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Energy provision for agricultural irrigation Christian Kimmich IWRM, 03-08-11 A case study from Andhra Pradesh, India, and the MENA region
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Page 1: IWRM Webinar Slides AUSTAUSCH

Energy provision for

agricultural irrigation

Christian Kimmich

IWRM, 03-08-11

A case study from Andhra Pradesh,

India, and the MENA region

Page 2: IWRM Webinar Slides AUSTAUSCH

Chapter 5:

The energy-irrigation nexus in

other countries

Christian Kimmich

Cases from West Asia and North Africa

Page 3: IWRM Webinar Slides AUSTAUSCH

Outline

• Syria: background, energy and irrigation

• Jordan: background, energy and irrigation

• Pricing water? Analyses in Jordan

• The groundwater dilemma and participatory

knowledge

• Local groundwater governance: examples

from Egypt, Yemen and South Asia

• Other strategies

• Literature recommendations: theory

• Literature recommendations: applied

research

03/08/11 3

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Syria: background

03/08/11 4

Figure: Irrigated area by source and number of wells

Source: Gül et al 2005

Long subsidization through loans; Limited capacity of aquifers

170.000 wells in 2002 (Salman, Mualla 2003)

Page 5: IWRM Webinar Slides AUSTAUSCH

Syria: background

Increasing well depth does not necessarily increase productivity (e.g.

shallow aquifers), but still the dominant perception (Gül et al 2005)

03/08/11 5

Figure 1: well depth vs. age in research site

villages in Aleppo province, Syria

Source: Gül et al 2005

Figure 2: total energy expenditure for cotton

irrigation, 1990-1999

Source: Gül et al 2005

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Syria: energy and irrigation situation

• GDP in agriculture: 17,7%; Labor in agriculture: 17%

• Energy for irrigation is subsidized (Rodriguez 1999); fuel subsidy (diesel) at

80% of the purchase price in 1999 (Gül et al 2005)

• About to become a net importer of petroleum

• Recent lifting of subsidies on electric energy and diesel has

contributed to groundwater conservation, as well as similar increases

in the early 90s (Salman 2002)

• Flat rate for water based on land (Salman 2002)

• Low on-farm water use efficiency (40-60%) and large scope for micro

irrigation; promoted through tax-free low interest loans. However,

lack of confidence (Salman, Mualla 2003)

03/08/11 6

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Syria: energy and irrigation situation

• Licenses required to drill wells, which specify quantity

• renewal every 10 years required

• However, poor enforcement (estimates of 50% illegal)(Salman, Mualla 2003)

Strategies:

• Limiting wells and setting up pipeline distribution

• Shift from private to collective wells is planned

• Energy and water pricing also considered (Salman, Mualla 2003)

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Jordan: background

03/08/11 8

Figure: Water use patterns in the Lower Jordan River Basin

Source: Courcier et al 2005

Page 9: IWRM Webinar Slides AUSTAUSCH

Jordan: background

03/08/11 9

Figure: Water use patterns in the Lower Jordan River Basin

Source: Courcier et al 2005

Page 10: IWRM Webinar Slides AUSTAUSCH

Jordan: energy and irrigation situation

• GDP in agriculture: 3%; Labor in agriculture: 5%

• „Super Green Revolution‟ during the 80s (Elmusa 1994)

• Endowment of renewable blue water: 163 m3/ca (absolute water

scarcity: <500m3/ca) (Venot, Molle 2008), prec.: 600 to <100mm towards

the desert (Cheebane et al 2004)

• Withdrawals at 120% of controllable blue water; 215% of recharge in

the AZB (Venot, Molle 2008), 146-235% (Cheebane et al 2004)

• Drip irrigation is widely applied (Scott et al 2003)

• Groundwater table decline increases pumping costs (Chebaane et al 2004)

• ¼ of electric energy to supply water, Jordan is a net fuel importer

• High costs of pumping (10% of the input costs), 0,11$/m3 for diesel,

and 0,09$/m3 for electricity (Chebaane et al 2004), limiting power would push

farmers to shift to diesel use (Scott et al 2003)

03/08/11 10

Page 11: IWRM Webinar Slides AUSTAUSCH

Pricing water? A WTP approach

• Empirical analysis in the Marfaq region (marginal, prec < 200mm)

• Indirect measurement through a parametric linear programming

model (optimization model)

• Change in water price to trace out demand function (Hazell, Norton 1986) –

calculate price elasticity at each stage of increased price

• Result: US$ 0,14 to 0,35/m3 is feasible without reducing planted area

• Prices higher than 0,35$/m3 make most agricultural production

alternatives unprofitable

• Income could be used to finance e.g. desalination plantsSource: Salman, Al-Karablieh (2004)

? Total net income in agriculture would reduce from 4,8 to 1,5 mio $,

while water use wouldn„t get reduced

03/08/11 11

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Pricing water? An econometric approach

03/08/11 12

Figure: regression analysis for..

Source: Ramirez et al (2011)

Irrigation application rate

(in mm depth applied)

Gross revenue/unit water

(in JD/m3 water)

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Pricing water? Regulations

• Licenses were given from 1962, abstraction quotas (since 1984) from

50.000 up to 100.000 m3/well (Cheebane et al 2004), but never enforced

• Difficulty to enforce metering, although 94% have a meter (Venot, Molle

2008)

03/08/11 13

Table: water pricing according to the Bylaw No. 85, 2002

Source: Venot, Molle (2008)

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Pricing water? A differentiated approach• Methods: Socio-economic characterization and differentiation of

farming systems (Bedouins, Entrepreneurs, Absentee owners)

(vegetable, fruit tree, olive tree) - Calculation of financial impacts on

each farming system, 4 strategies (BAU+Bylaw, Limit, Optimal,

LandExpansion); Study area: Eastern desert region (LJRB)

• Assumptions: Difference in capital use, management type, goals

• Findings:

– Low financial possibilities prevent profitable investments (debts)

– Technology costs are higher than water expenditure savings; water savings

lead to expansion of cropping area

– Only vegetable farmers could improve water use efficiency, but for vegetable

and intensive stone-fruit tree farmers the fee does not create an incentive to

reduce irrigation

– Out of 606 wells in the study area, only 83 would be effected by law

(Venot, Molle 2008)

03/08/11 14

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Pricing and political dimensions• Promotion of irrigated agriculture

– Social integration of Palestinian refugee population

– Settling Bedouins in the 60s (large deep public wells, then in the 80/90s private wells)

– Geopolitical reasons (stability in the Middle East)

– Economic growth(Venot et al 2008)

• Opposition to high water tariffs (occupation of parliament)

• Little potential for long-term reduction of irrigation water use through

demand management (Venot et al 2007, Venot, Molle 2008)

• Fees can‟t be high enough to balance supply and demand (Berkoff 1994)

• “it was anticipated that increased water tariffs would reduce

agricultural water use. This did not happen.” (World Bank 2003:15, cited in Venot

et al 2008)

-> Hence, pricing of energy unlikely to help coping with water scarcity

03/08/11 15

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The groundwater dilemma

Knowledge as a crucial factor in

groundwater dilemma situations (e.g. Ostrom 2005, World Bank 2010)

03/08/11 16

Farmer 2

cooperate defect

Farm

er1

cooperate

2

2

4

0

defect

0

4

1

1

Figure 3: the dilemma of groundwater

overexploitation (Prisoners‟ Dilemma)

Figure 1: well depth vs. age in research site

villages in Aleppo province, Syria

Source: Gül et al 2005

0

10

020

030

040

0

1980 1990 2000 2010Age of the well

Depth of the well (feet) Fitted values

Figure 2: Depth vs. age of well

Source: Kimmich 2011

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The groundwater dilemma

03/08/11 17

Figure: Satellite image analysis of groundwater-irrigated fields (A), and

mixed (+winter surface; B,C). Example of the Jabal Al Hass region, Syria

Source: Luijendijk, Bruggeman, 2008

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The groundwater dilemma

03/08/11 18

Figure 1: Geological analysis of one cross

section

Source: Luijendijk, Bruggeman, 2008

Figure 2: Groundwater level and observation

wells for one period (July-September 2004)

Source: Luijendijk, Bruggeman, 2008

Page 19: IWRM Webinar Slides AUSTAUSCH

The groundwater dilemma

• Groundwater monitoring is crucial – research needed in

hydrogeology, including all the methods to identify groundwater

tables and fluctuations, water flows, etc. (Chloride Mass Balance,

etc.)

03/08/11 19

Figure: Static water level in two wells

Source: Chebaane et al (2004)

• However: participatory

methods important to

make the dilemma of

the situation

understandable to all

Page 20: IWRM Webinar Slides AUSTAUSCH

Local groundwater governance: India

An example

from

Andhra

Pradesh

(APFAMGS)

03/08/11 20

Page 21: IWRM Webinar Slides AUSTAUSCH

Local groundwater governance: India

03/08/11 21

Page 22: IWRM Webinar Slides AUSTAUSCH

Local groundwater governance: India

03/08/11 22

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Local groundwater governance

• Limits to enforcement of regulations: van Steenbergen (2006):

analysis of 6 successful cases of local groundwater governance

Common success factors: – Universal access

– Ability to organize locally (without formal organization)

– Simplicity of rules (and equitable)

– Groundwater monitoring

– Supply and demand management

– Support by local government

– Scale limitations

03/08/11 23

Source: van Steenbergen (2006)

-> Transfer to other cases (example from Andhra Pradesh)

Page 24: IWRM Webinar Slides AUSTAUSCH

Other strategies

Chebaane et al (2004): Participatory search for solutions:

• Improving extension through Irrigation Advisory Service (IAS)

• Develop water harvesting structures

• Buy-out of wells (half of interviewed farmers willing to sell out for fair

compensation)

• Enforcement of abstraction/cropped area limits

• Recycled wastewater usage

• Groundwater Management Consultative Committee (GMCC) (high

acceptance within farming population)(Chebaane et al 2004)

• Develop exit options / alternative labor markets / social policies to

facilitate reduction of water and energy use

03/08/11 24

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Literature recommendations: theory

03/08/11 25

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Literature recommendations: applied research

03/08/11 26

Abu-Madi, M.O., 2009. Farm-level perspectives regarding irrigation water prices in the Tulkarm

district, Palestine. Agricultural Water Management, 96(9), 1344-50.Chebaane, M., El-Naser, H., Fitch, J., Hijazi, A. and Jabbarin, A., 2004. Participatory groundwater

management in Jordan: Development and analysis of options. Hydrogeology Journal, 12, 14-

32.Gül, A., Rida, F., Aw-Hassan, A. and Büyükalaca, O., 2005. Economic analysis of energy use in

groundwater irrigation of dry areas: a case study in Syria. Applied Energy, 82(4), 285-99.Kamel, S. and Dahl, C., 2005. The economics of hybrid power systems for sustainable desert

agriculture in Egypt. Energy, 30(8), 1271-81.

Luijendijk, E. and Bruggeman, A., 2008. Groundwater resources in the Jabal Al Hass region, northwest Syria: an assessment of past use and future potential. Hydrogeology Journal,

16(3), 511-30.Salman, A.Z. and Al-Karablieh, E., 2004. Measuring the willingness of farmers to pay for

groundwater in the highland areas of Jordan. Agricultural Water Management, 68(1), 61-76.

Scott, C. and Shah, T., 2004. Groundwater overdraft reduction through agricultural energy policy: insights from India and Mexico. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 20,

149-64.van Steenbergen, F., 2006. Promoting local management in groundwater. Hydrogeology Journal,

14(3), 380-91.

Venot, J.-P. and Molle, F., 2008. Groundwater Depletion in the Jordan Highlands: Can Pricing Policies Regulate Irrigation Water Use? Water Resources Management, 22(12), 1925-41.

Venot, J.-P., Molle, F.O. and Courcier, R., 2008. Dealing with Closed Basins: The Case of the Lower Jordan River Basin. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 24(2),247-63.

World Bank. 2010. Deep wells and prudence : towards pragmatic action for addressing groundwater overexploitation in India. Washington D.C.: World Bank.