Internal Combustion Engine

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Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine

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About Roads2HyComRoads2HyCom is a project supported by the European Commission's Framework Six program. Its purpose is to assess and monitor

hydrogen and fuel cell technologies for stationary and mobile energy applications.This is done by considering what the technology is capable

of, relative to current and future hydrogen infrastructures and energy resources, and the needs of communities that may be early adopters of

the technology.By doing this, the project will support the Commission and stakeholders in planning future research activities. Project main

website: http://www.roads2hy.com

HyLights, Roads2HyCom and the Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Technology Platform (HFP)The European Commission is supporting the Coordination Action "HyLights" and the Integrated Project "Roads2HyCom" in the field of

Hydrogen and Fuel Cells. The two projects support the Commission in the monitoring and coordination of ongoing activities of the HFP, and

provide input to the HFP for the planning and preparation of future research and demonstration activities within an integrated EU strategy.

The two projects are complementary and are working in close coordination. HyLights focuses on the preparation of the large scale

demonstration for transport applications, while Roads2Hycom focuses on identifying opportunities for research activities relative to the needs

of industrial stakeholders and Hydrogen Communities that could contribute to the early adoption of hydrogen as a universal energy vector.

Further information on HyLights is available on the project web-site at http://www.hylights.org.

Contents

1 Metrics Table• 2 Summary

2.1ActivitiesbyBMW

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2.2ActivitiesbyMAN

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2.3Activitiesby Ford

♦

2.4ActivitiesbyMazda

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3 Key Issues• 4 Data Lacking• 5 RelatedComponents

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6 EmergingProducts

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7 References• 8 Notes•

Metrics Table

METRIC SUB-METRIC UNITS RATING DATA SECTORTechnologyAccessibility

Compatibility with existingconsumer technologies

0-4 1 - 3 - Transport

N/A - Stationary

Number of companies sellingthe technology

number - 4 Transport

- N/A Stationary

Probability of marketco-existence with current(competing) technology

0-4 N/A - Transport

N/A - Stationary

GlobalEnvironmental

Impact

GHG- emissions at full load g / kg fuel& 0-4

(Rating)

4 0.0099 g/km N20(3g/km CO2

equivalent)

Transport

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Non-Hybrid: 215g/km (LH2, NG

4000, PISI)Hybrid: 180 g/km(LH2, NG 4000,

PISI)0.87 g/km (Ford)

N/A N/A Stationary

GHG- emissions at part load g / kg fuel - N/A Transport

- N/A Stationary

LocalEnvironmental

Impact

Air quality impact(consider NOx, PM, CO,

NMHC)

0-4 N/A NOx: 0.46 g/km

(Ford)CO: 0.0051 g/km

(Ford)NMHC: 0.0047

(Ford)

Transport

N/A - Stationary

Noise or perception of noisefrom the technology (SPL,

loudness, etc.)

dB(A),sone

- knocking noise(similar to diesel)

Transport

- 69 dB(A) Stationary

Design / product appearanceimpact

0-4 4 no difference toconventional ICE

all

Efficiency Part load efficiency oftechnology

% - N/A (55-70 mpg gaseq.)

Transport

- N/A Stationary

Full load efficiency oftechnology

% - 27 - 52 % Transport

- N/A Stationary

Efficiency of auxiliarycomponents

% - N/A Transport

- N/A Stationary

Capacity &Availability

Capacity to meet user'needs 0-4 4 Vehicle prototypes

with up to 200kWAcceleration:

0-100km/h in 9.5 sec.

(BMW)Acceleration: 0-96km/h in 16.8 sec

(Ford)

Transport

N/A - Stationary

Number of hours per yearduring which technology is

available

hours/year - N/A Transport

- N/A Stationary

Durability of technology hours - >200km/8kg LH2(BMW)

Transport

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- N/A Stationary

Cost(click here for more datails)

Capital investment fortechnology

EUR - N/A Transport

- N/A Stationary

Cost of ownership forconsumers

EUR / year - N/A Transport

- N/A Stationary

Cost per unit of energy fromtechnology

EUR / kW - N/A Transport

- N/A Stationary

Safety Technology breakdown(including misuse)

no. / year - N/A all

Severity of failure 0-4 N/A - all

Summary

Hydrogen IC engines work in the similar manner and has same appearance as that of the conventional ICengine. Much research is going on in this field. For transport sector, a rating of 1 - 3 can be given forcompatibility with existing technology. The hydrogen based IC engines can be made to use hybrid systems,dual fuel systems or hydrogen alone.

A comparison of the power densities of conventional ICEs, a H2 Genset, a PEM fuel cells and an electricvehicle is shown in figure.

Power densities and specific power for selected energy conversion technologiesTechnologies are: aluminum block 4-stroke; SI-ICE, iron block 4-stroke SI-ICE; hydrogen lean burn SIgenerator set (SI GenSet); electric vehicle (EV) with lithium battery; compression ignition direct injected(CIDI) diesel; proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell; and EV with lead-acid batteries. The horizontalline is the DOE goal for fuel cells in 2004.

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Issues to consider when adapting an internal combustion engine to run on hydrogenMost hydrogen engines developed for research have been adapted from conventional gasoline, diesel ornatural gas engines. Figure below lists the various features to consider when re-designing an internalcombustion engine to run on hydrogen.

In a traditional naturally aspirated internal combustion engine with external mixture formation, the lowdensity hydrogen gas displaces the charge air (approximately 30% for stoichiometric mixtures). This meansthat the calorific value of the hydrogen mixture in the cylinder is less than the equivalent gasoline mixture.As a consequence, when run on hydrogen, the volumetric efficiency is reduced and the engine will produceless power and torque (typical reduction 20-40%). There are several approaches that can be adopted, eitherindividually or in combination, in order to increase the performance of a hydrogen ICE. These methodsinclude:

Boosting by fitting a turbocharger or supercharger• Direct injection of the hydrogen into the cylinder (also known as internal mixture formation)• Mixing cryogenic hydrogen gas with aspirated air•

With hydrogen direct injection, the maximum power can by 17% higher than the base gasoline engine.

A LH2 vehicle has a GHG emission of 3 g CO2 equivalent / km. A non-hybrid LH2 (NG 4000, Port InjectionSpark Ignition - PISI) powertrain has GHG emission of 215 g/km while a hybrid (NG 4000, PISI) powertrainemits 180 g/km at full load. The knocking noise produced is similar to diesel engines for transport sector. Forstationary applications the noise emitted is 60dB (A).

Although the use of hydrogen in an internal combustion engine virtually eliminates CO2, CO and HCemissions, NOx emissions can be a problem. This is because NOx formation is dependent on combustiontemperature, which depends on the air-fuel ratio. Several strategies can be adopted in order to keep the NOxemissions within the legislative limits. These strategies are:

Run as lean as possible (l > 1.8)• Apply exhaust gas re-circulation (EGR)• Lower the hydrogen injection temperature• Optimise the engine's cooling strategies• If using direct injection, optimise the injection timing to reduce NOx• Apply a NOx exhaust aftertreatment system• Lean operation at high load requires an LNT• A traditional three-way catalyst can be used if stoichiometric operation is achieved•

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Table 1 compares key properties for hydrogen and gasoline relevant to combustion in a spark ignition engine.With a high research octane number (RON) of over 130, conventional knock is not an issue, allowingcompression ratios up to around 14.5:1 for a dedicated hydrogen engine. However, the low minimum ignitionenergy of hydrogen leads to difficulties in preventing pre-ignition from hot sources in the combustionchamber (e.g. surface deposits). Pre-ignition can limit the usable air/fuel ratio to leaner than stoichiometric,which in turn limits the power and torque of naturally aspirated hydrogen engines. In converting an existinggasoline engine to operate on hydrogen, a number of measures are required to reduce the tendency forpre-ignition:

Improved combustion chamber cooling• Valve timing for reduced trapped residuals• Improved oil control (to reduce deposits and other ignition sources)• Low fuel temperature at injection (available with liquid hydrogen storage).•

Table 1: Hydrogen Fuel Properties Compared to Gasoline

Property Gasoline HydrogenLower calorific value (MJ/kg) 44.4 120

Octane number (RON) 95 130

Minimum ignition energy (mJ) 0.25 0.02

Adiabatic flame temperature (K) 2270 2384

Laminar flame speed (m/s) 0.3 1.9

Stoichiometric AFR 14.5 34.3

Flammability AFR limits 25 - 4 345 - 5

Inlet manifold backfire has also been widely reported on experimental Hydrogen engines operating on apre-mixed charge. However both BMW and Ford have reported no problems using sequential port injection.Direct injection would give least risk of manifold backfire, but does not appear to be essential for asuccessful engine.

The following table 2 highlights the main advantages and disadvantages of hydrogen ICE and fuel cellapplications.

Table 2: Comparison of H2-ICE vehicles and H2 fuel cell vehicles

Advantages Disadvantages

Hydrogen ICEVehicle

* Well-understood technology* Existing engine hardware / technology* Existing manufacturing facilities* Thermal management* Power density

* N O x c o n t r o l a n daftertreatment required* Lower efficiency

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Hydrogen Fuel CellVehicle

* Substantial fuel economy benefit over H2-ICE (and asmaller but still significant advantage over hybrid H2-ICE)* Zero tailpipe emissions* Quiet, good NVH* Availability of power for electric systems and auxiliaryunits* Possible government incentives for development

* V e h i c l e / p o w e r t r a i nweight* Vehicle/powertrain cost* Thermal management* Water management in cell* P r e c i o u s m e t a lsupply/cost* System life* S e r v i c i n g c o s t ,complexity & infrastructure* Operat ion in hot/coldclimates* Start up time[1]* Requirement for hybridapplication (to achieve good

transient response)[1]

A hydrogen ICE can be classified based on location for fuel injection - Port injection and Direct injection. Inport injected ICEs fuel is injected at the inlet port and air-fuel mixture is formed during intake stroke. Thistype uses common rail fuel injectors and uses mechanical cam to time the injection. In direct injection typethe fuel-air mixture is formed inside the combustion chamber. Engine can not backfire into the intakemanifold. Direct injection H2 ICE gives higher power output than the carbureted engines.

The energy efficiency of a hydrogen ICE is 20 to 25% better than that of a gasoline ICE due to leaner air-fuelratio and higher compression ratios. In GM European WTW study the full load efficiency of the technologyis found out to be 27-52%. The technology achieves a rating of 4 for capacity to meet user's needs. Vehicleprototypes give a power up to 190 kW.

Maintenance of a hydrogen ICE is much similar to the gasoline engine. But H2 ICE costs nearly 1.5 timesthat of an installed gasoline ICE.

Although most research is still at the laboratory stage, using single-cylinder engines, BMW, Ford and Mazdahave all launched H2-ICE vehicles that aim to go beyond the demonstration stage. Other industrial playersinclude MAN, who has produced several H2-ICE buses for various hydrogen demonstration programmessince the 1990s. DaimlerChrysler began researching hydrogen internal combustion engines in the early1970s, but suspended this research in 1997 in favour of fuel cells. In 2004, GM adapted a HUMMER H2Sport Utility Truck to run on hydrogen for California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. The purpose of thiswas to provide GM with a mule vehicle for researching hydrogen storage.

Many universities have active research programmes investigating hydrogen internal combustion engines.Within Europe, the Technical University of Graz (Austria) and the University of Ghent (Belgium) featuremost frequently in the literature.

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Activities by BMW

BMW has been developing hydrogen internal combustion engines since 1979. Over the past three decadesthey have launched numerous concept and demonstration H2-vehicles. In 2004 the BMW H2R ("HydrogenRecord Car") set nine international speed records at the Miramas Providing Grounds in France. The latestBMW 7 Series H2-vehicle uses the same base 6.0L V12 engine with BMW VALVETRONIC. The 7 Series isbi-fuel and can run on either hydrogen or gasoline. This solves the problem of a lack of hydrogen fuellingstations.

Hydrogen is stored on-board the vehicle as a liquid in an 8 kg super-insulated dual wall stainless steel tank.This tank, along with its associated control equipment, adds about 15% (220 kg) to the car's weight. The totalrange running on hydrogen is more than 200 km. The car accelerates from 0?100 km/h in 9.5 seconds, ineither gasoline or hydrogen driving modes. Apart from a slight change in pitch, there is no discernibledifference on switching from driving in gasoline mode to driving in hydrogen mode. The car always starts inhydrogen mode, a strategy to reduce emissions by allowing the catalytic convert to warm up.

In hydrogen mode, the engine runs with external mixture formation (hydrogen is injected into the intakesystem). At high loads it operates with stoichiometric combustion in order to maximise the power. Athree-way catalytic converter removes most of the nitrogen oxide raw emissions that occur at theseconditions.

Measured tailpipe emissions of the new bi-fuel BMW 7 series compared with legislative emission limitsAt low loads, the engine operates a lean combustion strategy in order to reduce NOx so that aftertreatment isnot required. In hydrogen mode the engine can achieve more than 170kW, with torques higher than 340Nm.However because this engine also runs on gasoline, it has not been optimised to run on hydrogen. Gasoline isdirectly injected into the cylinder, while hydrogen is port injected. The injected hydrogen displacesapproximately 30% of the aspirated air. Therefore, without the help of turbo-charging, the engine inhydrogen mode only achieves 80% of the maximum power of the engine in gasoline mode.

The BMW bi-fuel hydrogen 7 series compiles with both the current European and US emission standards(see figure above).

On single cylinder hydrogen engines, BMW has explored numerous strategies for improving the power andefficiency of a H2-ICE while keeping NOx emissions low. These strategies include external mixtureformation vs. internal mixture formation (direct injection), stoichiometric vs. lean combustion, naturallyaspirated vs. boosted, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and variable cam phasing.

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On a naturally aspirated engine, hydrogen with external mixture formation produced 18% less power and36% less torque that the equivalent gasoline. While hydrogen with internal mixture formation produced 17%more power and 15% more torque than that of the gasoline. At full load, 2000rpm, the internal mixtureformation H2-ICE had an indicated efficiency greater than 33%.

BMW coordinated the 3-year European Integrated Project HyICE. The project objective was to design aH2-ICE concept that had the potential to beat both gasoline and diesel in terms of power density andefficiency at reasonable costs. Other project partners included ANSYS, Ford, Hoerbiger Valve Tec, IFP,Irion Management Consulting, MAN, Mecel, Graz Technical University, University of Munich and Volvo.HyICE investigated two new approaches. The first approach was to mix cryogenic hydrogen gas withaspirated air. The second approach was to inject hydrogen directly into the combustion chamber. The projectpartners claim both approaches achieved a 15% increase in power output. HyICE completed in February2007. The results from HyICE will feed into EU-funded project HyFLEET:CUTE.

Activities by MAN

MAN have produced several H2-ICE buses for various hydrogen transport demonstration projects since theearly 1990s. Their latest generation of hydrogen internal combustion engines are being developed under theEU project HyFLEET:CUTE. For HyFLEET:CUTE MAN is providing 14 H2-ICE buses to be used inBerlin. The first four will be naturally aspirated, which the other ten will be turbocharged and intercooled.

The 12.8L 6-cylinder in-line hydrogen engines are installed horizontally. Hydrogen is injected into the inletmanifold (external mixture formation). The NA engine (designation H 2876 UH01) has a compression ratioof 8.5:1. It produces a maximum power of 150 kW (at 2200 rev/min) and a maximum torque of 760 Nm(1000-1400 rev/min). Its best efficiency is 30%.

The turbocharged engines (designation H 2876 LUH01) have a higher compression ratio of 12:1, a highermaximum power of 200 kW and a better efficiency (40%).

The MAN H2-ICE buses produce emissions well below Europe's future emission limits (see Table 3).However, it should be noted that NOx reduction catalysts have been fitted to the exhaust system.

Table 3: Exhaust gas emissions from MAN's H2-ICE buses used in HyFLEET:CUTE (all values measuredaccording to the European Stationary Cycle (ESC 13-stage test))

NOx 0.2 g/kWh

HC 0.04 g/kWh

PM 0.005 g/kWh

CO Below measurable limits

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Activities by Ford

Over the past decade, Ford have unveiled a wide range of H2-ICE research and concept vehicles. TheirH2-ICE research is mainly conducted in the United States.

Ford were involved in the US P2000 Hydrogen Vehicle project in the late 1990s. For this project theyadapted a Ford 2.0L Zetec 4 cylinder gasoline engine to run on hydrogen. In comparison to a gasoline fuelledvehicle the P2000 emits only 0.4% of carbon dioxide, which results from engine oil present in the burnchamber. Harmful emissions during the EPA 75 drive cycle were further reduced due to better calibration tohydrogen (see Table 4), except the Nox emissions.

Table 4: Ford P2000 Vehicle Emissions

EPA 75 NMHC [g/km] CO [g/km] Nox [g/km] CO2 [g/km]

Phase I FG [1] 0.0052 0.0073 0.23 0.87

Phase II FG [1] 0.0047 0.0051 0.46 0.87

Gasoline FG [1] 1.22 5.99 0.87 180.24

Gasoline TP [2] 0.037 0.58 0.019 195.15

SULEV TP [2]Standard 0.0062 0.62 0.012 N/A

[1]FG: Feedgas, [2]TP: Tailpipe

In 2003 Ford launched the H2RV research vehicle. The H2RV had a 2.3L supercharged H2-ICE coupledwith Ford's modular hybrid transmission system (MHTS). In 2004 Ford developed a 6.8L V10 superchargedH2-ICE. The 6.8L V10 H2-ICE has been installed in a F-350 pickup and in the E-450 shuttle bus.

Ford plans to deliver the hydrogen E-450 shuttle bus to fleet customers by the end of 2007. These busesproduce near-zero emissions. They will be leased to customers for 2-3 years for US$250,000. The firstdelivery of eight E-450 hydrogen shuttle buses will be sent to Florida.

Ford's development of hydrogen IC engines has tended to focus on traditional strategies, such as portinjection with lean combustion. More recently their hydrogen engines have been fitted with superchargers inorder to increase the power and torque. Ford say they intend to continue research into the next-generationhydrogen internal combustion engines, with plans to include features such as direct injection to improvepower and fuel economy.

Activities by Mazda

Ford partner Mazda has been developing its hydrogen rotary engine since the early 1990s. It has developedtwo types of cars working on hydrogen: Mazda RX-8 with rotary engine with dual fuel system (hydrogen andgasoline) and Mazda5 (Mazda Premacy) with rotary engine and with hybrid, dual fuel system.

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Key Issues

Codes and standards need to be in place before possible market penetration in the transport sector.

Data Lacking

Little amount of data is available for the stationary application of hydrogen ICE. Efficiency, capacity andavailability, costs and safety are the other areas which lack information (for both transport and stationarysectors).

Related Components

Heat Exchanger• Compressor•

Emerging Products

An overview of emerging products with hydrogen-powered internal combustion engines can be found on thefollowing pages:

Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Passenger Cars• Buses...• Forklifts...•

References

BMW

M. Berchkmüller, H. Rottengruber, A. Eder, N. Brehm, G. Elsässer, G. Müller-Alander and C.Schwarz (BMW AG)Potentials of a Charged SI-Hydrogen EngineSAE 2003-01-3210

•

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Raymond Freymann and Jürgen Ringler (BMW Group Research and Technology)Helmut Eichlseder and Thomas Wallner (Graz University of Technology)The Potential of Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engines in a Future Mobility ScenarioSAE 2003-01-2267

•

H. Rottengruber, M. Berchkmüller, G. Elsässer, N. Brehm, and C. Schwarz (BMW AG)Direct-Injection Hydrogen SI-Engine - Operation Strategy and Power Density PotentialsSAE 2004-01-2927

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Adreas Wimmer and Thomas Wallner (Graz University of Technology)Jürgen Ringler and Falk Gerbig (BMW Group Research and Technology)H2-Direct Injection - A Highly Promising Combustion ConceptSAE 2005-01-0108

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Andreas Schüers, Alois Abel, Hans Christian Fickel, Michael Preis and Reinhard Artmann (BMW)12-Cylinder Hydrogen Engine in the BMW 750hLMTZ Worldwide 2/2002 Vol 63 pp6-9, pp98-105

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Gerrit Kiesgen, Edgar Berger and Hermann Rottengruber (BMW)The Hydrogen Powertrain System in the New BMW 7 SeriesGlobal Powertrain Congress, 27-29 September 2005

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Dr. Gerrit Kiesgen, Dr. Christian Schwarz, Dr. Hermann Rottengruber, Dr. Edgar Berger (BMW)Zukünftige Wasserstoffantriebe für leistungsstarke und effiziente Fahrzeuggenerationen(Hydrogen Powertrains for Powerful and Efficient Vehicle Generations of the Future)Aachen October 2005

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N.N.Eine neue Ära der Mobilität beginnt: Der BMW Hydrogen 7BMW press release, September 2006

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Peter HoffmannBMW Turns Reporters Loose with New Hydrogen-7 Bi-Fuel Luxury Sedans in BerlinThe Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Letter, December 2006, Vol. XXI NO. 12[1] or [2]

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N.NEU-funded 'HyICE' project a major step forward for hydrogenNews item from European Commission Research website30 March 2007[3]

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Ford

William F. Stockhausen, Robert J. Natkin, Daniel M. Kabat, Lowell Reams, Xiaoguo Tang, SiamakHashemi, Steven J. Szwabowski and Vance P. Zanardelli (Ford)

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Ford P2000 Hyrdogen Engine Design and Vehicle Development ProgramSAE 2002-01-0240

Xiaoguo Tang, Daniel M. Kabat, Robert J. Natkin and William F. Stockhausen (Ford)James Heffel (University of California at Riverside)Ford P2000 Hydrogen Engine Dynamometer DevelopmentSAE 2002-01-0242

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Steven J. Szwabowski, Siamak Hashemi, William F. Stockhausen, Robert J. Natkin, Lowell Reams,Daniel M. Kabat and Curtis Potts (FordFord Hydrogen Engine Powered P2000 VehicleSAE 2002-01-0243

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Arun K. Jaura, Walt Ortmann, Ross Stuntz, Bob Natkin and Tony Grabowski (Ford)Ford's H2RV: An Industry First HEV Propelled with a H2 Fueled Engine - A Fuel Efficient andClean Solution forSustainable MobilitySAE 2004-01-0058

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Mazda

Kenji Morimoto, Yoshio Mizushima, Seiji Sadahira, Kazuho Douzono and Hiroyasu UchidaIntroduction of RX-8 Hydrogen REMazda Technical Review, 2004, No. 22, pp 132-137

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N.N.With the Global Environment: Developing Hydrogen Rotary Engine VehiclesMazda Press Release, 2006

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Norihira Wakayama, Kenji Morimoto, Akihiro Kashiwagi, Tomoaki SaitoDevelopment of Hydrogen Rotary Engine VehicleWHEC 16, Lyon France, 13-16 June 2006

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MAN

R. WursterStatus of the Euro-Quebec Hydro-Hydrogen Pilot Project [EQHHPP]New Fuels and Vehicles For Clear Air Conference, Luxemburg, 7-8 June 1994

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Reinhold WursterHydrogen City Bus Demonstration ProjectsPublished at the VDI/GET-Fachtagung Energieversorgung mit Brennstoff-zellenanlagen - Stand undPerspektiven,15-16 February 1995, Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, VDI DüsseldorfAvailable on [4]

•

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N.N.The MAN Hydrogen City BusTruck and Commercial Vehicle International 1997, pp 25-27

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Hydrogen Project Munich AirportTechnical information brochure produced by MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG

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N.N.Manual: Wasserstoffbusse mit Verbrennungsmotor: Mobilität auf neuen WegenNEOMAN Bus GmbH

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Jan LevenStrategies for Alternative Engines and FuelsSTA Conference on the Future of the Vehicle: Alternative Powerplants, Barcelona, June 2006

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DaimlerChysler

Reinhold WursterHydrogen City Bus Demonstration ProjectsPublished at the VDI/GET-Fachtagung Energieversorgung mit Brennstoff-zellenanlagen - Stand undPerspektiven,15-16 February 1995, Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, VDI DüsseldorfAvailable from [5]

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J. Zieger (Daimler-Benz AG)HYPASSE - Hydrogen Powered Automobiles Using Seasonal and Weekly Surplus of Electricity10th World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Cocoa Beach, Florida, USA, 20-24 June 1994Also available in Hydrogen Fuel for Surface Transportation, SAE, 1996

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The Hydrogen-Powered BusDaimler Benz Environmental Report, 1995, pp 16-17

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Alternative Drive Systems - Hydrogen BusDaimler Benz High Tech Report, 3/1995, pp 64-65

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Steffen Digeser, Rainer W. Jorach, Jürgen Willand (Daimler-Benz AG)Bernd Mahr (Forschungsinstitut für Kraftfahrwesen und Fahrzeugmotoren, Stuttgart)Der Wasserstoff-Nutzfahrzeugmotor mit früher innerer Gemischbildung auf Basis der neuenMercedes-Benz-Motorengeneration BR 9002nd Stuttgart Conference on Motor Vehicles and Engines, 18-20 February 1997

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Rainer W. Jorach (Daimler-Benz AG)Low Nitrogren Oxide Emission Combined with High Power Density by Using the HydrogenCombustion Method with Advanced Internal Mixture FormationMTZ April 1997, pp 5-8, 200-206

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Detroit Diesel Corporation (DDC)Hydrogen-Fueled Diesel Exhibits Low EmissionsThe Clean Fuels Report, September 1994, pp 150-153Summary of the final report for the DDC H2-ICE project funded by the US National RenewableEngine Laboratory (NREL)Report NREL/TP-425-6170

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Van Hool

R. WursterStatus of the Euro-Quebec Hydro-Hydrogen Pilot Project [EQHHPP]New Fuels and Vehicles For Clear Air Conference, Luxemburg, 7-8 June 1994

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H. Vandenborre and R. SierensHydrogen-Fueled Belgian Greenbus TestedThe Clean Fuels Report, September 1994, pp 154-156A summary a paper presented by H. Vandenborre and R. Sierens at the 10th World Hydrogen EnergyConference,Cocoa Beach, Florida, USA, 20-24 June 1994

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Reinhold WursterHydrogen City Bus Demonstration ProjectsPublished at the VDI/GET-Fachtagung Energieversorgung mit Brennstoff-zellenanlagen - Stand undPerspektiven,15-16 February 1995, Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, VDI DüsseldorfAvailable from [6]

•

ENEA - The Italian National Agency for New Technology, Energy and the Environment

CianciaENEA Demonstrating Hydrogen-Fueled Fiat Ducato VanThe Clean Fuels Report, September 1994, pp 153-155A summary a paper presented by A. Ciancia, et al. at the 10th World Hydrogen Energy Conference,Cocoa Beach,Florida, USA, 20-24 June 1994

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A Ciancia and G. Pede (ENEA)D. Dini, G Nardi, D. Botarelli (University of Pisa)M. Brighigna and V. Perrone (VM Motori, Italy)A Compressed Hydrogen Fuelled Vehicle at ENEA: Status and DevelopmentISATA Conference, Aachen, Germany, 31 October - 4 November 1994

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Other

N.N.Report: GM Well To Wheel Analysis of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Advanced

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Fuel / Vehicle Systems - A European StudyL-B-Systemtechnik GMBH, Ottobrunn, Germany, 27 September 2002

N.N.Manual: 250 kW Hydrogen Generator Set: Stand-by PowerHydrogen Engine Centre, November 2005

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Jörg SchindlerBewertung von alternativen Kraftstoffen und Antrieben: Ergebnisse von Well-to-Wheel AnalysenVDI-Berichte Nr. 1975, 2006

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S. Verhelst, S. Verstraeten, R. SierensCalculation of the Power Cycle of Hydrogen IC enginesWHEC 16, Lyon France, 13-16 June 2006

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Michael Sulatisky, Sheldon Hill, and Bryan LungDual-Fuel Hydrogen Pickup TrucksWHEC 16, Lyon France, 13-16 June 2006

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Toshio Shudo, Hiroyuki YamadaControl of Low-Temperature Oxidation by Hydrogen in an HCCI Combustion Engine fuelled withDMEWHEC 16, Lyon France, 13-16 June 2006

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Enzo GalloniCombustion Modelling and Performance Estimation of an S.I. Engine using Lean Hydrogen-AirMixturesWHEC 16, Lyon France, 13-16 June 2006

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L.M. Das, Milton Polly, VishalPerformance Evaluation of a Hydrogen Fuelled SI Engine GensetWHEC 16, Lyon France, 13-16 June 2006

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B.K. Gupta and O.N. SrivastavaHydrogen Fueled Vehicular Transport for Indian and Other Developing CountriesWHEC 16, Lyon France, 13-16 June 2006

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David M. Mazaika, Paul B. Scott1, Tavin TylerHydrogen Fueled Hybrid Electric Transit BusesWHEC 16, Lyon France, 13-16 June 2006

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N.N.Hydrogen Powertrains and VehiclesThe National Hydrogen AssociationHydrogen Workshop for Fleet Operators, 2005

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R. Sierens, S. Verhelst (Ghent University)Hydrogen Fuelled Internal Combustion EnginesInternational Conference on Automotive Technology (ICAT), Istanbul, Turkey, 26 November 2004

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Norihira Wakayama, Kenji Morimoto, Akihiro Kashiwagi, Tomoaki SaitoDevelopment of Hydrogen Rotary Engine VehicleWHEC 16, Lyon France, 13-16 June 2006

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N.N.With the Global Environment: Developing Hydrogen Rotary Engine VehiclesMazda Press Release, 2006

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Notes

? 1.0 1.1 Note. H2 fuel cells have much better start up time and transient response than reformedgasoline or methanol fuel cells, but may still present engineering challenges to meet customerdriveability expectations.

1.

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