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L07160000220134003Human Diversities 2_2

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    Course: Ilmu Sosial Untuk Psikologi

    Human Diversities 2:Religion and Arts

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    This chapter discusses the role of religion in

    a variety of societies. It focuses on the

    types of religion and the situations in which

    religions can change rapidly. It concludeswith a discussion of secular rituals and the

    way in which a trip to Walt Disney World

    might be studied as a secular ritual.

    ReligionReligion

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    Introduction

    Religion is defined, according to Wallace, as belief andritual concerned with supernatural beings, powers, and

    forces.

    So defined, religion is a cultural universal.

     Neanderthal mortuary remains provide the earliest evidence

    of what probably was religious activity.

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    Animism

    Tylor first studied religion anthropologically, and developeda taonomy of religions.

    Animism was seen as the most primitive, and is defined as a

     belief in souls that derives from the first attempt to eplain

    dreams and li!e phenomena.

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    "ana and Taboo

    "ana is defined as belief in an immanent supernaturaldomain or life#force, potentially sub$ect to human

    manipulation.

    The %olynesian and "elanesian concepts of mana are

    contrasted."elanesian mana is defined as a sacred impersonal force that

    is much li!e the Western concept of luc!.

    %olynesian mana and the related concept of taboo are related

    to the more hierarchical nature of %olynesian society.

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    "ana and Taboo

    "ap of"elanesia and

    %olynesia.

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    "ana and Taboo

    This member of the Iban tribe of "alaysia

     believes that the s!ull held here possesses

    mana.

    Photo Credit: David Alan Harvey/ Woodfn Camp & Associates

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    "agic and Religion

    "agic refers to supernatural techni&ues intended toaccomplish specific aims.

    "agic may be imitative 'as with voodoo dolls( or

    contagious 'accomplished through contact(.

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    Aniety, )ontrol, Solace

    "agic is an instrument of control, but religion serves to provide stability when no control or understanding is

     possible.

    "alinows!i saw tribal religions as being focused on life

    crises.

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    Rituals

    Rituals are formal, performed in sacred contets.Rituals convey information about the culture of the

     participants and, hence, the participants themselves.

    Rituals are inherently social, and participation in them

    necessarily implies social commitment.

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    Rites of %assage

    Rites of passage are religious rituals which mar! andfacilitate a persons movement from one 'social( state of

     being to another 'e.g. %lains Indians* vision &uests(.

    Rites of passage have three phases+

    Separation the participant's( withdraws from the group and

     begin moving from one place to another.

    -iminality the period between states, during which the

     participant's( has left one place but has not yet entered the

    net.

    Incorporation the participant's( reenters society with a new

    status having completed the rite.

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    Rites of %assage

    -iminality is part of every rite of passage, and involves thetemporary suspension and even reversal of everyday social

    distinctions.

    )ommunitas refers to collective liminality, characteried by

    enhanced feelings of social solidarity and minimieddistinctions.

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    Totemism

    Rituals play an important role in creating and maintaininggroup solidarity.

    In totemic societies, each descent group has an animal, plant, of geographical feature from which they claim

    descent. Totems are the apical ancestor of clans. The members of a clan do not !ill or eat their totem, ecept

    once a year when the members of the clan gather forceremonies dedicated to the totem.

    See discussion of clans and lineages in )hapter /0. Totemism is a religion in which elements of nature act as

    sacred templates for society by means of symbolic association.

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    Totemism

    Totemism uses nature as a model for society.1ach descent group has a totem, which occupies a specific

    niche in nature.

    Social differences mirror the natural order of the

    environment.

    The unity of the human social order is enhanced by

    symbolic association with and imitation of the natural order.

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    Sacred )attle in India

    Ahimsa is the 2indu doctrine of nonviolence that forbids the !illing ofanimals.

    Western economic development eperts often use this principle as an

    eample of how religion can stand in the way of development.

    2indus seem to irrationally ignore a valuable food source 'beef(.

    2indus also raise scraggly, thin cows, unli!e the bigger cattle of

    1urope and the 3S.

    These views are ethnocentric and wrong as cattle play an important

    adaptive role in an Indian ecosystem that has evolved over thousands of

    years 2indus use cattle for transportation, traction, and manure.

    4igger cattle eat more, ma!ing them more epensive to !eep.

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    Sacred )attle in India

    India*s ebu

    cattle are

     protected by a

    doctrine of

    ahimsa.

    Photo Credit: Michele Burgess/he !toc" Mar"et

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    Social )ontrol

    The power of religion affects action.Religion can be used to mobilie large segments of society

    through systems of real and perceived rewards and

     punishments.

    Witch hunts play an important role in limiting social deviancyin addition to functioning as leveling mechanisms to reduce

    differences in wealth and status between members of society.

    "any religions have a formal code of ethics that prohibit

    certain behavior while promoting other !inds of behavior.Religions also maintain social control by stressing the fleeting

    nature of life.

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    Religious %ractitioners and Types

    Wallace defined religion as consisting of all a society*s cult institutions'rituals and associated beliefs(, and developed four categories from this.

    Shamanic religions shamans are part#time religious intermediaries who

    may act as curers5these religions are most characteristic of foragers.

    )ommunal religions have shamans, community rituals, multiple nature

    gods, and are more characteristic of food producers than foragers.

    6lympian religions first appeared with states, have full#time religious

    specialists whose organiation may mimic the states, have potent

    anthropomorphic gods who may eist as a pantheon.

    "onotheistic religions have all the attributes of 6lympian religions,ecept that the pantheon of gods is subsumed under a single eternal,

    omniscient, omnipotent, and omnipresent being.

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    Religious %ractitioners and Types

    Type of Religion

    (Wallace)

    Type of

    Practitioner

    Conception of

    Supernatural

    Type of Society

    "onotheistic %riests, ministers,

    etc.

    Supreme being States

    6lympian %riesthood 2ierarchical

     pantheon of deities

    )hiefdoms and

    archaic states

    )ommunal %art#time specialists7occasional community#

    sponsored events,

    including rites of

     passage

    Several deities

    with some control

    over nature

    8ood#producing

    tribes

    Shamanic Shaman 9 part#

    time practitioner 

    :oomorphic 8oraging bands

    Anthony 8. ). Wallace*s typology of religions.

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    Religious %ractitioners and Types

    A San shaman falls into a trance as he heals.

    Photo Credit: #oel $uidu/%amma iaison

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    )hristian ;alues

    "a Weber lin!ed the spread of )apitalism to the valuescentral to the %rotestant faith+ independent, entrepreneurial,

    hard wor!ing, future#oriented, and free thin!ing.

    The emphasis )atholics placed on immediate happiness and

    security, and the notion that salvation was attainable onlywhen a priest mediated on one*s behalf, did not fit well with

    capitalism.

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    Religion in North America Today

    In the 3S %rotestants outnumber )atholics, but in )anadathe reverse is true.

    Religious affiliation in North America varies with ethnic

     bac!ground, age, and geography.

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    Revitaliation "ovements

    Religious movements that act as mediums for social changeare called revitaliation movements.

    The colonial#era Iro&uois reformation led by 2andsome

    -a!e is an eample of a revitaliation movement.

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    Syncretisms

    A syncretism is a cultural mi, including religious blends,that emerge when two or more cultural traditions come into

    contact.

    1amples include voodoo, santeria, and candoml

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    Syncretisms

    A cargo cult in

    ;anuatu. 4oys and

    men march withspears, imitating

    4ritish colonial

    soldiers.

    Photo Credit: 'al Muller/Woodfn Camp & Associates

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    A New Age

    Since the />?@s, there has been a decline in formalorganied religions.

     New Age religions have appropriated ideas, themes,

    symbols, and ways of life from the religious practices of

     Native Americans, Australian Aborigines, east Asianreligions.

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    Secular Rituals+ Walt isney World

    A %ilgrimage to Walt isney WorldWalt isney World functions much li!e a sacred shrine

    which is a ma$or pilgrimage destination

    It has an inner, sacred center surrounded by an outer more

    secular domain. %ar!ing lot designations are distinguished with totem#li!e

    images of the isney cast of characters.

    The monorail provides travelers with a brief liminal period

    as they cross between the outer, secular world into the inner,

    sacred center of the "agic Bingdom.

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    Secular Rituals+ Walt isney World

    Within the "agic Bingdom+Spending time in the "agic Bingdom reaffirms, maintains,

    and solidifies the world of isney as all of the pilgrims

    share a common status as visitors while eperience the same

    adventures."ost of the structures and attractions at the "agic Bingdom

    are designed to reaffirm and recall a traditional set of

    American values.

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    Recogniing Religion

    It is difficult to distinguish between sacred and secularrituals as behavior can simultaneously have sacred and

    secular aspects.

    Americans try to maintain a strict division between the

    sacred and the profane, but many other societies li!e the4etsileo do not.

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    This chapter introduces students to the

    anthropological study of art. It shows how

    the appreciation, creation, transmission, and

    use of art are embedded in culture and arelearned.

    The ArtsThe Arts

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    What is ArtC

    Art is very difficult todefine, but it generally

    refers to the

    manifestations of human

    creativity through which people epress

    themselves in dance,

    music, song, painting,

    sculpture, pottery, cloth,story telling, verse, prose,

    drama, and comedy.

    This photo, ta!en in 4erlin, =ermany,illustrates art within art. In the bac!ground,

    the eperimental artist )hristo has wrapped

    the Reichstag. Another man has wrapped

    himself and is now posing in front.

    Photo Credit: homas Hoep"er/ Magnum Photos

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    Art and Religion

    efinitions of both art and religion focus on the more than ordinary

    aspects of each with regard to how they are different from the ordinary

    and profaneDsecular.

    A lot of Western and non#Western art has been created in association

    with religion, but it is important to remember that not all non#Western

    art has ritual or religious importance. Art and religion both have formal 'museums and churches, temples( and

    informal 'par!s, homes, and regular gathering places( venues of

    epression.

    State#level societies have permanent structures for religion and art. Nonstate#level societies lac! permanent structures for religion and

    art.

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    Art and Religion

    This artist

    carves a statue

    of the 4uddha

    on the groundsof a temple in

    %hnom %enh,

    )ambodia in

    />EE.

    Photo Credit: P ) %ri*ths/Magnum Photos

    i

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    -ocating Art

    In states, art is housed in special buildings li!e museums,concert halls, and theaters.

    In nonstates, artistic epression ta!es place in public spaces

    that have been set aside for art.

    In states, critics, $udges, and eperts determine what is artand what is not.

    The Balabari eample demonstrates that not all sculpture is

    art because wooden carvings are manufactured eclusively

    for religious reasons.

    - i A

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    -ocating Art

    "ap

    showing the

    location of

    the

    Balabari.

    A d I di id li

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    Art and Individuality

    Some anthropologists have criticied that the study of non#Western art ignores the individual and focuses too much on

    the group.

    2owever, in many non#Western societies, there is more

    collective production of art than in Western cultures.4ohannan argued that among the Tiv, the emphasis should

     be on the critics rather than the artists because the Tiv do not

    recognie the same connection between artists and their art.

    The degree to which artists can be separated from their wor!

    varies cross#culturally.

    Th W ! f A

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    The Wor! of Art

    In all societies art is wor!. In nonstate societies, artists cannot wor! on their art all of the

    time as they still must hunt, gather, fish, herd, or farm to eat.

    In states, artists are full#time specialists whose career is their

    wor!.Artistic completeness or mastery is determined and

    maintained by both formal and informal standards.

    A t S i t d ) lt

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    Art, Society, and )ulture

    Art is usually a public phenomena that is ehibited, performed, evaluated, and appreciated in society.

    1thnomusicology is the comparative study of the music of the

    world and of music as an aspect of culture and society.

    8ol! art, music, and lore refer to the epressive culture ofordinary people.

    Art is a form of social communication.

    Th ) lt l T i i f th A t

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    The )ultural Transmission of the Arts

    Art is a part of culture and as a result appreciation for thearts are internalied during enculturation.

    The appreciation of different art forms varies cross#

    culturally.

    In nonindustrialied societies, artistic traditions aregenerally transmitted through families and !in groups.

    The art of storytelling plays a critical role in the

    transmission, preservation, and epression of cultural

    traditions.

    Th A ti ti )

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    The Artistic )areer 

    In many non#Western societies children born into certainlineages are destined for a particular artistic career 'e.g.,

    leather wor!ing, wood carving, and ma!ing pottery(

    8ull craft specialists find support through their !in ties in

    non#Western societies or through patrons in Westernsocieties.

    The arts rely on individual talent which is shaped through

    socially approved directions.

    ) ti it d )h

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    )ontinuity and )hange

    The arts are alwayschanging.

    The arts incorporate

    a wide variety of

    media.

    In Athens, =reece, ancient =ree! theater is being

    staged for a contemporary audience.

    Photo Credit: )ames P( Blair/ #ational %eographic !ociety