges to acquit Marcus Caelius so that

the judges, and probably all of Rome, would enjoy the rewards of Caelius’ work. In these lines, fructus is

in the accusative case and is being used as the direct object. Use of this declension provides further

evidence that fructus means benefit or reward because the judges are receiving the object of the verb

habebitis. Cicero, as a skilled orator, likely used fructus in his speech because the idea of being rewarded

is appealing. He hopes the thought of rewards that Marcus Caelius might provide is persuasive.

Sometimes, there is an intersection between the meaning of fructus as a literal fruit and in a

broader, metaphorical sense to mean originating from. In the Vulgate, the creation in Genesis uses the

word fructus. The serpent appears in the Garden of Eden and is questioning Eve about the forbidden

fruit. Eve explains, de fructu vero ligi quod est in medio paradisis praecepit nobis Deus ne comederemus

et ne tangeremus illud ne forte moriamur. Truly, the fruit of the tree, which is in the middle of paradise,

God has commanded us that we should not eat it, so that we may not die (Genesis 3.3). In these lines,

fructu is used in the ablative case with de. At first glance, the word fructus here is meant to literally mean

fruit; this is not the type of fruit we buy at the grocery store. The tree that is being referred to is the tree

of good and evil, and whoever eats the fruits of that tree will gain the knowledge of good and

evil. Because of this story, fructus could also mean originating from, because consuming fruits that are

produced by the tree caused Adam and Eve to fall from their state of innocence.

The New Testament contains uses of fructus also to emphasize the idea of fruit as a product or

result. In the Gospel of Luke, in the Vulgate, Jesus teaches people using the following parable: Jesus

states, Non est enim arbor bona quae facit fructus malos; neque arbor mala, faciens fructum bonum.

unaquaeque enim arbor de fructu suo cognoscitur. There is not a good tree that makes bad fruits; nor a

bad tree, making good fruits. Each tree is known by its own fruit. (Luke 6.43-45). There are three

instances of fructus in these lines, the first two are both accusative plurals, meaning they are the direct

objects of their respective clauses. The third fructus is an ablative singular with the preposition de. The

17 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

meanings of Jesus’ words also change depending on how the word fructus is translated. The most literal

interpretation of this passage is that good and bad trees literally cannot make bad or good fruit,

respectively; this explanation means that fructus is simply acting as a food. An alternative and more

likely interpretation is fructus means a product of. This would imply that the trees mentioned are also not

literal trees but are a metaphor for anything that produces something. In the second interpretation, good

sources cannot make bad products and bad sources cannot make good products. Fructus could also mean

offspring, which changes the tree metaphor into people; good people cannot make bad offspring and bad

people cannot make good offspring. Given that Jesus often taught using parables, stories used to illustrate

moral lessons, he is almost certainly speaking about fructus as the product of one’s works.

The term usus et fructus was a property law concept used in Ancient Rome. In this context,

fructus was used as a blanket term for all goods that have been naturally produced by other things, such as

milk, honey, and fruit. Usus et fructus means use and enjoyment. The idea behind this law is that a

property owner is allowed to use and enjoy those things produced by his property. For instance, if bees

build a hive in your yard, the honey they produce belongs to you. This concept is still used in modern

American law. Usufructuary rights are defined in Black Law Dictionary, 1544 (6th Edition 1990) as “A

real right of limited duration on the property of another.” This term is also used outside the legal concept.

Thomas Jefferson famously said, “The earth belongs in usufruct to the living.”

In modern language, there are many cognates of fructus, including Italian (fruti), Portuguese and

Spanish (fruta) and Romanian (flucte). English words such as fruit, fruition, fructose, and frugal are

derived from the Latin word fructus. The clothing brand, Fruit of the Loom, uses fruit to mean the

product of, in much the same way the word was used in ancient Rome.

Word Study 12

Finis: A Limited Word

Used in many forms of Latin, finis (genitive also finis) is a masculine noun meaning end, limit or

boundary. In Medieval Latin, this word is most often used to mean end or final goal, whereas in both

more ancient and more recently written Latin, finis varies much more in its meaning.

In Job on the Inaccessibility of Wisdom from the Vulgate, Job discusses some bothersome questions

including Sapientia vero ubi inventitur? Et quis est locus intellegentiae? Where is wisdom truly found?

What is the place of understanding? (Job 28.12). As he nears a conclusion to his questions, Job discusses

God’s sovereignty, saying Ipse denim fines Mundi intuetur, for even the boundaries of the world are

considered (Job 28.24). Here, fines is understood to mean boundaries or possibly territories, referring to

the farthest reaches of the world that are reached and known by God.

Finis is used similarly in Caesar’s Gallic Wars, where Caesar writes qua de causa Heluetii quoque

reliquos Gallos uirtute praecedent, quod fere quotidian proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis

finibus eos prohibit aut ipsi in forum finibus bellum gerunt; and for that reason the Heluetii fall upon the

Gauls with power, which they exert nearly all of in their daily battles with the Germans, when they either

hinder them from their own boundaries or they bring out the battle to their boundaries (Caesar, Gallic

Wars 16.24.9-12). Here finibus refers to boundaries or territories, which gives the overall effect of the

Heluetii either hiding to survive the battle another day or giving their all and dying respectfully.

Yet in the Medieval time period, the Dies Irae offers a narrower, more morbid use of the word finis.

This Day of Wrath is the judgment day foretold in the New Testament, and in this poem a person prays in

hope of escaping eternal damnation. The author writes, Oro supplex et acclinis; Cor contrite quasi cinis;

18 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

Gere curam mei finis, I pray kneeling and bent; My heart destroyed into ashes; Display the cure of my

end (Dies Irae 441-3). Here finis is translated “end” or “limit,” or even “point of death.” This shows the

anguish that this person is feeling over the possibility of endless torment after death.

Finis can be used to describe bonds within life as well as death. In Cicero’s Pro Quinctio, he admires

many of the good qualities of his role model, Hortensius, writing Certos mihi finis terminosque

constiuam, I have appointed myself certain bounds and limits (Cicero, Pro Quinctio 10.35). Here, finis

refers to the physical and mental limits Cicero is putting upon himself in order to act more like

Hortensius.

Interestingly, the word finis is sometimes written in the feminine gender. For example, Virgil writes

haec finis Priami fatorum, hic exitus illum sorte tulit Troiam incensam et prolapsa uidentem Pergama,

this is the end of Priam's fate, this is the end that bore him by chance seeing Troy burned and Pergama

fallen (Virgil, Aeneid 2.550-2). Here Virgil uses haec to agree with finis, making finis feminine. This

theme of loosely using words with different genders is very common in the writings of many Latin

authors.

A modern reader would also notice that this word concludes many books and documentations, stating

simply “the end.” This more modern understanding of finis comes from the Old French prefix finess

(derived from the Latin), meaning “to come to an end.” This word has evolved since to have several

different meanings: it can refer to the end of a life, whether of a person or community; it can refer to the

end or boundary of a certain territory; and it can even refer to the end or limit of someone’s physical or

mental capabilities.

Word Study 13

Spaces after paragraphs have been removed and the title has been aligned to Times New Roman 11 pt

font.

The Search for Sinus

In my Word Study, I find the possible meanings of the Latin word sinus, along with how the word has

evolved in today’s English language.

First, the passage below is from the Vulgate. It uses sinus as a pocket in a piece of clothing. Mensuram

bonam, confertam et coagitatam et supereffluentem, dabunt in sinum vestrum. They will give a good

measure, crammed full and shaken down and overflowing, into your pocket; (Luke 6.38). It can be

interpreted that a pocket is basically a fold in a piece of clothing used to store things.

Differing from the example above, Vergil used sinus to refer to the folds in a piece of clothing, like

when you sit down. Namque umeris de more habilem suspenderat arcum venatrix, dederatque comam

diffundere ventis, nuda genu, nodoque sinus collecta fluentis. And for the huntress had suspended the

skillful by the shoulders of the citadels from custom, and had given her hair to spread out in the winds,

knee bare, and it was gathered together with a knot of a flowing fold. (Vergil, Aeneid 1.318-320).

Considering the 300 years between the two authors, it appears that sinus has evolved from just meaning a

fold in clothing to a more specific fold in clothing, like a pocket.

In this next passage from Cicero, we see sinus used as a bay. Nam ut illi quos a poetis accepimus, qui

sinus quosdam obsedisse maritimos aut aliqua promunturia aut praerupta saxa tenuisse dicuntur, ut eos

qui essent adpulsi navigiis interficere possent, sic iste in omnia maria infestus ex omnibus Siciliae

partibus imminebat. For as we have learned those of that from the poets, who are said to have besieged

those marine people of the bay either to have held some headland or broken off rocks, so that they could

19 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

kill the ones who were driven to the ships, thus that dangerous man was threatening from all the parts of

Sicily into all the oceans. (Cicero, Against Verres 2.5.145). A bay is like a fold in the land: it curves

inward and outward close to each other. Sinus reflects this here.

Finally, in this last passage, sinus is used to describe the snake-like movements of a creature crawling

along the ground. Inde per iniectis adopertam floribus ingens serpit humum flectitque sinus mediamque

per urbem tendit ad incurvo munitos aggere portus. Thereupon the huge thing crawls across the ground

covered by casted flowers and it bends into curves and stretches through the middle of the city towards

the ports built with bent material. (Ovid, Metamorphoses 15.688-690). Simply put, sinus can just mean a

curve or bend. Ovid was born in the same year that Cicero died, so the word may have changed a bit over

time.

There are several different meanings for sinus, all of which are related. In the fourth example, we see

sinus used as a curve or bend in something, showing that the said thing is changing the direction it is

heading. In the first and second examples, sinus is, more specifically, used to indicate the folds in

clothing, such as a pocket or creases. In the third example, it is used as a curve or fold in land, creating

bays and gulfs. As my conclusion, the meaning of sinus is “A fold or curve in X, X referring to

movement, clothing, or even the land itself.”

Over the course of the Roman Empire, the overall meaning of the word had changed very little, even

with several meanings. Nowadays, the English word sinus is mainly used in medical terms, referring to

cavities in the body. Sinus no longer refers to clothing and is rarely used to refer to a bay. It seems that

most of the original meaning has been lost in the English language.

Word Study 14

On the Usage of Tinctus in Latin Writings

In the Vulgate, wisdom is declared to have no match, no equal, as it is, in vain, pitted again pure

gold, pure silver, and even the colored dyes of India: non confertur tinctis Indiae coloribus (Job 28.16).

The praise of wisdom, being the focus of the passage, is carried on for over a hundred lines, yet a

comparison to the cleanest dyes, the cleanest colors, is brought up, interestingly, only a few short lines

after its first arrival, nec tincturae mundissime componentur (Job 28.19). While the early translators of the

Bible may have used the word tinctus, Latin for dye, in the most positive of connotations, as a rich,

exquisite color available only in the furthest lands, several following famous Roman authors would wield

this expression in unrelated, and even darker aspects.

Horace, one of the prominent ancient Roman poets, wrote: nec tinctus viola pallor amantium

(Horace, Carmina 3.10.14). Literally translated as, “nor as the pale tint of violet of lovers”, tinctus offers

a significantly different translation here. Notably, the lovers are explored as frail with a hint of color, a

sharp contrast to the full and vivid colors described by Jerome in the Vulgate. This notion of tinctus

transforming away from its deep and powerful connotation towards a smaller equivalent (the English

word tint today) is exemplified in the works of another historic author, Cicero: sit enim mihi tinctus

litteris (Cicero, De Oratore 2.85). In this scenario, a particular student is described as having a bit of

knowledge (and therefore being of value to the teacher). The emphasis on using tinctus, as opposed to

parvus, minimus, or other more frequent words to explicitly convey the notion of a small quantity,

highlights its progression, over the course of three short centuries away from its lusher and more colorful

meaning.

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Language, of course, being a complex and society-dependent phenomena, does not evolve

singularly or in a clear direction. At the same time as tinctus lost its flamboyant nature in certain parts,

other individuals (and famous authors), remembering its literal meaning of dyeing, began to trace back its

true origins to the ancient Greek word tengein, meaning to soak or moisten. A few, like Lucretius, a

philosopher who attempted to explain the origins of the world in his book, On the Nature of Things, used

tinctus in its purest, most grandiose form, explaining in beauty, how a small ball was being bathed in

shining light: pilai dimidia ex parti candenti lumine tinctus (Lucretius, De Rerum Natura 5.721). A larger

majority of writers, however, adopted a much uglier usage of the word, meaning to drench instead, such

as Ovid, in his tragedy of Dido, where he writes how she began to stain (tinctus) herself with blood before

tears: qui iam pro lacrimis sanguine tinctus erit (Ovid, Epistulae Heroides 7.186). Fascinatingly, tinctus

had regained its former power, but now was not an exotic royal color to be awarded from foreign lands,

but rather the bright, dripping red pang that could only be felt, from heartbreak within.

Tinctus had adopted a wide variety of uses by this point, from the bright colors of India, to the

shining origins of the world, to the pale colors of lovers, to the horrifying pigments of loss to even the

mundane progress of a student. It had developed simultaneous definitions of a small quantity and a wet

substance, which is visible even today in our English language; just take a look at the fields of science,

medicine, and surprisingly magic (actually just alchemy), where pouring tiny traces of chemicals into

solutions has revolutionized our well-being and time spent in life. Tinctus may not quite have a

quantifiable definition with its diverse appearances throughout history, but it certainly evokes a unique

feeling of passion, riches, and promise.

Word Study 15

Lukeion 3a Word Study #1: Mare, Maris

The Latin word “mare” caught my eye because although it describes something so

essential to everyone in the world -- the sea -- its English equivalent looks nothing like the Latin

version. In fact, the word “mare” in English is usually used to describe a female horse. Sea in

French, “mer,” resembles the original Latin more closely -- so why is the English version so

different?

In one of this class’s translations, Vulgate Translation #2, it is mentioned twice in two

lines (48-49): “Omnia flumina intrant in mare, / Et mare non redundat” (All rivers run into the

sea, / And the sea does not overflow). In terms of geography, seas are usually smaller than

oceans; yet in this context, they are interchangeable. In many of these old translations, they are

used interchangeably because ancient people could not recognize the slight differences between

huge bodies of water (or rather, it did not matter that much). The word “oceanus” does exist in

Latin, although it is less widely used; “mare” seems to be the default for a large body of water.

More rarely, the word “mare” can refer to a large, dark plain -- something that could be confused

for an ocean (now the word “maria,” used to describe the dark areas on the Moon).

In the Gesta Romanorum “The Three Caskets,” lines 106-107, the ocean is mentioned as,

“Cete grandis ei occurrebat in mare et navem deglutire volebat,” (a great whale kept running into

the ship in the sea and wanted to devour the ship). The word “mare” is repeated throughout this

story -- it is the cause of the climax and build-up. The purpose of its repetition is to show the fear

21 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

the mystery of the sea holds, what monsters it contains within. In Aeneid Book I, lines 234-239,

the sea is referred to, again, as something all powerful: “Revocato a sanguine Teucri, qui mare,

qui terras omni dicione tenerent” (having been called back from the blood of Teucri, who would

hold all the sea and earth under all control.” Being able to contain the sea symbolizes immense,

godly power. “Mare,” it seems, defines something extraordinarily powerful and unknown.

The English word “sea” comes largely from Old English translations. Still, the word

“marine” exists everywhere in our modern English vocabulary: marine biology, aquamarine,

U.S. marine, marsh, etc. And all of these words -- even the strange ones like fluviomarine or

juxtamarine -- still contain the original meaning of mare. Could “mare” be the inspiration for

names like “Mary” or “Maria”? Though English may not be quite as transparent as French, Latin

still lies beneath our language as a powerful pillar.

Word Study 16

Format has been changed to remove spaces and extraneous lines after paragraphs and to use 1.15 spacing.

Remembering Recordor

This word study is based on the latin term recordor. The word has many meanings such as to

remember, recollect, to call to mind, reminisce, etc. Though, in the modern world we have taken record

straight out of the latin term and used it for a different purpose. In this era record means to preserve a

certain moment in time by means of technology such as a camera or an iPhone. Recordor was used in

many different ways by many different authors, and the passages below will explore those different ways.

Quod epistulam meam ad Brutum poscis, non habeo eius exemplum; sed tamen salvum est et ait

Tiro te habere oportere et, ut recordor, una cum illius obiurgatoria tibi meam quoque quam ad eum

rescripseram misi. Which letter is mine to Brutus, I do not have his sample; but nevertheless while he

stays safe, it is proper that Tiro affirms you have it, where I recall, one with that reproving also in what

manner would you write back in order to let go (Cicero, Letters to Atticus, 13.6.3)

In this excerpt from Letters to Atticus we have recordor (first person singular indicative active) being

translated as “recall”. The exact context here is the author recalling or rather remembering a letter being

in someones possession. This way of translating the verb recordor is the most basic, and straightforward.

Hesternorum immemores acta pueritiae recordari? Do you think over yesterday’s negligent

coastland youth? (Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, 11.2.6)

In this passage from Institutio Oratoria instead of a statement we have a question involving recordor.

Here it is translated not as “remember?” or “Do you recall”, but is asking, “Have you thought over?” or

“Have you thought about this?”. This way of translating recordari is a different perspective of the

meanings. The meaning is not just to recall, it now can ask/tell if you have thought of something or

someone before.

Recórdatus múltum et diú cogitávi argúmentaque ín pectus ínstitui multa ego, átque in meó corde

I ponder the day with the recollection of a fine and an argument I am planting the breast fine, and to go

into the heart (Plautus, Mostellaria, 1.2)

Recordatus here is not a verb, it is a noun that is derived from the verb recordor. It is translated here as a

recollection, memory, or a moment in time. Therefore why it states, “the recollection of a fine”. One can

22 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

imagine how the noun which derives from recordor might have influenced the word “recording” many

years later.

Fili, recordare quia recepisti bona in vita tua, et Lazarus similiter mala; nunc autem hic

consolatur, tu vero cruciaris. Son, because you recover to recollect good in your life, and Lazarus is

similar likewise; now however he had comforted this, is your true torture. (Luke 18.9-14)

The last excerpt of this essay translates recordor in an interesting way, here’s why. Most of the passages

found that contained the verb recorder had something to do with memory, remembering something, and a

moment in itself. Yet, in this passage it has nothing to do with that. When the passage states, “to recollect

good in you life”, it is regarding to literally re-collecting good things in the character’s life.

In its entirety, recorder might not be the most common term in the latin language, however it’s

significance towards the late english language is heavy. The term reminds me of the verb video. Video is a

verb in Latin which means to see, yet in the modern day it has evolved into a noun called video, which is

a recording (notice how the two words intertwine) of a moment through a technological device.

Regardless of connecting words, recordor has affected our language by the dozen, and I hope to have the

opportunity to do more research on the latin language again.

Word Study 17

The name in the title has been changed to Latinist to preserve anonymity.

The mystery of the variations of the Latin word thesaurus with your host Sherlock Latinist

The word thesaurus originated from the Greek word thēsauros, which the dictionary defines as,

“a treasure, treasury, storehouse, chest.” This word evolved into the latin word thesaurus, which the

dictionary defines as “treasure chamber/vault/repository, treasure, horde; collected precious objects. In

English, this word means, “a book that lists words in groups of synonyms and related concepts.” Seeing

these definitions, one wonders how the word thesaurus evolved from its similar Latin and Greek roots to

it’s distinctly different English definition. This information can be gathered from establishing a definition

based on ancient and medieval Latin authors.

We have studied parts of the vulgate in class, and I found the word thesaurus in this work. The

latin states, Bonus homo de bono thesauro cordis sui profert bonum, et malus homo de malo profert

malum: ex abundantia enim cordis os loquitur ( Jerome, Vulgate, ?). Here is my translation: A good man

brings forth the good from the good treasury of his heart, and a bad man brings forth bad from the bad:

the mouth speaks out of the abundance of the heart. In this example, the word thesaurus means a treasury

of thoughts inside a person. Actions and Verbal words leave this treasury, displaying what goes on inside

people. Good people filter out what they think of so that when what they think exits their heart as words

or actions, those are pleasing to God.

I also found the word Thesaurus in The Three Caskets. In the work, it says, Facta nave et

omnibus necessariis paratis puella intravit, habens thesaurum secum in magna copia ac milites quinque

cum dominabus et ancillis ( ?, Gesta Romanorum ?. 104-106). My translation states, “Readied for the sea

and after she was prepared with all the necessities, the girl entered, having the dowry with her in the great

supplies, and also five soldiers with ladies and maidservants.” In this context, the word thesaurum means

dowry as in the wealth a bride’s father sent with her to her husband.

23 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

In addition to our homework sections, I found the word thesaurus in many other authors, both

ancient and medieval. In one of his various letters, Pliny the Younger writes to Catilius Severus about the

sickness of Titus Aristo. He praises Titus regarding the learning and knowledge that Titus possesses. He

writes, Nihil est quod discere velis quod ille docere non possit; mihi certe quotiens aliquid abditum

quaero, ille thesaurus est (Pliny the younger, Letters 1. 22 11-14). This passage means, There is nothing

which you wish to learn that he is not able to teach; it is certain to me as often as I ask any obscure secret,

he is a treasury. Referring to Aristo, Pliny personifies him as a treasury. Just like in the section about the

good and evil trees, the treasury is not a literal vault of riches and gold, but a treasury of the mind. Unlike

the other section, this treasury talks about knowledge and learning, as opposed to Christian Virtue.

Phaedrus, in book one poem twenty seven of his Aesop’s Fables, uses the word thesaurus quite

literally. The word is used twice in the poem, one of those uses being in the title. Canis et thesaurus et

vulturius, meaning: The dog and the riches and the vulture. The other use of thesaurus occurs when

Phaedrus writes, Humana effodiens ossa thesaurum canis Invenit, et violarat quia Manes deos, iniecta est

illi divitiarum cupiditas, Poenas ut sanctae Religion penderit (Phaedrus, Fabulae Aesopiae 1.27 3-6).

This section means, “A dog, while uncovering the bones of dead people discovered a treasure and because

he angered the gods of the underworld, He was struck with a desire for wealth, the penalty to depend on a

divine taboo religion.” In this context, one discovers that the word thesaurus is being used quite literally,

meaning exactly what the dictionary says.

In this section of medieval Latin, Verino writes, Mens ubi thesaurus tuus est iacet (Verino,

Ugolino Firenze 4.9. 1)? This section means, “Is the mind where your treasure lies?” Even though it is

much later than other sections, the word thesaurus is still used similar to how it was in ancient writings. In

these writings, thesaurus means a person’s worth in general, almost like an inner gift.

After evaluating all these sources, the word thesaurus in both medieval and ancient Latin means:

wealth/treasury/vault, or to treasury/wealth of the mind. But how did this ancient and medieval definition

transition to our English definition? The word Thesaurus first entered English in the 15th and 16th

centuries as thesaur, which meant treasure. In the 1590s, thesaurarie was listed in dictionaries and

pertained to thesaurus verborum, which means “a treasury of words”. This relation eventually led to

Roget’s title listing thesaurus in 1852 as “collection of words arranged according to sense”. From here

one can clearly see how this definition gradually evolved into the definition dictionaries typically provide

in this day and age.

Word Study 18

Cetus, a word of many forms

Cetus started out as a normal, second declension masculine word meaning whale. However, over time,

Cetus grew to have two nominative forms, cetus and cete. Cetus was more in use during the golden age

whether as cete was used during medieval Latin.It comes from the Greek word κητοσ, which denoted

some sort of sea monster. In Greek Mythology, the sea monster in the myth of Perseus was referred to by

this name. There are many cognates for cetus in languages across the world. One example of this are the

words cetacean, cetology, and cetologist. Intuitively, one would think that the group of cetaceans only

consists of whales. However, the family of cetaceans also include dolphins and porpoises, which probably

happened because they were so similar to whales. However, this is very strange because there is another

word for dolphin, dolphinus. This could be because they had already named dolphins and wanted to put it

24 Word Study 1, Latin 3a 2021

in a group with whales. Cetology is the study of these animals and a cetologist is one who studies these

animals. Here is the Latin to show these changes.

One example of the word cetus in writing was from golden age Latin. It read, arieti et piscibus cetus est

subiectus, a cuius crista ordinate utrisque piscibus disposita et tenuis fusio stellarum, quae graece

vocitantur αρπεδοναι. The whale is subject to the ram and the fishes, from which crest methodically and

with other fish having been laid out and with a delicate spindle of stars, which is called αρπεδοναι by the

Greeks. (Pollio, De Architectura, 9.5.14-16) Another example of this in golden age latin is, omnes beluas

marinas, ex quibus cetus est quaeque his pares sunt; item mel et caesum. all sea monsters, from which a

whale is like each that are with this; likewise honey and cheese (Celsus, De Natura 2.18.11-12).

However, another nominative form of cetus was cete. One example of this comes from the Aeneid. It

reads tum variae comitum facies, immania cete,/ et senior Glauci chorus, Inousque Palaemon,/

Tritonesque citi, Phorcique exercitus omnis;/ laeva tenent Thetis, et Melite, Panopeaque virgo,/ Nisaee,

Spioque, Thaliaque, Cymodoceque. Then you make variance of comrades, a great whale,/ and the old

chorus of Glaucus, Ino and Palaemon,/ the quick Tritons, all of the army of Phorcus; and to Malta, and to

the virgin Panopea, and Nisaee, and Spio, and Thalia, and Cymodoce. (Vergil, Aeneid 5.822-6). Many

examples of this are from Medieval Latin. One of these is puella, cum intellexit quod in ventre ceti esset,

fortiter clamabat. The girl, when she realized that she was in the stomach of the whale, clamored

strongly. Another of these is cete, cum mortem sensit, ad terram perrexit. The whale, when it sensed

death, proceeded to land. (Gesta Romanorum 111-14)

Overall, cetus is a very interesting word. It has only one meaning, whale. However, its nominative

singular form has molded over time, with its nominative singular form changing from cetus to cete. This

shows how the Latin language, and specifically this word, changed through its use. There are many more

examples of this word in use, and if I included all of them this paper, we would be here for a long time.