International Labour Migration PDF

Page | 1

Table of Content

Sr No. Particulars Page no.

1 INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION INTRODUCTION 2

2 INTERNATIONAL LABOUR MIGRATION – THE BACKGROUND

4

3 INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION PROGRAM 6

4 INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION FROM INDEPENDENT INDIA

7

5 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR MIGRATION 8

6 CAUSES OF MIGRATION 10

7 DATA AND METHODS 12

8 IMPACT OF MIGRATION 15

9 EMPLOYMENT ORIENTED MIGRATION 17

10 TRENDS IN GLOBAL MIGRATION 19

11 EFFECTS OF MIGRATION 21

12 CONCLUSION 24

13 BIBLIOGRAPHY 25

Page | 2

International Labour Migration

Introduction

International labour migration is defined as the movement of people from one country

to another for the purpose of employment. Today, an estimated 105 million persons are

working in a country other than their country of birth. Labour mobility has become a key

feature of globalization and the global economy with migrant workers earning US$ 440

billion in 2011, and the World Bank estimating that more than $350 billion of that total was

transferred to developing countries in the form of remittances. However, despite the efforts

made to ensure the protection of migrant workers, many remain vulnerable and assume

significant risks during the migration process.

International labour migration is defined as the movement of people from one country

to another for the purpose of employment. Today, an estimated 105 million persons are

working in a country other than their country of birth. Labour mobility has become a key

feature of globalization and the global economy with migrant workers earning US$ 440

billion in 2011, and the World Bank estimating that more than $350 billion of that total was

transferred to developing countries in the form of remittances. However, despite the efforts

made to ensure the protection of migrant workers, many remain vulnerable and assume

significant risks during the migration process.

When properly managed, labour migration has far-reaching potential for the migrants,

their communities, the countries of origin and destination, and for employers. While job

creation in the home country is the preferred option, demographic, social and economic

factors are increasingly the drivers of migration. As a result, a growing number of both

sending and receiving countries view international labour migration as an integral part of

their national development and employment strategies. On one hand, countries of origin

benefit from labour migration because it relieves unemployment pressures and contributes to

development through remittances, knowledge transfer, and the creation of business and trade

networks. On the other hand, for destination countries facing labour shortages, orderly and

well-managed labour migration can lighten labour scarcity and facilitate mobility.

Page | 3

International migration occurs when peoples cross state boundaries and stay in the host

state for some minimum length of time. Migration occurs for many reasons. Many people

leave their home countries in order to look for economic opportunities in another country.

Others migrate to be with family members who have migrated or because of political

conditions in their countries. Education is another reason for international migration, as

students pursue their studies abroad. While there are several different potential systems for

categorizing international migrants, one system organizes them into nine groups: temporary

labour migrants; irregular, illegal, or undocumented migrants; highly skilled and business

migrants; refugees; asylum seekers; forced migration; family members; return migrants; and

long-term, low-skilled migrants. These migrants can also be divided into two large groups,

permanent and temporary. Permanent migrants intend to establish their permanent residence

in a new country and possibly obtain that country’s citizenship. Temporary migrants intend

only to stay for a limited periods of time; perhaps until the end of a particular program of

study or for the duration of a work contract or a certain work season. Both types of migrants

have a significant effect on the economies and societies of the chosen destination country and

the country of origin.

Similarly, the countries which receive these migrants are often grouped into four

categories: traditional settlement countries, European countries which encouraged labour

migration after World War II, European countries which receive a significant portion of their

immigrant populations from their former colonies, and countries which formerly were points

of emigration but have recently emerged as immigrant destinations.

Page | 4

International Labour Migration – The Background

Migration from one area to another in search of improved livelihoods is a key feature

of human history. While some regions and sectors fall behind in their capacity to support

populations, others move ahead and people migrate to access these emerging opportunities.

Industrialisation widens the gap between rural and urban areas, inducing a shift of the

workforce towards industrialising areas. There is extensive debate on the factors that cause

populations to shift, from those that emphasise individual rationality and household

behaviour to those that cite the structural logic of capitalist development.

Moreover, numerous studies show that the process of migration is influenced by

social, cultural and economic factors and outcomes can be vastly different for men and

women, for different groups and different locations. In the past few decades new patterns

have emerged, challenging old paradigms. First, there have been shifts of the workforce

towards the tertiary sector in both developed and developing countries. Secondly, in

developed countries, urban congestion and the growth of communication infrastructure has

slowed down urbanisation. Thirdly, in developing countries, the workforce shift towards the

secondary/tertiary sector has been slow and has been dominated by an expansion of the

‘informal’ sector, which has grown over time. In countries like India, permanent shifts of

population and workforce co-exist with the ‘circulatory’ movement of populations between

lagging and developed regions and between rural and urban areas, mostly being absorbed in

the unorganised sector of the economy. Such movements show little sign of abating with

development. The sources of early migration flows were primarily agro-ecological, related to

population expansion to new settlements or to conquests (e.g. Eaton, 1984). There is

considerable information on patterns of migration during the British period.

Indian emigration abroad was one consequence of the abolition of slavery and the

demand for replacement labour. This was normally through indenture, a form of contract

labour whereby a person would bind himself for a specified period of service, usually four to

seven years in return for payment of their passage. They left for British, Dutch and French

colonies to work in sugar plantations and subsequently for the tea and rubber plantations of

Southeast Asia. Similar demands for labour rose internally with the growth of tea, coffee and

rubber plantations, coal mines and, later, modern industry. Much of this labour was procured

through some form of organised mediation and some portion of it remained circulatory and

retained strong links with the areas of origin. But as it settled down, it provided a bridgehead

to other migrants, whose numbers grew to satisfy colonial demand. Urban pockets like

Page | 5

Kolkatta and Mumbai attracted rural labourers mainly from labour catchment areas like

Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa in the east and Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and parts of

Kerala and Karnataka in the south. The historical pattern of the flow of labourers persisted

even after independence.

In 2001, India’s population exceeded 1 billion. At that time, 67.2% lived in rural areas

and 32.8% in towns and cities. Between 1951 and 2001, the proportion of the population

living in urban areas rose from 17.3% to 32.8%. Of the total workforce, 73.3% remained in

rural areas, declining marginally from 77.7% in 1991 and 79.3% in 1981; 58% remained

dependent upon agriculture.

In a country of India’s size, the existence of significant regional disparities should not

come as a surprise. The scale and growth of these disparities is, however, of concern. The

ratio between the highest to lowest state per capita incomes, represented by Punjab and Bihar

in the first period, and Maharashtra and Bihar in the second period, has increased from 2.6 in

1980–83 to 3.5 in 1997–00. The Planning Commission estimates that 26.1% of India’s

population lives below the poverty line (based on the controversial National Sample Survey

of 1999–2000). The rural poor has gradually concentrated in eastern India and rain fed parts

of central and western India, which continue to have low-productivity agriculture. In 1999–

2000, the states with the highest poverty levels were: Orissa (47.2%), Bihar (41.2%), Madhya

Pradesh (37.4%), Assam(36.1%) and Uttar Pradesh (31.2%) Generally, India’s poor have

meagre physical assets and human capital and belong largely to socially deprived groups such

as scheduled castes (SC) and tribes (ST). Women share an extraordinary burden of

deprivation within households. The poor rely on different types of work to construct a

livelihood; wage labour and cultivation are the most important. Earlier studies have shown

that poor households participate extensively in migration. More recent studies have

reconfirmed that migration is a significant livelihood strategy for poor households in several

regions of India.

Page | 6

International Migration Program

In this era of globalization, almost all countries in the world are involved in migration

as countries of origin, destination, or transit—or all three. Of the several millions of people

living outside their countries of birth, the ILO estimates that almost 90 per cent are migrant

workers and their families. While international migration can be a positive experience for

migrant workers, many suffer poor working and living conditions, including low wages,

unsafe work environments, a virtual absence of the social safety net, denial of freedom of

association and workers’ rights, discrimination and xenophobia. Therefore, the ILO

approaches international labour migration—international migration undertaken for work—

from a labour market and rights-based perspective with the intent to promote decent working

conditions for migrants as well as migrants’ labour and human rights.

As the UN specialized agency on labour issues, the ILO has been dealing with labour

migration since its foundation in 1919. The very Constitution of the ILO specifically

mandates the organization in its Preamble to give attention to the "protection of the interests

of workers when employed in countries other than their own". The International Migration

Branch (MIGRANT) is the main unit responsible for labour migration issues in the ILO.

MIGRANT promotes the ratification and implementation of international standards;

facilitates the participation of ILO's tripartite constituents in formulating and implementing

migration policy; provides advisory services and a forum for consultations; serves as a global

knowledge base on international labour migration; and conducts or coordinates various

projects to strengthen the capacity of ILO's tripartite constituents and other relevant partners

such as non-governmental organizations and migrants' associations, to deal with a wide range

of labour migration issues.

Page | 7

International Migration From Independent India

In India, the migration of its labour force within and across its national boundaries is

nothing new. India’s geographical position has ensured contact with the Persian Gulf region

and South East Asian countries for trade in goods and movement of people, a contact which

goes back to several centuries. The migration of workers on a significant scale was, however,

to come much later. It began in the colonial era and continues now to independent India.

Migratory flow during the period of colonial domination was very much tied to the

investment interests of the colonial rulers and took place under their aegis. For instance a

great part of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century witnessed a regular

migration of Indian workers as indentured labour for plantations or mines in the British

colonies; this migration was to faraway places such as Guyana, Jamaica and Fiji, to not so-

distant lands such as Malaysia and Singapore and even to neighbouring countries such as Sri

Lanka and Burma.

Since Independence, two distinct types of labour migration have been taking place from

India.The first is characterized by a movement of persons with technical skills and

professional expertise to the industrialized countries like the United States, Britain and

Canada which began to proliferate in the early 1950s. The second type of migration pertains

to the flow of labour to the oil exporting countries of the Middle East which acquired

substantial dimensions after the dramatic oil price increases of 1973-74 and 1979. The nature

of this recent wave of migration is strikingly different, as an overwhelming proportion of

these migrants are in the category of unskilled workers and semi-skilled workers skilled in

manual or clerical occupations.

Page | 8

International Organization For Migration

IOM’s Vision

IOM strives to protect migrant workers and to optimize the benefits of labour migration for

both the country of origin and destination as well as for the migrants themselves.

IOM’s Objectives

In its labour migration programming, IOM builds capacity in labour migration management

by:

offering policy and technical advice to national governments;

supporting the development of policies, legislation and administrative structures that promote

efficient, effective and transparent labour migration flows;

assisting governments to promote safe labour migration practices for their nationals;

facilitating the recruitment of workers, including pre-departure training and embarkation

preparedness;

Promoting the integration of labour migrants in their new workplace and society.

Principal Beneficiaries

IOM implements various labour migration programs in 70 countries. The beneficiaries of

these programs include:

migrants, their families and their communities;

local and national governments;

private sector entities such as employers and industry representatives; and

regional organizations.

Page | 9

IOM’s Approach

Through its global network of more than 440 offices, IOM is able to bring together

governments, civil society and the private sector to establish labour migration programs and

mechanisms that balance their various interests, and address migrants’ needs. The IOM

approach to international labour migration is to foster the synergies between labour migration

and development, and to promote legal avenues of labour migration as an alternative to

irregular migration. Moreover, IOM aims to facilitate the development of policies and

programs that are in the interest of migrants and society, providing effective protection and

assistance to labour migrants and their families.

Page | 10

Causes of migration

Given the diversity in the nature of migration in India, the causes are also bound to

vary. Migration is influenced both by the pattern of development, and the social structure.

The National Commission on Rural Labour, focusing on seasonal migration, concluded that

uneven development was the main cause of seasonal migration. Along with inter regional

disparity, disparity between different socio economic classes and the development policy

adopted since independence has accelerated the process of seasonal migration. In tribal

regions, intrusion of outsiders, the pattern of settlement, displacement and deforestation, also

have played a significant role. Most migration literature makes a distinction between ‘pull’

and ‘push’ factors, which, however, do not operate in isolation of one another. Mobility

occurs when workers in source areas lack suitable options for employment/livelihood, and

there is some expectation of improvement in circumstances through migration. The

improvement sought may be better employment or higher wages/incomes, but also

maximization of family employment or smoothing of employment/income/consumption over

the year At one end of the migration spectrum, workers could be locked into a debt-migration

cycle, where earnings from migration are used to repay debts incurred at home or in the

destination areas, thereby cementing the migration cycle. At the other end, migration is

largely voluntary, although shaped by their limited choices.

The NCRL has recognized the existence of this continuum for poor migrants by

distinguishing between rural labour migration for survival and for subsistence. The landless

poor, who mostly belong to lower caste, indigenous communities, from economically

backward regions, migrate for survival and constitute a significant proportion of seasonal

labour flow.The growth of intensive agriculture and commercialization of agriculture since

the late 1960s has led to peak periods of labour demand, often also coinciding with a decline

in local labour deployment. In the case of labour flows to the rice producing belt of West

Bengal, wage differentials between the source and destination have been considered as the

main reason for migration. Moreover, absence of non-farm employment, low agricultural

production has resulted in a growth of seasonal migration. Migration decisions are influenced

by both individual and household characteristics as well as the social matrix, which is best

captured in social-anthropological studies.

Page | 11

Factors such as age, education level, wealth, land owned, productivity and job

opportunities influence the participation of individuals and households in migration, but so do

social attitudes and supporting social networks. Where migration is essentially involuntary, it

makes little sense to use voluntaristic models to explain the phenomenon. In Dhule region

sugarcane cultivation leads to high demand for labour, but landowners recruit labourers from

other districts for harvesting as they can have effective control over the labour. Local

labourers are thus forced to migrate with their households to South Gujarat.

Labour mobility is one of the key features of economic development and its

characteristics are closely tied with the nature of this development. Historically, development

is associated with unevenness and structural change, giving an impetus to the movement of

workers from one region to another, and from one sector to another. Even within the macro-

structural features which determine the supply of, and demand for, certain types of migrant

labour, the pattern of migration depends on a host of factors determined by labour market

characteristics, together with individual, household and community level features, and the

existence of social networks, among other things. These factors cumulatively determine the

‘causes’ of migration. On the other hand, labour migration plays a key role in influencing the

pattern of development, through its impact on a host of economic and non-economic

variables, both in the origin and destination areas.

Labour migration does not recognize borders—but borders, whether urban, state, or

international influence migration through a host of policies and regulatory measures. A key

distinction between internal and international migration is the existence of national regulatory

frameworks such as immigration controls (which leads to a distinction between regular and

irregular migration). But regulatory frameworks and restrictive policies also operate within

nation states.

Early development literature conceptualized labour migration as occurring from the

rural to urban, agricultural to industrial, and informal to formal sectors. However, the

workforce pattern has changed across the world in favour of the services sector, and the

informal sector is more prominent today, both in developing and developed countries than it

was twenty or thirty years ago. In developing countries, the informal sector is no longer

conceived as a temporary destination for migrants but in most cases, as a final destination.

The (changing) structural features of world capitalism have an important bearing on both

internal and international migration.

Page | 12

The theme on labour migration will explore all types of labour migration-internal,

inter-state, cross-border and international. It will encourage cross disciplinary studies and

papers based on both fieldwork and secondary data.

We would welcome papers which explore not only economic issues but also historical,

political, sociological and psychological factors affecting labour migration and the

consequences of migration at more disaggregate levels, viz., for various socio-economic

strata and segments of the population and for women, men, the elderly and children

separately, wherever possible. The contributors should confine themselves to the issue of

worker migration, as conventionally defined in SNA accounts, and to leave out those types of

“forced labour” migration, which are not conventionally included in work but are covered in

international conventions on forced labour and trafficking. The paper contributors should not

be concerned with other forms of non-labour migration (such as refugee or student migration)

or with population mobility, which is important for an understanding urban growth.

Page | 13

Data and methods

The paper uses data from Census of India 2001 as well as data from the National

Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) 55th Round on Migration. According to Indian Census,

a Person is considered a migrant if birthplace or place of last residence is different from Place

of enumeration. The National Sample Survey Organization of Government of India Carried

out an all-India survey on the situation of employment and unemployment in India during the

period July 1999-June 2000. This 55th Round Data was published in August 2001. In this

survey, data was collected on migrants as well. It defines a migrant as ‘a member of the

sample household who had stayed continuously for at least six months or more in a place

other than the place of enumeration’. It collects the reasons for leaving the last usual place of

residence under the following heads: (a) in search of employment (b) in search of better

employment (c) to take up employment/better employment (d) transfer of service/contract (e)

proximity to place of work (f) studies (g) acquisition of own house/flat (h) housing problems

(i) social/political problem (j) health (k) marriage (l) migration of parent/earning member of

the family and (m) others.

Migrant Category approvals by source country, 2008/09 - 2010/11

Page | 14

Principal applicants aged 20-29 gain the maximum points (30 points) for age. This is

reflected in Figure 6.3 with 40 percent of principal applicants aged 20-29 and 37 percent aged

30-39 in 2010/11. The small proportion of principal applicants aged more than 50 years (5

percent) reflects the maximum age limit of 55 years under the SMC.

A simple analysis using vicariate tables has been carried out in the paper to bring out

the extent of employment oriented migration in India. Moreover, the paper also attempts to

study the difference between the stated reasons for migration and the labour force

participation, taking into account duration and educational qualification of the migrants.

Employment oriented migration.

Page | 15

Impact of migration On migrants and their families

Poorer migrant workers, crowded into the lower ends of the labour market, have few

entitlements visa their employers or the public authorities in the destination areas. They have

meagre personal assets and suffer a range of deprivations in the destination areas. In the

source areas, migration has both negative and positive consequences for migrants and their

families.

Living conditions: migrant labourers, whether agricultural or non-agricultural, live in

deplorable conditions. There is no provision of safe drinking water or hygienic sanitation.

Most live in open spaces or makeshift shelters in spite of the Contract Labour Act which

stipulates that the contractor or employer should provide suitable accommodation (NCRL,

1991; GVT, 2002; Rani and Shylendra, 2001). Apart from seasonal workers, workers who

migrate to the cities for job live in parks and pavements. Slum dwellers, who are mostly

migrants, stay in deplorable conditions, with inadequate water and bad drainage. Food costs

more for migrant workers who are not able to obtain temporary ration cards.

Health and Education: labourers working in harsh circumstances and living in unhygienic

conditions suffer from serious occupational health problems and are vulnerable to disease.

Those working in quarries, construction sites and mines suffer from various health hazards,

mostly lung diseases. As the employer does not follow safety measures, accidents are quite

frequent. Migrants cannot access various health and family care programmes due to their

temporary status. Free public health care facilities and programmes are not accessible to

them. For women workers, there is no provision of maternity leave, forcing them to resume

work almost immediately after childbirth. Workers, particularly those working in tile

factories and brick kilns suffer from occupational health hazards such as body ache, sunstroke

and skin irritation (NCRL, 1991).

Changes in migrants’ attitudes: Exposure to a different environment, including the

stresses that it carries, has a deep impact on the attitudes, habits and awareness levels of

migrant workers, depending upon the length of migration and the place to which it occurs.

Changes are more dramatic in the case of urban migrants. Migrant workers develop greater

awareness regarding conditions of work (Srivastava, 1999). Life style and changes in

awareness may lead to a mixed impact on family members. The increased awareness which

migrants, especially in urban areas, gain often helps them realise the importance of their

children’s education.

Page | 16

Impact On Source Areas The major impacts of migration on source areas occur through changes in the labour market,

income and assets, changes in the pattern of expenditure and investment.

Although seasonal outmigration potentially has the effect of smoothing out

employment over the annual cycle, rural outmigration could cause a tightening of the labour

market in some circumstances. However, empirical evidence from out-migrant areas does not

often attest to this. This may be because outmigration often takes place in labour surplus

situations. There is also evidence of the replacement of out-migrant male labour by female

and even child labour. Study of seven villages in Uttar Pradesh showed some variation over

regions. While the situation in the study villages in Eastern and central Uttar Pradesh

conformed to a situation of labour surplus, this was not the case in Western Uttar Pradesh

where seasonal migration coincided with the agricultural peak season (Rabi) and employers

complained of labour shortages. Significantly in all the regions studied, labourers on their

part gave uncertainty of employment along with employment conditions and poor relations

with their agricultural employers as the major reasons for outmigration.

Even if labour tightening is not an outcome, outmigration may still speed up

qualitative changes in existing labour relationships in rural areas, and thereby affect the pace

of change. This may occur in several ways. First, there is the well-documented impact of

migration on attitudes and awareness as migrant labourers and return migrants are more

reluctant to accept adverse employment conditions and low wages. Secondly, outmigration

leads to a more diversified livelihood strategy. Combined with some increase in the income

and employment portfolio of poor households, this may tend to push up acceptable level of

wages (reservation wages) in rural areas and may make certain forms of abour relationships

(as for example, those involving personalised dependency) less acceptable.

Outmigration as a result of debt at home, or debt-interlocking (i.e. the repayment of

debts through advance labour commitment) involving employers in the destination areas or

their middlemen, is quite common. Such outmigration may or may not eliminate the causes of

debt. The reduction of personalised dependencies or interlocked relationships may also

accelerate labour mobility and migration as labourers seek out alternative sources of cash

income.

Page | 17

Employment oriented migration Employment oriented migration is obtained by combining the migrants that have

given work/employment and business as their reason for migration. It is found that

employment oriented migration is quite small, particularly among female migrants with just

around 2 percent of total female migrants giving employment or business as the reason for

their migration.

Employment Oriented Migration (in %)

Total Rural Urban

Male 31.1 39.8 36.0

Female 1.9 1.7 3.3

Total 10.4 10.3 17.2

As shown by above Table, it is however clear that migration towards urban areas

are still more likely to be associated with employment oriented reasons. It is also seen that the

percentage of employment migration for males are quite high, whether it is rural-bound or

urban-bound migration. It is interesting to observe that out of the total rural-bound

Male migration, 40 percent have moved for work related reasons.

Labour Migration (% of migrants)

Employment oriented* Labour force participant

Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban

Male 45.5 33.3 51.9

70.0 70.1 70.0

Female 2.2 1.4 3.5 26.0 31.9 15.8

Total 13.6 6.6 22.3 37.5 38.1 36.9

Page | 18

Employment Oriented* : (a) in search of employment (b) in search of better employment (c)

to take up employment/better employment (d) transfer of service/contract (e) proximity to

place of work

Table gives the percentage of migrants who have given employment related reasons for

Migration vis-à-vis labour force participation by sex and rural urban status. Table gives the

percentage of migrants giving employment and related reasons for migration vis-à-vis the

labour force participation of the migrants. It is clearly seen from the table that nearly 46

percent of male migrants have reported employment related reasons as their motive behind

migration, while it is just above 2 percent of female migrants that have reported employment

and work related reason for their move.

Comparison with census figure in table, it is learnt that the sample survey data (7%) shows a

smaller percentage of employment oriented migrants in rural areas than the Census (10%).

This could be the result of the difference in the definition of migrants in the two data sources.

Circular migrants and temporary migrants could not be captured by the present dataset of the

NSSO.

Page | 19

Trends in Global Migration

Mankind and migration have been linked to each other since the beginning of time; life

without migration could not be thought of. Migration has a history of its own, both at the

national and international levels. The mobility of capital and technology has indeed changed

the history of peoples. At the same time, migration has created a greater impact on history.

In India, the cultural ethos of the country has actually dissuaded people from going

abroad. There are myths and superstitions surrounding migration in almost every Indian

tradition. The fear of kala-pani, literally translated as ‘black waters’, which meant ostracism,

was a strong deterrent. Such myths were prevalent also in other ancient cultures like China

and Japan, preventing people from going abroad. For a variety of reasons, be it economic or

cultural or personal, the concept of ‘we’ and ‘they’, and the notions of individual, intellectual

and spiritual ‘pollution’ and the fear of consequent ostracism prevented people from leaving

their home soil until the advent of the Europeans—which in turn stimulated an interest for

Indians to migrate overseas.

Characteristically, most of these migrants were poor, illiterate and unskilled. It was

supposed to be a voluntary system, but there are horror stories about coercion, and how these

people were picked up literally from the streets of their hometowns, collected at various

embarkation points, and forced to go to a foreign land, of which they knew nothing about.

Gender did not come in the way, and women picked up as indentured labour were made to

stay with men. Many were declared man and wife, and packed off to foreign destinations. All

said and done, this can be considered as a precursor to the global migration of Indians.

However, there is the problem of Indian embassies in most of these countries not being

very cooperative towards the migrant community. The embassies are not exactly attuned to

the needs of these people, nor are the officials always aware of their problems, their issues

and their needs – be it in terms of their labour contracts, or the laws of the land. There is

greater room for the Indian embassies to play a more effective and cooperative role in this

context. Many a time, because of the indifference and the ignorance of the Indian missions in

these countries, the migrant workers are almost always at the mercy of the employers and the

laws that they adhere to. It is only in recent years that the Government is waking up to the

need for appointing a separate Labour Attaché in the Indian embassies in these countries, to

cater to the demands of the workers, and to take care of their needs.

Page | 20

In 2000, the high-powered Indian Diaspora Committee, chaired by the jurist, Dr.

L.M.Singhvi, recommended the Pravasi Bharatiya Divas celebrations on January 9 each year,

and also contributed to the setting up of a full-fledged Ministry for Overseas Indians at the

Centre. Following up on this report, the Prime Minter of the day announced the institution of

the Prabhasi Bharatia Samman awards in recognition of the contribution made by the Indian

Diaspora, to the nation. The report also raised major issues of concern to the Diaspora -- from

consular difficulties to larger and abiding issues pertaining to culture, economic development,

education, health, media, science and technology, philanthropy, and dual citizenship. Based

on carefully-gathered statistics on overseas Indians, the Singhvi Committee report is the first

ever-comprehensive statement of the Indian Diaspora, and provides a comprehensive

framework for discussing India’s relations with Indians overseas. Till now, these relations

had been discussed in a tentative and casual manner. The report is full of highly novel and

important practical suggestions, including special economic and political concessions to

overseas Indians – all leading to effective NRI contribution to India’s economic, political,

cultural and other areas of development. The report will increase the general level of

consciousness in India about the country’s overseas connections, going back to several

centuries. We tend to think of ourselves as a people 7 whose history was made only in India.

The report shows how wrong this view is, and how PIOs are a part of the body politic in 119

countries

There is the possibility of migration from India growing in the coming years and decades.

The probability of a younger age population in India coupled with declining birth-rates in the

developed world leading to a labour shortage, be it unskilled, skilled or professional, are

among the causes. The interface between outsourcing, migration and growing social networks

are also contributory factors. There is also the factor of newer destinations, Japan, for

instance, emerging on the horizon. In this, the Indians abroad have transitioned from being

dependants to being ‘dictators’ through their significant presence, positional clout and

numerical strength coupled with effective networking, and coordinated organisation. There is

now the Global Organization for the People of Indian Origin (GOPIO), which has set its

priorities in pooling resources, both financial and professional, for the benefit of PIOs, in the

countries they come from, and in India. In all this, India derives material support from the

Diaspora, and they derive psychological satisfaction of being a part of the Indian nationhood,

and in the process of crafting a resurgent India.

Page | 21

Effects of Migration

Migration of labour has its positive as well as negative effects both on native and host

countries. We will examine these effects as under:

POSITIVE EFFECTS:

1. Wage Rate: Labourers usually migrate from low wage counties to higher wage nations.

Unless prevented or guarded by law, wages will change in both countries. Such an effect on

wages is brought out in Home country and foreign. It is also possible that over a period of

time real wages may increase both in host countries and native countries. A case study by

Jeffery G. Williams, of eight countries, host countries Argentina, Australia, Canada and

United States of America and native (home) countries Ireland, Italy, Norway and Sweden –

between the period 1870 and 1913 has come to the conclusion that real wages during this

period had increased in all the countries, but substantially in the home countries.

2. Supply of labour: Developed countries like Canada, Australia, some European countries and

USA have experienced scarcity of skilled as well as unskilled labour. Many Asian doctors

and engineers, nurses and teachers are employed in developed countries. Unskilled labour

migrated from developing countries, provided labour to those areas where the native people

would not wish to take up the jobs. This is more evident in the so called ’dirty jobs’. In USA

such jobs are taken up by labourers from Mexico, South American, Africa and Asia.

3. Employment: Migration takes place primarily in search of employment, to earn, more

income and to enjoy better quality of life. While enjoying these benefits in the host countries

the migrants at the disguised unemployment. In the early stages of large scale migration from

Europe to North America, it helped in mitigating population problem of European countries.

4. Remittance: Emigrants remit a part of their income back to their families in their native

country. Many of the European countries, Mexico and Asian countries have benefited from

the remittance of their emigrants. It helps the home countries reduce their balance of payment

problem or increase investment at home; import capital goods thus promote development of

their economies. Remittance would reduce over a period of time as the emigrants settle in the

migrated country along with their families. The size of the remittance depends on the number

Page | 22

of emigrants from a country and the nature and duration of employment. Many countries

including India, offer additional incentives to the emigrants to remit and keep the money back

in their home country.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS

1. Brain Drain: Emigrants comprise people educated and trained at different levels. Majority of

the emigrants are of low education and unskilled. Emigrants also include highly educated

professionals such as doctors, engineers, professors and other technically and professionally

trained people. A good number of medical, engineering and management students from India

migrate to countries like USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, France and to

some rich gulf countries. These students take the advantage of subsidised education financed

by tax payer money and leave the country when they become productive agents or labourers.

Ts is also argued that educated emigrants help the home countries when these countries rare

not in a position to employ them. Beside it also reduces the claim on goods and service of the

home country when labourers migrate.

2. Problem of social Integration: Immigrants in a country belong to different countries, race,

religion and culture. They form their own groups based on the above factors. In the initial

stages these groups live in ghettoes. Social assimilation with the people of the host country

becomes difficult. In USA, Canada and Australia or in countries dominated by white

coloured people, social integration becomes difficult due to colour complex. Religion is

another factor which makes immigrants identify with the host country where the majority

belong to another religion. Cultural differences also deter the process of integration specially

when each group develops a complex of cultural superiority. At times ethnic and religious

differences create a problem for the host country as it happens in UK and India.

3. Illegal Immigrants: It is a serious problem for many countries. USA has a large number of

illegal immigrants from Mexico. Similar problems are faced by Canada, Australia and some

of the European countries. Illegal migration to a neighbouring country is a common

occurrence due to political, economic, social and religious factors. India is facing such a

problem with illegal immigrants from Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

Page | 23

4. Cheap Labour: Developed countries, specially organise labour through their Trade Union

oppose the liberal migration policy. They argue that the migrant labourers who are willing to

work at lower workers. However this argument does not merit serious consideration wage

rate in such economies is determined by market forces, Exploitation can be prevented through

minimum wage law, which also safeguards the interest of migrant labourers.

5. Fiscal Imbalance: Immigrants positively contribute to the growth of the host country. When

immigrants constitute in large numbers, the host country requires to spend huge amount of

capital to provide the required economic and social infrastructure. As they settle down

permanently, the government requires to spend for providing social security benefits.

Expenditure on all these counts may create fiscal imbalance in the form of increased

budgetary deficit.

Page | 24

Conclusion

Migration has become a global phenomenon. As discussed earlier people migrate to

another country for a number of reasons of which economic and political are the important

ones. From our earlier explanation it is evident that migration has positive as well as negative

effects both on the host and native countries. In a globalised world, the number of migrants is

bound to increase. However in the larger interest of nations and people (migrants) involved it

is necessary to introduce measures so that the positive effects are maximised while the

negative ones are minimised if they cannot be totally eliminated.

The suggestions in this direction are to promote labour rights to immigrants. Allow the

migrant workers to join Trade Unions. Treat immigrants on the same level as those of

workers of host country. Safety conditions should be made applicable even if they are on

temporary work. Promote ethical recruitment. Prevent exploitation and discrimination.

Reform work permits schemes to reduce powers of employers. Legislate to prevent

employers from withholding migrant workers passport. Initiate international action to

regulate the activities of private recruitment agencies. All the countries should ratify 1990

UN convention on the protection of rights of all migrant workers and their families.

Page | 25

Bibliography

www.google.com

www.iom.int

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_migration

www.ilo.org › ILO home › Topics

Journal of Ethics and Migration Studies

Economics of global trade and finance – Dr.G. Rajalakshmy