Index

Index

1D doping profile, 1781D lattice, 103, 1041G cell phone standard, 562D capacitor arrays, 1452D lattice, 103, 104, 1052D system, 2522G cellular technology, 56, 573C mentality, at Bell Labs, 903D lattice, 103, 1043D multigate MOSFET, 3993D packaging, 206–207, 2083G (third-generation), 4653G cell phone

block diagram of, 59integrated circuits in, 61–64sub-systems, 59–61

8-bit binary number, 1290-nm CMOS, 2590-nm field-effect transistor (MOSFET), 196

absolute or thermodynamic temperature, 116absolute temperature, measured in Kelvins (K), 45absolute zero, 45, 111, 117absorbed photon flux, 338absorption, 365–366absorption coefficient, of photons, 338accelerated life testing, subjecting ICs to, 209acceleration, sensing, 289accelerometers, 289–302acceptor impurity, 120acceptor doping process, 121accumulation region, of a MOSFET, 249Action-Reaction, 445active photonics, 357active pixel, 356activism, Internet-based, 445–447actuator arm, on a hard disk drive, 143, 144actuators, MEMS as, 275ADC (analog-to-digital converter), 60, 459, 465Adults Only (AO), 436advanced mobile phone system (AMPS), 56Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), 422AFM (atomic force microscope), 31, 33aggressiveness, link with computer gaming,

434–435

air deionizers, 257airbags, 289–291airplanes, transistors essential for, 8Alexanderson, Ernst, 73Alferov, Zhores, 367AlGaAs alloy, 102almanac, in a GPS message, 315, 316alphabets, emergence of modern, 4–5alternative splicing, of human DNA, 438aluminum (Al), 194, 381AM radio broadcast, 53AM0 (in Earth orbit), 332AM1 (at sea level), 332amorphous semiconductors, 103amperes, 458amplifier(s), 217, 244amplifier blocks, minimizing, 333amplitude modulation (AM), 53AMPS (advanced mobile phone system), 56analog baseband processing unit, 60analog cellular standard, 56analog circuitry, 459Analog Devices ADXL 50, 291, 292analog signals, 11analog-to-digital converter (ADC), 60, 459, 465AND function, 461Andrus, Jules, 191–192Angstrom, 465animal brain, counting and, 30animals

cloning of, 439–440number of species as a function of size, 273

anisotropic, 183anisotropic wet etching, 284anode, 78anonymity, on the Internet, 428antenna, in a 3G cell phone, 59antibacterial tableware, with silver nanoparticle

coating, 393antispoofing mode, on a GPS receiver, 318application processor, in a 3G cell phone, 64applications, on a 3G cell phone, 61arc-discharge technique, 404argon ion beam, 195ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency), 422

469

www.cambridge.org© in this web service Cambridge University Press

Cambridge University Press978-0-521-87939-2 - Silicon Earth: Introduction to the Microelectronics and Nanotechnology RevolutionJohn D. CresslerIndexMore information

http://www.cambridge.org/9780521879392

http://www.cambridge.org


470 Index

ARPANET, 422arsenic-doped high-temperature silicon epitaxy,

170ASCII (American Standard Code for Information

Interchange), 13ASIC (application-specific integrated circuit), 465ATMs (automated teller machines), 10atomic clocks, 313, 317atomic force microscope (AFM), 31, 33atomic mass unit (amu), 102atomic time standard, 316atoms

direct manipulation of individual, 392electron energies for isolated, 106electrons in, 456manipulating single, 33viewing, 30–31, 33

attenuation (loss)characteristics of silica fiber, 334of EM radiation, 333in optical cables, 379

audio CD, 384audio CODEC, 60audion, 76audion valve, 79aurora australis, 184aurora borealis, 184–185auroras, 184–185, 309automated teller machines (ATMs), 10automotive industry, compared to

microelectronics, 18–19automotive sensors, 290. See also carsavalanche multiplication, 232average drift velocity, 124Avogadro’s number, 102awareness-advocacy, 445

B2B (Business-to-Business) transactions, 430Babinet, Jaques, 379back-end-of-the-line (BEOL) planarization,

185–186BACs (bacterial artificial chromosomes), 437ball-grid array (BGA), 203band spikes, 263band structure, 108band-bending, 122, 123, 222, 248bandgap, 107, 108bandgap engineering, 102, 262

applied to laser design, 372enabling, 169–170improving LED efficiency, 359, 361–362using different semiconductors, 335

band-to-band G/R, 131–132bandwidth, 53–54, 465Bardeen, John, 2, 81–88, 89barriers to carrier transport, 226base, of a transistor, 82base control electrode, 215base dopants, 242base stations, 54, 55–56base terminal, for a BJT, 235–236

base transit time, for a BJT, 243base width, for a BJT, 243base-2, 12battery drain, in a cell phone, 61Bayer mask, 354beam of light, 329Becker, Joseph, 85Bell, Alexander Graham, 52, 72Bell Telephone Laboratories, 2, 79, 89, 94Bennet, William, 367BEOL (back-end-of-the-line) planarization,

185–186Berners-Lee, Tim, 423BGA (ball-grid array), 203BHF (buffered hydrofluoric acid), 183bias-independent current gain, 241BiCMOS (bipolar+CMOS) IC technology, 265BiCMOS circuit, 459binary, 465binary alloy, 102binary arithmetic, 13binary number system, 12binary switch, 250Binnig, Gerd, 33, 387bioapplications of nanotechnology, 395biocompatible materials, 298BioMEMS, 271, 298–301bipolar, 465bipolar junction transistor. See BJTbipolar transistor digital switch, 243bipolar transistors, 214birefringent polarization-maintaining fibers

(PMFs), 376bit(s), 465

described, 11–12encoded on hard disk drives, 144grouping into bytes, 13

BJT (bipolar junction transistor), 212, 213, 214,235–245, 465

biasing into saturation, 261compared to a MOSFET, 215compared with HBTs, 264current proportions in, 240defining transconductance, 244delivering large amounts of current, 245image of, 36, 39making a BJT with high current gain, 243mass production of, 89morphing into a MOSFET, 254mutant, 262–265operation of, 237–243patent for, 86–87physics of, 261plotting current-voltage characteristics, 242regions of operation of, 242removing gain-speed trade-off, 263Shockley’s idea of, 86simplest conceptual view of, 238speed compared to a MOSFET, 258types of, 236

BJT (C-BJT) logic, 261






471 Index

blanket film deposition, 188blocking voltage, 234blue LEDs, 359, 360Bluetooth, 465Blu-ray Disc, 383body, of a transistor, 246Bohr model, 121Boltzmann’s constant (k), 44book production, 5Boole, George, 461Boolean algebra, 461–463bottom-up nanotechnology, 394–395boule, of silicon, 165, 166Boyle, Willard, 354, 355Branly, Edouard, 73Brattain, Walter, 2, 81–87, 89Braun, Karl Ferdinand, 75, 77breakdown, mathematics of, 233–234breakdown voltage, of a pn junction, 233Breed, Allen K., 291broadband, 465broadcast signals, from GPS satellites, 319Brown, R., 84Brownian motion, 130BTU (British thermal units), 44bubble memory, 354Buckley, Oliver, 88–89Buckminsterfullerene. See buckyballsbuckyballs, 401–403, 465buffered hydrofluoric acid (BHF), 183building block, for a lattice, 103bulk failures, of ICs, 209bulk micromachining

compared to surface micromachining, 286, 288described, 285–286, 287etching techniques, 183, 284

bundling, fiber, 376, 377bunny-suits, in cleanrooms, 162, 163burn-in, 210Burns, Gerald, 368Business-to-Business (B2B) transactions, 430byte(s), 12, 13, 466

c, as speed of light symbol, 329–330C4 balls, 201CAD (computer-aided design), 466Cady, Walter, 321Cafe Erehwon, xvcalculus, time derivative in, 16calorie, 44cameras

CCD-based, 353digital, 152, 153SLR (single-lens reflex), 349step-and-repeat, 189

CAN package, 202Canola Active Oil, 393cantilever beam, 285capacitance, 225capacitive MEMS accelerometer, 291capacitor, 144–145, 194, 226

carbon, forms of, 401carbon clusters, 402–403carbon nanotube tower, 407carbon nanotubes. See CNTs (carbon nanotubes)carburetor, 8Carlyle, Thomas, 68carrier concentration gradient, 128carrier density, 121carrier diffusion, 123, 127–130carrier drift, 123, 129. See also driftcarrier effective mass, 115, 116carrier generation-recombination (G/R), 131carrier mobility, 252, 267carrier populations, 121, 239carrier transport, mechanisms for, 123cars. See also automotive sensors

transistors essential for, 8cathode, 78cat’s-whisker diode, 77CCD(s) (charge-coupled devices), 61

acting like an analog shift register, 351history of, 354–355imager IC, 351operational principles of, 352uses of, 61, 353–354

CCD imagers, 351–355block-level diagram of, 353vs. CMOS imagers, 355–357

CCD-based camera, 353CCD-based optical imager, 352CD(s) (compact discs)

data stored on, 382features of generic, 381history of, 384–385made from polycarbonate plastic, 381program area on, 381standard audio, 380surface of, 381types of, 380

CD players, 380, 384, 385CD rot, 383CD sampling frequency, 384CDMA (code-division multiple access), 57, 466CDMA cellular phone system, 308CDMA-2000, 58CD-R (CD-Recordable)

introduction of, 385lifespan of, 383recordable (burnable) CDs, 382–383

CD-ROM (read-only memory), 385CD-RWs, 383cell phones, 50, 51

calling process, 55carrier frequency, 43challenges for teachers, 14described, 52–53, 56level of complexity in, 61number of, 7transistors essential for, 7

cell towers, 50, 51cells, overlapping modular, 54






472 Index

cellular service provider, 55cellular telephony, 53Cerf, Vinton, 423CERN (European particle physics consortium),

423cesium-133 oscillator, 317channel(s)

of a GPS receiver, 315for radios, 53

channel length modulation, 256channel region, in a MOSFET, 247charge

balance, 248–249density, 122neutrality, 121, 122, 249in respective bands, 221storage mechanisms, 225types of, 121

Charge Bubble Devices, 354charge-coupled device. See CCD(s)Chatzky, Jean, 432chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP), 185,

186–187chemical-vapor deposition system. See CVD

systemchild exploitation, on the Internet, 428–429chip, 466. See also microchipchip-on-board (CoB), 205, 207chip-scale atomic clock, 317circuit

in electrical engineering, 457possibility of making in silicon, 92selecting transistors for, 259

circuit environment, 219circuit switching, 422Citizen’s Band (CB) radio, 53cladding, in optical fibers, 376, 377Clarke, Arthur C., 310, 392Class I MEMS, 275Class II MEMS, 275Class III MEMS, 276Class IV MEMS, 276cleanroom, 160, 161–164, 466cleanliness, from air flow through filtration,

161–162Clinton, President Bill, 311, 446CME (coronal mass ejection), 309CMOS (complementary metal-oxide

semiconductor), 466IC, four-layer-metal, 200–201imagers, 355–357inverter, 259, 261logic gate, 259–260operational walk-through, 259technology, 25, 26–27

economic limits on, 401node in semiconductor IC fab, 247superstructure residing in interconnects, 201

wafer, 25CMP (chemical-mechanical polishing), 185,

186–187

CNTs (carbon nanotubes), 403aligned single-walled, 407families of single-walled, 406history of, 404–405properties of, 405–406unrolling, 406–407

coarse-acquisition (C/A) code, 318cobalt-based magnetic alloy, 143CODEC, 350code-division multiple access. See CDMAcoherer, 73cold start, for a GPS unit, 316Colladon, Daniel, 379collector, of a transistor, 82collector electrode, in a BJT, 215collector terminal, in a BJT, 235–236collector-base junction, reverse biasing, 236color image, setting with a CCD, 354color resolution, in a CCD, 354commercial electronics, temperature range of, 46common logarithm, 15, 16communications

erasing transistors from, 7–8evolution of human, 4–7meaning of, 4

Communications Revolution, 3–4, 11, 19compact disc. See CD(s) (compact discs)comparator circuit, 459, 462COMPASS system, of China, 307compensated semiconductor, 120complement, 462complementary, MOSFETs, 259complementary BJT (C-BJT) logic, 261complementary error function, 175, 176complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor

technology. See CMOScompound semiconductors, 101compressive strain, 398computer games, top 25, 434computer industry, evolutionary nanotechnology

and, 396computers

in the classroom, 441–442extending the life of, 450role in effective teaching, 441

concentration gradient, 229conduction band, 107–108, 113, 117conductors, 98, 99conservation of energy, 44, 111constant-source diffusion, 175control segment, of GPS, 312–313, 315Cooper, Martin, 50Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), 316copper (CU), 193, 195, 196coronal mass ejection (CME), 309Coulomb’s law, 456–457crackers, 428Cressler’s 1st Law, 212, 246Cressler’s 2nd Law, 215Cressler’s 3rd Law, 217Cressler’s 4th Law, 219






473 Index

Cressler’s 5th Law, 221Cressler’s 6th Law, 229Cressler’s 7th Law, 235Cressler’s 8th Law, 242Cressler’s 9th Law, 248Cressler’s 10th Law, 257Cressler’s 11th Law, 259Cressler’s 12th Law, 267crystal(s)

3D nature of real, 115defects, 167exhibiting band structure, 108growth technique, 165

crystal oscillatorin a GPS receiver, 321, 322in a USB flash drive, 154

crystalline semiconductors, 103, 104–105, 167Cu (copper), 193, 195, 196Curie, Jacques and Pierre, 321Curl, Robert F., Jr., 402–403current (I), 11, 99, 111, 123, 127current amplifier, 244current flow

direction of, 238for MOSFETs, 251

current gain, 237, 241, 243current-continuity equations, 134current-voltage characteristics, 230current-voltage optimization plane, 348Curtiss, Lawrence E., 379curve tracer, 231cutoff operation, for a BJT, 242CVD (chemical-vapor deposition) system,

180as a growth technique for CNTs, 403, 404steps in, 378synthesis process, 407

cyberactivism. See Internet, activismCyberporn, 428CyberTipline, 429cytometry, 298, 299Czochralski process (CZ), 165

DAC (digital-to-analog converter), 60Dalal, Yogen, 423damage control, in IC fabrication, 159dangling bonds, 179DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects

Agency), 422data

creative plotting of experimental, 242storing on a CD, 382transfer rate, 54

Davy, Sir Humphry, 405De Forest, Lee, 76, 79deacceleration, detecting sudden, 289DEC ALPHA 21164 (1997), 3Decca Navigator systems, 311decibels (dB), 217, 218Defense Advanced Research Agency (DARPA),

422

demultiplexing, beams, 376denial-of-service attacks, 445Dennard, Bob, 145density of states function, 117depletion region, of a MOSFET, 249, 250derivative structures, 213, 214design patents, 96Desurvire, Emmanuel, 379device physics, 212device programmer, 149devices, 212. See also specific devices

smoking, 231DHBT (double heterojunction bipolar transistor),

265diabetics, insulin delivery system, 300diagnostic BioMEMS, 298diamond(s), 401diamond lattice, 103–104, 105diamond saw, 201diamond structure, 23“Diamond Sutra”, 5Diazonaphthoquinoone (DNQ), 192die, 18. See also chipdielectric(s), 24. See also insulatorsdielectric breakdown strength, of air, 256dielectric constant, of a semiconductor, 123,

227dielectric relaxation time, 40, 225diffraction, 32diffusion, 224. See also carrier diffusion

coefficient, 129, 175current, 128current density, 128fundamental driving force in, 128furnace, 173, 174length, 229mathematics of, 175

diffusive transport, 127diffusivity, 229digital 2G phones, 57digital audio revolution, 384digital baseband processing unit, 60digital baseband processor, 64digital bits. See bit(s)digital bytes. See byte(s)digital camera, flash-memory card for, 152, 153digital cell phones. See cell phonesdigital divide, 446digital images, 350, 351. See also imagingDigital Light Projection HDTV display. See DLP

HDTV displaydigital logic, 462Digital Micromirror Device (DMD), 292digital signal processing. See DSPdigital signals, 11–12digital video revolution, 384digital-to-analog converter (DAC), 60Dill, Frederick, Jr., 368dimensionality

of energy, 44of transistors, 99






474 Index

diode(s), 466. See also pn junctionsas binary switches, 235creating, 228

diode lasersdownside to, 371–372perks of, 371voltage characteristics of, 367

DIP (dual-inline package), 202, 203dipole, 224direct bandgap material

compared to indirect, 339–341giving most light out, 358

direct energy bandgap, 108direct semiconductors, 339directionality dependence, of electron energy, 108DiskOnKey (flash drive), 140dislocation, 167dislocation array, 172dispersion-shifted fibers (DSFs), 376displays

in a 3G cell phone, 59DLP, 292, 294–298on a GPS receiver, 321LCD, 59

dissolution rate, 192distance scale, 30

micro/nanoelectronics, 35–39of the universe, 33–35

distribution of charge, in respective bands, 221Dizard, Wilson, 6DLP (Digital Light Projection) HDTV display,

292, 294–298DMD (Digital Micromirror Device), 292DMD MEMS IC, 295, 297DNA

successful sequencing of human, 436unzipping, 299

DNA chips, 299–300, 301DNQ-novolac resists, 192Doi, Toshitada, 384donor impurity, 120donor-doping process, 120donors (political), emerging role of small, 446doomsday scenarios, 7–11dopant(s)

accelerating, 177diffusion mechanisms, 174, 175electrically activating impurity, 173ionization energy, 69redistribution, 173

dopant diffusion furnace. See diffusion, furnacedoped semiconductors, 119doping, 173–179, 466

described, 119drawing shapes and patterns of, 173inverting polarity, 250transition, 213, 214

doping profiles, 173, 179, 220double heterojunction bipolar transistor (DHBT),

265double-gate MOSFETs, 399

down-conversion (RF-to-IF), 60Drain (D), in a MOSFET, 246drain electrode, in a BJT, 215DRAM (dynamic random-access memory), 466

electrons storing digital bits in, 147memory cells, 145, 146volatile nature of, 148

drawing tower, 378Drexler, K. Eric, 393drift, 125, 126, 224. See also carrier driftdrift-diffusion equations, 129, 224Drude, Paul, 330drug(s), computers essential for the production of,

9drug sales, illegal or prescription, 428drug-delivery system, implantable or transdermal,

300Drummond, Thomas, 405dry etching, 182, 184, 286dry oxidation, 180dry oxides, 179DSFs (dispersion-shifted fibers), 376DSL (digital subscriber line), 466DSP (digital signal processing), 57, 321–322, 466dual-Damascene process, 196dual-inline package (DIP), 202, 203Dumke, William, 368DVD player, 380, 384DVD-R/W drive, 382DVDs (Digital Versatile Discs), 383, 384dynamic RAM. See DRAMdynamic switching, 260DynaTA phone, 50

E (Everyone), 435E10+ (Everyone 10+), 436e-activism. See Internet, activisme-addictions, 430–433Early Childhood (EC), 435ears, frequency response of, 42Earth, pictured from the Moon, 304, 305Earth ground, 458Easton, Roger L., 312e-beam (electron beam), 466e-beam evaporator, for metal deposition, 195e-beam lith, 191, 466EC (Early Childhood), 435ECE (electrical and computer engineering), 11e-commerce, 429economics, erasing transistors from, 9–10edge defect, 167edge dislocation, 171edge emission, in diode lasers, 372EDI (electronic data interchange), 429Edison, Thomas Alva, 74, 76Edison Effect, 74education

changing face of, 440–442transistors essential for, 10

EEPROM (electronically erasable programmableread-only memory), 149, 150, 466






475 Index

effective density of states, 118effective mass approximation, 115effective mobility, 253efficiency

improving for an LED, 359, 361–362of a solar cell, 348, 349

EFM (Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation) scheme, 384EFT (electronic funds transfer), 429Einstein

switching from V to c, 330Theory of General Relativity (gravity), 329Theory of Special Relativity, 41, 329

Einstein relations, 129electoplating, Cu to a seed layer, 195electric current, 458. See also currentelectric field, 457

associated with a voltage drop, 227inducing, 123relating voltage to, 458voltage a property of, 457

electrical and computer engineering (ECE), 11electrical communication, 70electrical engineering (EE), 70, 454electrical ground, 11electrical potential, 457electrical signals, decreasing magnitude of all,

215–216electrodes (terminals), of a transistor, 82electroluminescence, 358electrolytes, 82electromagnetic force, 455electromagnetic waves. See EM (electromagnetic)

waveselectromechanical system, miniaturizing, 273–274electromigration, 209electron(s)

boosting from valence band to conduction band,112

in the conduction band, 117defined, 456manipulation of, 11as particle wave, 32potential energy of, 105–108as quantum particles, 115ratio to holes, 121storing a digital bit in DRAM, 147tunneling, 33as a type of charge, 121

electron energy, plotting, 106electron flow, direction of, 238electron states, counting empty, 113electron volts (eV), 44, 111, 455, 457electron wave vector, 108electron-beam (e-beam) lithography, 191, 466electron-hole pair, 113electronic addictions. See e-addictionselectronic banking, 9–10electronic circuits

building complex systems, 459noise immunity of, 13

electronic commerce. See e-commerce

electronic data interchange (EDI), 429electronic funds transfer (EFT), 429electronic memory, 142electronic politics, 445electronic rectifier, 77electronics

development of the term, 74–75temperature realm of conventional, 46

electrophoresis, 298electroplating, 195electrostatic discharge (ESD), 256–257electrostatic force, 456electrostatic induction, 256–257electrostatics, of the pn junction, 225–226elemental semiconductors, 101EM (electromagnetic) waves

bending of, 32discovery of, 74frequency domain for, 42, 43illustration of, 329visible, 31

EM intensity, of a spherical EM wavefront, 216EM radiation, 328, 330–331, 332EM radio signal, intensity of, 216EM signals

decreasing intensity, 216transmitting over long distance, 54

EM spectrum, 331EM transmission windows, 318e-mail, dark side of, 431emission spectrum, of a LED, 359emitter

for a BJT, 243of a transistor, 82

emitter terminal, of a BJT, 235–236emitter-base junction, 236emitter-coupled logic, 261empty electron states, 113energy, 454–455

conservation of, 44, 111at the crux of human civilization, 455defined, 44, 455described, 111equivalence with wavelength, 331–332forms of, 44optimization of use of, 450units of, 455

energy band diagrams, 107, 221, 239, 248energy band model, 105energy band structure, of silicon, 108, 109energy bandgap, 46, 100, 170, 343energy bands, 107, 108, 112energy exchange, in G/R processes, 132energy scale, of the universe, 44–47engineering, complementary with science, 70ENIAC, tube-based digital computer, 92, 93Enlightenment, 5ensemble average, 124entertainment, transistors essential for, 10Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB),

435–436






476 Index

entropy, 128environment

cordoning off the IC fab process, 160establishing for an IC fabrication facility, 158

environmental conditions, in Earth orbit, 309environmental noise, 13ephemeris, in a GPS message, 315ephemeris data, receiving, 316epitaxial strained SiGe alloy, nanoscale material

in, 172epitaxy, 169–173e-politics, 445EPROM (erasable-and-programmable ROM), 149equations of state, 134, 328equilibrium

in a BJT, 239described, 130at a pn junction, 222preferred by nature, 128

equilibrium energy-band diagramof the nMOS capacitor, 248of a pn junction, 223

erbium-doped fiber amplifier, 379error-correction method, improving audio fidelity,

384ESD (electrostatic discharge), 256–257ESRB (Entertainment Software Rating Board),

435–436Essen, Louis, 317etchants, 286etching and polishing, 182–187etch-stop techniques, for micromachining,

284–285Ethernet, 466etiquette, for cell phones, 50Everyone (E), 435Everyone 10+ (E10+), 436evolution, in microelectronics, 396–401evolutionary nanotechnology, 396exabytes (EB), 13, 14exponent, logarithms as, 15exponential functions, 16exponential growth, 15extreme environment electronics, 46extrinsic semiconductors, 119eye surgery, 301eyes, frequency response of, 42

fab (fabrication facility), 466–467fab tools, increasing wafer-size capability of, 169fabless, 467fabricated wafer, 202fabrication

art of transistor, 69of optical fibers, 378of silicon, 24

fabrication facility. See fabfabrication flow, for a MOSFET, 198–199fabrics, generating electricity, 413Fabry-Perot cavity, 369–370Facebook, 443

face-centered-cubic (fcc) unit cell, 103Fahrenheit scale, 117failure, accelerating by heating ICs, 210failure mechanisms, thermally activated, 209Fairchild Semiconductor

first to market CCDs, 355launch of, 91prospering, 92

Fantastic Voyage (movie), 270–271Faraday, Michael, 70fashion conscious, flash drives for, 138, 139FCC crystal, 103FDMA (frequency-division multiple access), 57FE Global Electronics, 141feedback mechanism, for a laser, 368–371Fenner, Gunther, 367Fermi energy parameter, 118, 119Fermi levels, 130, 222Fermi potential, 251Fermi-Dirac distribution function, 117fermion, electron as, 456ferromagnetic material, magnetizing, 142Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey, 72, 76, 78FET(s) (field-effect transistors)

from a 90-nm CMOS technology, 389compared to PETs, 247cross-sectional view of, 27described, 25differing from a PET, 214–215limiting speed of, 265types of, 213, 214

Feynman, Richard, 392–393FF (fill factor), for a solar cell, 348fiber optics, 374–379fiber-optic semiflexible gastroscope, 379Fick’s first law of diffusion, 128–129, 175Fick’s second law of diffusion, 175field effect, in semiconductors, 214field-effect mobility, 253field-effect transistor. See FET(s)file formats, for digital images, 350fill-factor (FF), for a solar cell, 348film deposition, by chemical means, 179filtration systems, for a cleanroom, 161–162financial transactions, 9Fin-FETs, 399firmware, 468first-generation (passive) nanomaterials, 391fixed impurities, 122Flash (software), 433flash memory, 150–153, 467Flash ROM, 60flash-memory cards, 150–151flat-band condition, 248Fleming, Sir John Ambrose, 75–76, 77, 78Fleming valve, 76Fletcher, H., 84Flickr (photo sharing), 443flip-chip packaging, 204–205flip-flop circuit, 92floppy disks, 141






477 Index

fluorescent bulbs, 362flux of photons, 338FM radio broadcast, 53forbidden energy bandgap, 107force, 455forward active operation, for a BJT, 242forward bias, 228, 229, 230, 239forward-active bias, in a BJT, 237forward-bias current, in a pn junction, 229foundry, 467four-mask process, 199Fowler-Nordheim tunneling, 152FPGA (field-programmable gate array), 467free information, Web-based, 443free radicals, buckyballs reacting with, 402free space, permittivity of, 123free-electron mass, 115, 116French Impressionism, 326–327frequency

relation to wavelength, 330of a wave, 41, 43

frequency domain, for EM waves, 42, 43frequency modulation (FM), 53frequency scale, of the universe, 41–43frequency translation electronic circuitry, 60frequency-division multiple access (FDMA),

57frequency-translation electronic circuitry, 321FSK (frequency-shift keying), 57full-duplex radio, in cell phones, 53Fuller, R. Buckminster, 401future, foreseeing the, 15fuzzballs, 423

GaAs (gallium arsenide), 101, 125gain

defined, 217degrading maximum voltage, 243as key to success, 244not possessed by pn junctions, 234

gain block, 217gain-enabled transistors, implementing binary

switches, 219gain-speed trade-off, in BJTs, 263galaxies, in a Hubble image, 29–30GALILEO system, of the European Union,

306–307, 311gallium arsenide (GaAs), 101, 125Game Ratings, 435–436gaming, aggressive behavior and, 433–436gamma rays, 42, 43GaP, light from, 358Garmin zumo 550 GPS receiver, 322–325gas lasers, 367gastroscope, 379gate (G) terminal, in a MOSFET, 247gate array, 467gate control electrode, in a MOSFET, 215gate length, in a MOSFET, 247gate oxide

getting rid of, 265

in a MOSFET, 247none in HFETs, 266

gate width (W), in a MOSFET, 247gate-all-around MOSFETs, 400Gauss, Carl Fredrich, 70Gaussian distribution function, 175, 176GDP (Gross Domestic Product), in the U.S. and

Germany, 21Ge, velocity-field characteristics, 125gene density, nonrandom patterns of, 438generation, 131genetic disorders, 438genetic miswirings, 438genetic testing, 299genetic variations, 438GEO (geostationary orbit), 310geographical regions

global Internet use by, 421global Internet use compared with population

data, 422geometric series, 233geostationary orbit (GEO), 310Getting, Ivan, 312giant magnetoresistance (GMR), 414Gibbs, Willard, 327Gibney, Robert, 81gigabytes (GB), 13, 14glass, coloring, 343global digital divide, 446global information flow, 11–15global population, 2Global Positioning System. See GPSglobal system for mobile (GSM), 58global warming, 447GLONASS system, Russian, 306GMR (giant magnetoresistance), 414GMT (Greenwich Mean Time), 316gold, cost of, 196gold contact, passivating crystal surface, 82, 83gold wirebond, on the surface of an IC, 204Goldfinger (movie), laser misconceptions, 374Google Groups, 443Gould, Gordon, 364, 365, 367GPS (Global Positioning System)

civilian examples of uses of, 308cold start vs. warm start, 316described, 306–312dual-use (military-civilian) technology, 307history of, 311–312implementing on a single piece of silicon, 325nuts and bolts of, 312–320as an official dual-use system, 311satellite constellation, 314transmission frequencies used by, 318

GPS receiversaccuracy of, 319in cell phones, 61decoding RF signals, 307determining location, 319examples of handheld, 315in howitzer shells, 308






478 Index

GPS receivers (cont.)parts of, 320–325portable, 308, 309

GPS RF downconverter, 321GPS satellites

carrying nuclear detonation detectors, 308continuously transmitting, 307transmitting navigation message, 318

GPS signals, 318GPS space vehicles (SVs), 312, 313, 314GPS time, relating to UTC, 316GPS-enabled GSM/WCDMA handsets, 308G/R processes, 131–133grain boundaries, 103grains, of crystalline material, 103gramophone, 72graphene, 403, 406graphene FETs, 407–408graphite, as a form of pure carbon, 401gravitational lensing, 329gravitomagnetic trap, 117gravity, 393, 455Gray, Elisha, 52, 72gray-goo, 389greenness, of silicon, 23Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), 316Greenwich meridian, as the prime meridian, 306GRINSCH laser, 373Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 21ground, in an electronic circuit, 458ground state, 113grounding straps, 257Group III impurity, 120Group III-V compound semiconductors, 101Group II-VI compound semiconductors, 101Group IV-IV compound semiconductors, 101Group IV-VI compound semiconductors, 101Group V impurity, 119GSI (gigascale integration), 467GSM (global system for mobile), 58Gummel, Herman K., 242Gummel number, 242Gummel plot, 241, 242Gutenberg, Goldsmith Johannes, 5Gutenberg Bible, 5, 6

hackers, 428hacktivism, 445half-duplex radios, 53Hall, Robert N., 367handing off, to the next cell, 56hard disk drives (HDD), 142–144Hayashi, Izuo, 367HBM (Human Body Model) ESD event, 257HBTs (Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors),

262–265HDTV (high-definition TV), 467head-crash, of a hard disk drive, 144health care, erasing transistors from, 9hearing, frequencies used for, 42heat loss, from a living creature, 273

Heaviside, Oliver, 327Heinlein, Robert A., 392Heisenberg uncertainty relations, 456helical microtubules, of graphitic carbon, 404HEMT (high-electron-mobility transistor), 267Henry, Joseph, 72Herriot, Donald, 367Hertz, Heinrich, 70, 72, 74heteroepitaxial growth process, 171Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors (HBTs),

262–265heterojunctions, 213, 214, 263Hetrick, John W., 291hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS), 188HFETs (heterostructure FETs), 265–268HGP (Human Genome Project), 437high injection, triggering, 230high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT), 267high-frequency noise performance, 267high-injection effects, 230, 241Hirschowitz, Basil, 379historical foundations, of any technological field,

67–68history

of CCD(s) , 354–355of CD(s) , 384–385of CNTs, 404–405defined by people, 68as fun, 68of GPS, 311–312of Internet, 422–423of transistors, 70of Web, 422–423

hits (file requests), in a web site, 427Hockham, George A., 379hole density, 113, 118holes, 113, 121Holonyak, Nick, Jr., 367, 368Homo sapiens, complete genome of, 437homojunction, 220Hornbeck, Larry J., 292, 298hot swapping, 155hot-carrier aging, 209HTML (Hyper-Text Markup Language), 427Hubble Telescope, 29human(s), jaded by numbers, 30Human Body Model (HBM), 257human brain, memory capacity of, 137human communications, 4–7human ear, frequency range of, 42Human Genome Project (HGP), 437human sense organs, 42–43hyperlinks, 420, 423

IBM Corporationinvention disclosure describing a flash drive,

140logo in xenon atoms, 33

ICANN (Internet Corporation for AssignedNames and Numbers), 427

ICP (inductively coupled plasma) tools, 185






479 Index

ICs (integrated circuits), 467building cheaply through economy of scale,

190chip, SMI of, 448cleanrooms, 161–164co-inventors of, 92connecting leads of a package to, 203death of, 209electrically testing, 201energy breakdown for production and use of,

449fabrication

entire, 160production steps, 164–210types of operations, 158–160

in a GPS, 320–325heating up to test for failure, 210integrating into electronic systems, 205interconnects, 192–196manufacturing

environmental footprint of, 448inside a 300-mm, 161looking over the shoulder of, 450

packagefabricated wafer through completed, 202mounting onto a PCB, 205, 206utilizing surface-mount packaging

technology, 205packaging, 201–208

mandating 100% lead-free, 450types of, 206

production, 449reliability of, 208–210on a single piece of silicon, 92susceptibility of ESD from human contact, 257in a USB flash drive, 153–155wafers, 158, 163

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and ElectronicsEngineers), 75, 467

IF (intermediate frequency), 60Iijima, Sumio, 404imaging. See also digital images

in a CCD, 351CCDs, applications of, 354versus seeing, 31–33

Immink, Kees, 384impact ionization, 233impact-ionized electron, 232impurities, introducing into a crystal, 119impurity scattering, 124incandescent bulbs, 362inchworm actuator, 301incident photon flux, 338indentations (pits), on a CD, 382indirect bandgap, 108, 339–341indirect semiconductors, 339inductively coupled plasma (ICP) tools, 185information, movement of, 4Information Age, 6information exchange, dominant source of, 13information flow, global, 11–15

Information Processing Technology Office(IPTO), 422

inherent gain, 217Inhope (International Association of Internet

Hotlines), 429innovations, of predecessors, 67–68input impedance, of a MOSFET, 258–259input-output (I/O) circuit, 459insects, 43, 273Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

(IEEE), 75, 467insulated gate FETs, 213, 214insulator-metal interface, 213, 214insulators

described, 98exhibiting large resistivity, 99growing on silicon, 24large bandgaps, 109

integrated circuits. See ICs (integrated circuits)Intel, future of IC technology, 94Intel 4004, 95Intel Pentium Centrino Mobile microprocessor,

159intellectual property (IP), 95interconnect(s), 27, 195interconnect delay limits, 195interconnect nightmare, 401interconnect related failures, of ICs, 209interdigitated fingers, in solar cell design, 347, 348interface circuit, 459interfaces, prone to damage, 209Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC), 447intermediate frequency (IF), 60Internal Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), 20International Association of Internet Hotlines, 429International Atomic Time, 316International Meridian Conference, 306Internet

activism, 445–447child exploitation, 428–429described, 419electronic information flow on, 14end-to-end structure of, 424history of, 422–423information flow on, 13–14issues, 428–430killer app with a dark side, 419–430regulation of, 428transistors essential for, 8visualizations of, 419–421

Internet Corporation for Assigned Names andNumbers (ICANN), 427

Internet Protocol (IP) address, 12Internet service providers (ISPs). See ISPs

(Internet service providers)Internet Tax Freedom Act, 430Internet users, number of, 7interstitial diffusion, 174, 175interstitials, 167intrinsic carrier density, 114, 115






480 Index

intrinsic semiconductors, 113–114invention notebook, 96inventions, patentable, 96inverse-square law, 216–217inversion, in MOSFETs, 252inversion region, of a MOSFET, 249, 250inverter, as simplest binary logic gate, 259I/O circuit, circuit schematic of, 459, 462ion implantation, 90, 177ionization energy, of the dopant, 120ionized acceptor impurities, 121ionized donor impurities, 121ionized gas, 184ions, turning dopants into, 177IP (intellectual property), 95IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change), 447IPTO (Information Processing Technology

Office), 422IRNSS system, of India, 307isotropic etch profile, of wet etching, 183, 184isotropic wet etching, of silicon, 284ISP backbone, on the Internet, 425ISP POP, on the Internet, 425ISPs (Internet service providers), 423, 467i-STAT portable clinical analyzer (PCA), 298,

300ITRS (Internal Roadmap for Semiconductors), 20Iwama, Kazuo, 355

Java (software), 433Javan, Ali, 367Jennings, Dennis, 423joules (J), 44, 111, 455JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) files,

350junction breakdown, 232junk DNA, 437

Kahn, Robert, 423Kao, Charles K., 379Kapany, Narinder Singh, 379kB (kilobyte), 14Kelly, Mervin J., 81Kelvin scale, 116, 117Kelvins (K), 44, 45, 116Kennedy, President John F., 94Kershner, Dr. Richard B., 311keypad, in a 3G cell phone, 59–60Kilby, Jack, 92kilobyte (kB), 14kinetic energy, 44, 111, 124kinetoscope, 76knowledge explosion, book-based, 5KODAK Ultima Picture Paper, 393KOH (potassium hydroxide) wet etch, on silicon,

183, 286Kr-F excimer laser, 190Kroto, Harold, 402–403Kuznetsov, V., 404kW hours (kwh), 44

lab-on-a-chip, 299LAN (local-area network), 467. See also wireless

local-area network (WLAN)land animals, working against the force of gravity,

272lands, between CD pits, 382Langevin, Paul, 321laser(s)

built from direct bandgap materials, 340coining of the acronym, 364, 365emitting light in a focused beam, 364misconceptions about, 374uses, 364

laser diodesacting like normal LEDs at low bias, 366described, 43read/write head, 383semiconductor, 363–371

laser light, 375–376laser pointer, 363, 364Laserdisc, 384Lasher, Gordon, 368Last.fm (personal music), 443latch, 148latitude, 304, 305–306lattice, 103lattice channels, 104, 105lattice constants

energy bandgap, depending on, 170of photonic crystals, 414of semiconductor crystal, 335

lattice mismatch, between epi and wafer, 170lattice scattering, 124law of mass action, 114, 116, 119lawyers, technologically trained, 96layers, adding to a crystal, 179L-band, used by GPS, 318LCC (leadless chip carrier), 203LCD (Liquid-Crystal Display), 59leadless chip carrier (LCC), 203leakage current, under static conditions, 261LEDs (light-emitting diodes), 43, 340,

357–363coupling into optical fiber, 363efficiency, 359estimated time to failure (ETTF), 362indicator light, 154mounting in a metallic, optically reflective cup,

359, 361packaging of a discrete, 361performance, 359

Lee, Admiral Paul, 88LEO (low Earth orbit), 310letters in the alphabet, encoding, 12–13Licklider, J.C.R., 422light. See visible lightLight Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation (LASER). See laser(s)light emission spectrum, of a LED, 359light sensor, photodetector as, 341lightbulb technology, 73–74






481 Index

light-emitting diodes. See LEDs (light-emittingdiodes)

limelight, 405limited-source diffusion, 175linear functions, compared to exponential, 16liquid resist, spin-coating a wafer, 189Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD), 59lith. See photolithographylithium ion battery, 393lithography, 467LNA (low noise amplifier), 320local loop, 425logarithms, 15–16logic, implementing a Boolean, 463logical “1” or “0”, 11logical-to-physical mapping, 464long-channel approximation, 251longitude, 304, 306LORAN (long-range navigator), 311Lorentz, Hendrik, 330loss, by an attenuating system, 216lossy compression method, in JPEG, 350low-field carrier mobility, 125low-noise amplifier (LNA)

in a cell phone, 61, 62in a GPS receiver, 320

low-noise RF amplifier, 459, 460low-power consumption objects, 155LPCVD (low-pressure CVD) tools, 180, 181Lukyanovich, 405lumens of light output, for an LED, 358–359lunar white, 363

M (Mature), 436macroscopic objects, minaturizing commonplace,

271magnetic field, on a hard disk drive, 144magnetic nanoparticles, 412magnetoresistance, 414Maiman, Theodore H., 367majority carriers, 121maps, drawing detailed, 303Marconi, Guglielmo, 73, 75masks, using to expose resist, 189–190mass (m)

of an electron, 115linked with energy and the speed of light, 454

material parameters, 116material systems, superposing onto a wavelength

scale, 335materials

for bandgap engineering, 335finite resistivity of, 216in an IC fabrication facility, 159processing, 364

mathematical convenience, victims of, 30mathematical models, 110Mature (M) game rating, 436Maurer, Robert D., 379maximum average velocity, of carriers, 124maximum voltage, for MOSFETs, 255–256

Maxwell, James Clerk, 72, 327Maxwell’s equations, 327–328MB (megabyte), 14MCM (multichip-module), 205–206, 207mean time between failures. See MTBFmechanical properties, of CNTs, 405mechanical systems, integrated fabrication of, 271mechanical vibration, driving a nanogenerator,

412mechatronics, 287, 289medical diagnostics, nanotech innovations in, 413medium Earth orbit, 306, 310megabyte (MB), 14megapixels, 353memory

in a 3G cell phone, 60in an electronic context, 142essential to all electronic objects, 137

memory stick. See USB flash driveMEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems), 271

accelerometer, embedding in HDD electronics,144

advantages over conventional macroscopicsolutions, 275

building multiple features one layer at a time,287

classifications of, 275–276contraption, 278, 284electronstatic comb drive, 278, 282indexing motor, 278, 280inductor-capacitor (LC) bandpass filter, 278,

283introducing into biomedical market, 298land of, 274marrying electrical and mechanical

engineering, 275micromirror assemblies, 278, 281with moving parts and impacting surfaces, 276with moving parts and rubbing and impacting

surfaces, 276with moving parts but no rubbing or impacting

surfaces, 275with no moving parts, 275operating in vacuum, 276optical-mirror pixels fabricated on silicon

substrate, 292ratchet assembly, 278, 279sensors in cars, 289six-fold gear chain, 278, 280thermal actuator, 278, 279torsional ratcheting actuator (TRA), 278, 282tour of gadgets, 276–278triple-piston steam engine, 278, 280vibrational (LC) bandpass filter, 278, 283

MEMS and Nanotechnology ExchangeFabrication Network, 278

MEMS micromotor, 278MEO (medium Earth orbit), 306, 310Metal 1 (M1), 194Metal 2 (M2), 194metal gates, in MOSFETs, 247






482 Index

metal interconnects. See also interconnect(s)in a 90-nm CMOS technology, 193

metalization and interconnects, 192–196metallic behavior, from CNTs, 405metallurgical junction, 220metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors.

See MOSFETmetals

as efficient absorbers of visible and IR EMradiation, 343

making interconnects from, 194overlapping conduction and valence bands, 109removing from tops of photodetectors and solar

cells, 343metal-semiconductor interface (Schottky barrier),

213, 214metal-to-metal contact point, 194microbots, in literature, 392microchip (microprocessor integrated circuit),

2–3. See also chipmicrocontroller, 467microdynamics, 271microelectronics, 20–21, 35, 396–401microelectronics industry

exponential growth trend in, 17R&D side of, 20

microelectronics technologydevelopment of, 68–70handing off science to engineers, 69importance of, 66–67

microfluidic MEMS assembly, 298micro-intuition, 272micromachines. See MEMSmicromachining, silicon, 278, 281–285micromechanical parts, fabrication of, 282,

284–285micrometers, 18, 20–21micromirror displays, 292, 294–298micromotor, 278micron, 467micro/nano fabrication facility. See fabmicro/nanoelectronics

day-to-day realm of, 34, 35defined, 21distance scale, 35–39evolutionary nanotechnology and, 396state-of-the-art in, 24–27temperature and energy scales of, 44–47time and frequency scales of, 39–43as top-down assembly strategy, 395

micro/nanomachining, 271microphone, in a 3G cell phone, 59–60microprocessor, 3, 460, 467microprocessor clock, 43microprocessor IC, 95micropump, 300microsensors, 278, 281–282microsystems. See MEMS (micro-electro-

mechanical systems)Micro-USB, 156microwaves, 42, 43

mil-spec (military specification) temperaturerange, 46

Millikin, R. A., 456Mills, David L., 423MIL-STD-883, Method 3015.7, Electrostatic

Discharge Sensitivity Classification, 257Mini-B plugs and receptacles, 156minority carriers, 121, 133, 229, 230mixed-signal class of ICs, 468mobile telephone switching office (MTSO), 54, 55modeling process, iterative, 110models

of reality, 110–111for semiconductors, 105

modem, 468MODFET (modulation-doped FET), 267modulated (altered) carrier frequency, 53mole, 102monitoring stations, for GPS, 312Monthioux, M., 404Moore, Gordon, 17–18, 94–95Moore’s law, 15–20, 95, 396–397Morgan, Stanley, 81Morse, Samuel Finley Breese, 52, 70–72Morse Code, 52, 71Morse telegraph key, 71Morton, Jack, 94MOS (metal-oxide semiconductor) capacitor, 248,

249MOSFET (metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect

transistor), 212–213, 246–262, 468building a functional 10-nm, 400–401changing fundamental structure of, 399compared to a BJT, 215construction of, 198feature size evolution, 397as a four-terminal device, 247inversion in, 252–253morphing into a BJT, 254operating at very cold temperatures, 401operation of, 248–258pushing conventional into nanometer regime,

398–399regions of operation in, 249speed of, 257step-by-step fabrication flow for, 198–199structure improving performance with scaling,

399switch, leaking charge, 145uses of, 214

movable type, 5MP3 digital music player, 61MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group), 350MQW laser, 373M-Systems, 140, 141MTBF (mean time between failures)

for ICs, 209for MEMS micromirrors, 297

MTSO (mobile telephone switching office), 54, 55multichip-module (MCM), 205–206, 207multigate, nonplanar MOSFETs, 400






483 Index

multimedia platforms, 3G cell phones as, 58multimode fibers, 376multiple access, in FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA,

57multiplexing, beams, 376multiplication factor (M), 234multiwalled (cylinder within a cylinder) CNTs,

403MySpace, 443

n-type region, 224NAND flash, 151–152NAND flash-memory chip, 141NAND flash-memory IC, 154NAND-type flash-memory data-storage devices,

140nanites. See nanorobotsnano, as prefix, 388nanoapps, 408–415nanobelts, of zinc oxide (ZnO), 408nanobots, 393. See also nanorobotsnanocrystals, 390Nano-Electrical-Mechanical Systems (NEMS),

271, 274nanoelectronics, 21, 35, 396, 397nanofiltration techniques, producing potable water,

412nanogenerators, based on aligned ZnO nanowire

arrays, 411, 412, 413nanogenerators, based on ZnO nanowire arrays,

408nanogram (ng), 388nano-gray-goo problem, 389nanohelixes, 408, 410nanohenry (nH), 388nanoids. See nanorobotsnano-LED, 390nanoliter (nl), 388nanoliterature, 392–393nanometer (nm), 25, 388, 468nanometer scale, 394nanomole (nmol), 388nano-oncology, 412nanoparticles, 409nanopropellers, 408, 410nanorobots, 389nanosecond (ns), 388nanosensors, 408, 411nanosized self-assembled structured liquids

(NSSL), 393nanotech synthesis idea, 396nanotechnology

defining, 394–396described, 388–389market share in 2007, 392for the masses, 393present commercial applications, 391prospects of, 390

nanotubes, 391, 407, 468nanovolt (nV), 388nanowire arrays, 408, 409

nanowires, 409nanoworld, 388Nathan, Marshall I., 367, 368national (global) systems, for recycling,

449National Center for Missing and Exploited

Children (NCMEC), 429National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA),

313National Science Foundation (NSF), 423native oxide, 179natural logarithm, 15–16natural power transducers, 348nature, as a powerful teacher, 272navigation message, broadcast by each GPS

satellite, 315NAVSTAR GPS, 307n-channel MOSFET. See nFETNCMEC (National Center for Missing and

Exploited Children), 429NDSFs (non-dispersion-shifted fibers), 376negative resist, 192NEMSs (Nano-Electrical-Mechanical Systems),

271, 274Net. See InternetNetSmartz, 429network, 468Newton meter, 111Newton’s second law, 455nFET

circuit symbols and voltage-current polaritiesfor, 247

illustration of, 246output characteristics for, 251, 252subthreshold characteristics of, 254–255

ng (nanogram), 388NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency),

313nH (nanohenry), 388Nicholson, Alexander M., 321night-vision systems, 43NIH mentality (Not Invented Here), 94nl (nanoliter), 388nm (nanometer), 25, 388, 468nmol (nanomole), 388nMOS capacitor, 248noise immunity, of electronics circuits, 13non-dispersion-shifted fibers (NDSFs),

376nonplanar devices, 400nonvolatile memory, 142nonvolatile RAM (NVRAM), 148nonzero dispersion-shifted fibers (NZDSFs),

376NOR flash, 151–152Northern and Southern Lights, 309NOT function, Boolean, 462NOT logic gate, 463northern lights, 184novolac resin, 192Noyce, Robert, 92






484 Index

npn BJTscurrent flow in, 239current-voltage (Gummel) characteristics for,

240–241emitter, base, and collector regions of, 236extracted current gain as a function of bias

current, 241output characteristics for, 242

ns (nanosecond), 388NSF (National Science Foundation), 423NSFNET, 423NSSL (nanosized self-assembled structured

liquids), 393n-type semiconductor, 120

as electron rich, 221energy-band diagrams of isolated, 222holes in, 121

Nuclear Detonation (NUDET) Detection System(NDS), 318

nuclear force, 455numbers, humans jaded by, 30NVRAM (nonvolatile RAM), 148NZDSFs (nonzero dispersion-shifted fibers), 376

Oersted, Hans Christian, 70ohmic contacts, 213, 214Ohm’s law (V = IR), 99, 458Omega Fin-FETs, 400Omega Navigation System, 311one-sided junction, 234one-transistor memory, 145on-line content, on the Internet, 425on-line gambling, 428on-line gaming, 433operational amplifier, 459, 461optical absorption, 336–338

compared to optical emission, 339devices exploiting, 341–349differences for direct vs. indirect energy

bandgap semiconductors, 340optical bandgap, 414optical cables, 379optical emission, 338–339optical fiber, 333, 334, 375

bandwidth much larger than an electrical wire,376

coupling an LED into, 363design of, 377fabrication of silica, 378materials made from, 376, 377origins of, 379types of, 376

optical gain, 365–367, 370optical magnifying devices, 32optical micrograph (microphotograph), of a silicon

test die, 35, 37optical processes, in semiconductors, 365–366optical projection lithography system, 190optical wavelengths, 336optical-fiber communication system, 334optical-fiber design, 377

optical-gain characteristics, of the diode laser, 370optimization, of energy use, 450optoelectronics, 327, 468orders of magnitude, 30Ostwald, Wilhelm, 102out of range, 55outdoor enthusiast, thumb drive for, 138, 139output characteristics, for BJTs, 242oxidation and film deposition, 179–182oxide, depositing using dichlorosilane, 180ozone layer, withering UV radiation damped out

by, 333

P(Y) code, 318P(Y) signal, 319package types, 202–203packaged ICs, integrating into an electronic

system, 205packaging ICs, in an IC fabrication facility, 160packaging-related failures, of ICs, 209packet switching, around a network, 422page views, of a web site, 427Panish, Morton, 367paper, invention of, 5parallel arrays, 406, 407parasitic resistance, 225parasitic series resistance

associated with doped regions, 230in a BJT, 241

parasitics, associated with connection bond wire,205

Parkinson, Bradford, 312particle flux, 129particle waves, 456particulates, 162passivation layers, 201passive photonics, 357passive pixel, in a CMOS imager array, 356patent disclosure, 97patents, 95–96pattern generator, replicating rectangles, 189Pauli exclusion principle, 112Payne, David, 379PB (petabyte), 14PCB (printed circuit board), 206, 468

motherboard, 205, 206PCFs (photonic crystal fibers), 376p-channel MOSFET. See pFETPDA (personal digital assistant), 468PDP (power-delay product), 47Pearson, Gerald, 81PECVD (plasma-enhanced chemical vapor

deposition) chamber, 404Pentium 4 Intel microprocessor, 25people, defining history, 68Periodic Table of the Elements, 101Perkins, Marlin, 30permeability of free space, 328permittivity of free space (vacuum), 328, 457personal computers, number on Earth, 7personal digital assistant (PDA), 468






485 Index

petabyte (PB), 14Peters, C. Wilbur, 379PETs (potential-effect transistors), 213, 247pFET, 247, 251, 252PGA (pin-grid array), 203phonograph, 72, 76phonons (lattice vibrations - heat), 132phosphine (PH3), 181photodetectors, 341–343photoengraving process, 187photographic film, 354photographic industry, 350photolithography, 159, 187–192photon emission

in semiconductors, 341in an LED, 359, 360resulting from recombination events, 360

photon illumination, 336–337photonic crystal fibers (PCFs), 376photonic crystals

emerging field of, 379nanoengineered, 414

photonic devices, building useful, 341–385photonics, 327photons (light)

detecting, 341production of, 132

photophone, 72photoresist (resist), 90, 187, 189, 192photovoltaic effect (PV), 347–348, 349photovoltaics, 450physical limits, on CMOS, 400Physical Review, initial articles on the transistor,

88physics, 454Pierce, J. R., 84piezoelectricity, 321piezoresistive effect, 278, 281p-i-n junction, 341, 342, 343pin-grid array (PGA), 203pitch, of a CD, 382pits, on a CD, 382planar doped barriers, 213, 214planar MOSFETs, 398–399planar process, 92Planck, Max, 330Planck’s constant, 332plant patents, 96plasma etch, 189plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition

(PECVD) chamber, 404plasma-etching system, 185, 186plastic fibers, 376plastic leaded chip carrier (PLCC), 203platter memory density, 144platters, on hard disk drives, 142–143PLCC (plastic leaded chip carrier), 203PLD (programmable logic device), 468PMFs (birefringent polarization-maintaining

fibers), 376pn homojunction, 220, 232

pn junction diodes, 212, 357pn junction photodiode, 341, 342pn junctions, 213, 214, 219–235. See also diode(s)

breakdown voltage, 232, 233building, 220built-in fields in, 227current flow in, 224, 225in equilibrium, 225–226at equilibrium and under bias, 228equilibrium energy-band diagram, 223as minority carrier devices, 229required for building transistors, 215solar cells as, 345–346time scales in, 225usefulness of, 234–235

pn product, 114pnp BJTs, 236–237p-n-p-n diode, 91point of presence (POP), 425point source, 216point-contact semiconductor amplifier, 83point-contact transistor, 83Poisson’s equation, 122–123, 328political campaigns, Internet role in, 446polycrystalline semiconductors, 103polymers, strengthening, 408polysilicon (poly), on a wafer, 181–182polysilicon layer, on a transistor, 188POP (point of presence), 425population, global, 2population inversion, 366position accuracy, of a GPS receiver, 319position-dependent band edge, 265positive resist, 192positive UV photoresist, 192potassium hydroxide (KOH), 183, 286potato chips. See waferspotential energy, 44, 111potential-effect transistors (PETs), 213, 247power management circuitry, in a GPS receiver,

320power system, in a 3G cell phone, 60–61power-delay product (PDP), 47power-generation efficiency, of a solar cell, 348precise (P) code, 318predecessors, innovations of our, 67–68preform, constructing large-diameter, 378pressure sensors, MEMS-based, 281–282prime meridian, 306printing press, 5prior art, 97professions, knowing the roots of our, 67program area, on a CD, 381programmable logic device (PLD), 468programmable ROM, 149, 468Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, 391–392PROM (programmable read-only memory), 149,

468properties

of CNTs (carbon nanotubes), 405–406of silicon, 22–23, 24, 453






486 Index

pseudomorphic epitaxial alloys, 172pseudo-random-number (PRN) code, 318p-type doping, 220p-type semiconductor, 120, 221, 222publishing, transistors essential for, 10purification, of silicon, 166PV (photovoltaic effect), 347–348, 349

quantum dots, 409, 414, 468quantum mechanics, 456quantum state, 112quantum wells, 213, 214, 361quantum-mechanical effective mass, 115quartz. See silicon dioxidequartz crystals, for oscillators, 321, 322quasiparticle, 113quaternary alloy, 102

radar systems, 78–79, 80radiation hardening, 310radio

basic concepts, 53electronic information flow on, 14transistors essential for, 7–8world’s first commercial transistorized, 92

RAdio Detection And Ranging. See radar systemsradio frequency. See RFradio receiver, on a GPS receiver, 320radio transceiver, in a 3G cell phone, 60radio waves, 42, 43, 53Radushkevich, 405RAM (random-access memory), 144–148, 468rapid-thermal-processing (RTP) systems, 175RC time constant, 194reactive ion-etching (RIE) tool, 185read laser, in a CD-R player, 383readable memory, 142read-only memory (ROM), 148–150, 468read-write head, of a hard disk drive, 143Reagan, President Ronald, 311, 446reality, models of, 110–111recombination, 131, 133, 229rectification, 78rectifier, pn junction as, 234Red Book CE standard, 384Rediker, Robert, 367reference clock, in a GPS receiver, 321reference fragments, of DNA, 299reflected photon flux, 338refractive index, 328Regency (radio), 92regenerative switches

constructing, 244making, 250as MOSFET’s supreme virtue, 259transistors acting as, 462transistors as, 219

registration request, of a cell phone, 55regulation, of the Internet, 428Reis, Philipp, 72reliability, of ICs, 208–210

resist. See photoresistresist ashing, 189resistance (R), 99, 194, 458resistivity

conductors exhibiting a small, 99controllably manipulating, 100defining, 99measuring, 115of metals, 216tunable, 100

resistor, 250, 251resonant modes, 369, 370resource conservation, 448reticle, 189retina of the human eye, 337retinal stimulations, 31reverse bias, 228, 230, 231Revolution. See Communications Revolutionrevolutionary nanotechnology, bottom-up

synthesis paradigm, 396RF (radio frequency), 468

bandpass filter, 320downconverter, 321integrated circuit (IC), 35, 38transceivers, 64

RF-to-IF conversion, 60RIE etch gases, 185Ritronics Components, 141RLC resonator, 321RNA genes, 437roadmap, 468–469roaming charges, 56Roberts, L., 422robotic cluster tools, 163, 164robust packaging, for all MEMS, 276Rohrer, Heinrich, 33, 387ROM (read-only memory), 148–150, 468room temperature, 116rotary phone, 50royalty streams, from patents, 97ROYGBIV (Red-Orange-Yellow-

Green-Indigo-Violet), 32, 331RTP (rapid thermal processing) systems, 175

sacrificial-layer technique, 285Salisbury, Bernard, 88sandwich transistor, 86Sanger, Larry, 444satellite signals, locking into GPS, 315saturation

for a BJT, 242in a MOSFET, 252, 256velocity, 124

scaling, limiting sizes of animals, 273scanning electron microscope (SEM), 32scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 33scattering, of light, 31scattering event, 124Schawlow, Arthur, 367Schilling, Baron Pavel, 70Schottkey barrier, 213, 214, 266






487 Index

Schrodinger’s equation, 456science

applying to steel production, 68as complementary with engineering, 70proceeding art in microelectronics, 68working well in idealized venues, 69

scientific models, 110scientific notation, 30sea creatures, 272Second Life, 443second of time, 317secondary materialization index (SMI), 448seeing

frequencies used for, 42versus imaging, 31–33

selection rules, for energy exchange betweencarriers, 340

self-assembly, 395, 469SEM (scanning electron microscope), 32SEM image, 36, 38semiconductor(s)

absorption coefficient data for, 338, 339amplification using, 81–82as cat’s whisker diodes, 77changing from insulator to conductor, 100changing to faster, 265creating artificial, 102defined, 21, 100of drift transport inside, 124exhibiting a range of resistivities, 99–100getting light in and out of, 333, 335–341list of important, 101manipulating reisistivity of, 100modest-sized bandgaps, 109moving charge in, 224optical excitation of, 337optical processes in, 365scattering in, 124shining light on, 336–338SIA roadmap for, 20types of, 101–102unique virtues of, 20usefulness of, 100warming up, 112

semiconductor alloys, 101semiconductor amplifier, 85semiconductor behavior, from CNTs, 405semiconductor crystal, 105semiconductor devices

building blocks of, 213, 214families of, 212

semiconductor diode laser, 367semiconductor equations of state, 134, 328semiconductor group, 81Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA),

20semiconductor laser diodes, 363–371semiconductor memories, 142semiconductor sales, global, 21semiconductor-insulator interface, 213, 214semilog scales, 18

sensors, MEMS as, 275serendipity, role in discovery, 67Series 51 Solid Circuits, from TI, 92server farms, 425sexual solicitation, 428shared electron bond, 104shared-meaning, via an enabling technological

conduit, 443Shive, John, 85Shockley, William, 2, 81, 84–87, 89–91

application of photolithography, 191as a business man, 90–91introduction of the transistor, 88–89

Shockley equation, 229Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory, 90short-channel effect, in MOSFETs, 255SIA (Semiconductor Industry Association),

20SID (system identification code), 55SiGe (silicon-germanium)

alloy, 170epi, 171HBT, 196, 265strained layer epitaxy, 173

signalsdecreasing magnitude of, 215–216types of, 11

silane cylinders, 181silica (glass) core, 376silica fibers, 333silicates, 21–22, 166silicides, 196silicon (Si)

as 3D crystal, 286abundance of, 22best understood material, 69bulk micromachined shapes in, 287bulk micromachining, 285crystal, atomic structure of, 23electron and hole minority carrier lifetimes in,

133energy band structure of, 108epi, 169halide liquefaction process, 166implementing electronic functions in, 267master enabler, 20–24mechanical properties, 24micromachining, 278, 281–285as nontoxic and highly stable, 23physical forms of, 103–104properties of, 453purification of, 166solar cell, 348–349thermal properties, 22–23third most abundant element, 166unique, 21velocity-field characteristics, 125virtues of, 22

silicon boule, 22, 165silicon channel, inducing stress and strain in,

267






488 Index

silicon crystalsatom-to-atom spacing in, 25growing, 22image of atomic surface of, 31removing defects from, 81

silicon die, 35, 201silicon dioxide (SiO2), 24silicon-germanium (SiGe). See SiGe

(silicon-germanium)silicon nitride, 182silicon surface, roughness of, 253silicon transistors, 92Silicon Valley, launch of, 90silicon wafers, 158. See also wafers

200-mm (8-in), 35, 37evolution of diameters of, 167, 168, 169evolution of size of, 24polishing, 167to silicon die, 201

silicon-based laser, producing, 372, 374Silverberg, Robert, 393single-lens reflex (SLR) camera, 349single-mode fibers, 376single-walled CNTs, 403size advantage, of diode lasers, 371sleep mode, in the GPS, 320SLR (single-lens reflex) camera, 349Smalley, Richard E., 402–403smart pixel, 356SMI (secondary materialization index), 448Smith, George E., 354, 355smoking, devices, 231SoC (system-on-a-chip), 469social media, 443–445solar cells, 343–349

building in low-cost silicon, 348current-voltage characteristics of, 346maximum output power of, 348operation of, 345–349

solar irradiance, plotting, 332solar panels, 344–346solar power, 343–344solar spectrum, 332, 333solar sweet spots, 344solar wind, 309solder bumps, 201Soldier’s Digital Assistant, 307solid materials, broad classes of, 98solid-state amplifying device, 79solid-state diffusion, 173, 175solid-state lighting (SSL), 362solid-state switch, 228SoP (system-on-package), 206–207, 208source, in a MOSFET, 246space charge region, 224, 226space segment, of GPS, 312space weather, 309, 310spark gaps, 72speaker, in a 3G cell phone, 59–60Special Relativity, Einstein’s theory of, 41, 329spectral windows, 330–333

spectroscopy, 364speed of light

experiments establishing, 329, 330linked with energy and mass, 454moving at, 328

sphere, surface area of, 216spider mites, on MEMS gear trains, 276, 277spintronics, 414spontaneous emission, 339, 365, 366sports, transistors essential for, 10spread spectrum, 466spread-spectrum communications, 57spread-spectrum techniques, 318SRAM (static random-access memory), 25, 26,

60, 148, 469SSL (solid-state lighting), 362standard cell, 469Star Wars Episode IV (movie), 374state-occupancy probability, 117state-of-the-art, 25static

as a cause of ESD events, 256presence of, 13

static RAM. See SRAM (static random-accessmemory)

Steinmetz, Charles, 72step-and-repeat camera, 189stiction, 276stimulated emission, 365, 366STM (scanning tunneling microscope), 33strain engineering, 397strain gauges, 281strained layer epitaxy, 171strained-silicon CMOS, 267string theory, 455strong nuclear force, 455Sturgeon, William, 72sublinear region, 251subscriber identity module (SIM) card, 60substitutional diffusion, 174, 175substrate, in a MOSFET, 246subthreshold characteristics, of a MOSFET, 254Sunshine, Carl, 423surface micromachining, 285

process flow for, 286, 288techniques of, 286–289

surface mobility, 253surface reconstruction, 388surface roughness scattering

degrading electron mobility, 253removing, 265

surface tension, important to a nanotool, 393surface-mount packaging technology, 205surface-related failures, of ICs, 209surface-to-volume ratio, of CNTs, 405surgical BioMEMS, 298surgical instruments, 301switching speed, 40–41system identification code (SID), 55system voltage, 11system-on-a-chip (SoC), 469






489 Index

T (Teen), 436T1 line, 425Tan, Henn, 141tax, on Internet purchases, 430TB (terabytes), 13, 14TCP protocols, 423TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocols/Internet

Protocol), 423TDMA (time-division multiple access), 57, 58TD-SCDMA (time-division synchronous CDMA),

58Teal, Gordon, 92Teal-Little process, 92technological revolution, 1technologically trained lawyers, 96technologies, proceeding from art to science, 68Teen (T), 436telegraph, 6, 52telephone exchanges, 81telephones

electronic information flow on, 14history of transistors linked to, 70migrating path of, 49–50transistors essential for, 7

televisionelectronic information flow on, 14as a nostalgic medium, 446transistors essential for, 8

TEM (transmission electron microscopy)techniques, 33

temperaturedefined in thermodynamics, 116as different measure of energy, 44maintaining and sensing, 116as more intuitive than energy, 45

temperature scale, 44–47, 116, 117temperature-energy scale, of the universe, 45Tennent, H.G., 405tensile strain, 398terabytes (TB), 13, 14ternary alloy, 102Tesla, Nikola, 72test points, in a USB flash drive, 154Texas Instruments (TI), 92, 295theory of everything, 455Theory of General Relativity (gravity), 329Theory of Special Relativity, 41, 329therapeutic BioMEMS, 298thermal energy (kT), 44, 45, 112thermal oxidation, 179, 180thermionic diode, 74thermionic diode vacuum tube. See vacuum tubethermionic triode, 79thermionic valve, 77, 78thermocompression bonding, 203–204thin films, depositing onto a wafer, 187thin small-outline package (TSOP), 203third-generation (3G) cell phones, 58Thomson, Hugh, 72Thomson, J. J., 456three-CCD (3-CCD) imagers, 354

threshold current, 366–367, 372, 373threshold voltage, 251, 255thumb drive. See USB flash driveTI (Texas Instruments), 92, 295TI-55 scientific calculator, 358Timation satellite, 311time derivative, from calculus, 16time scale(s)

in pn junctions, 225of the universe, 30, 39–41

time-dependent diffusion profiles, 175time-division multiple access (TDMA), 57, 58tissue engineering, 414TMR (tunneling magnetoresistance), 414top-down nanotechnology, 394, 395towers, CNT, 406, 407Townes, Charles, 367toy model. See energy band modelTRA (torsional ratcheting actuator), 282transceiver, in a cell phone, 52transconductance, 244–245, 258transducers, of a cell phone, 59transimpedance amplifier, 244“The transistor, a semiconductor triode”, 83transistor food chain, 213transistor switches, on-off binary nature of, 460Transistor Three, 79, 84–85transistor-based electronics, combining MEMS

gadgets with, 287transistors, 469

acting as on-off switches, 145annual global production of, 2building, 196–201in cell phones, 61characteristics of, 459concept for improved, 85cost of, 18dealing with digital signals, 460described, 2discovery of, 2erasing from human civilization, 7exponential growth pattern, 15growth trend mechanics, 15history of, 70images of modern high-speed, 196, 197implementing Boolean logical functions, 462indispensable role in modern life, 27–28invention-discovery of, 79, 81–88number on Earth, 2performance, 398replica of the first, 3selecting for a given circuit, 259size of, 35speed limits of, 115speed of, 41steps to building, 200term coined by J. R. Pierce, 84the unique property of, 217usefulness of, 215–219viewing the guts of, 36, 39

Transit satellite navigation system, 311






490 Index

transmission bands, 43transmission electron microscopy (TEM)

techniques, 33transmission frequencies, used by GPS, 318transmission windows, 333transmitter-receiver, 52transportation, erasing transistors from, 8transport-enhanced devices, 267transverse electric field, 215trap states, 131trap-center G/R, 131–132Trek Technology, 140–141trench DRAM cell, 145, 147tribocharging, 256trigate MOSFETs, 400triode region, 251triple-point temperature, of water, 116Trojan horses, 445truncated icosahedron, buckyball as, 401truth table, 463–464TSOP (thin small-outline package), 203tumor cells, nanoparticles binding to, 412tumors, producing exceptional images of, 409–410tunable resistivity, 100tungsten (W), 194tungsten-halogen flash lamp, 178–179tunneling electrons, 33tunneling magnetoresistance (TMR), 414TV remote control, 341Twitter, 443two-axis MEMS accelerometers, 291, 292, 293two-way radios, 52, 53Tyndall, John, 379

Ultra-sharp 3D BioMEMS brain probe arrays, 301ultrasonic wave, 412ultraviolet waves, 42, 43unit cell, 103–104, 105universal distance-scale parameter, 34universal resource locators (URLs), 420, 422universal serial bus. See USB (universal serial bus)universal temperature-energy-scale parameter, 45Universal Time (UT), 316universal-time scale parameter, 40universe

age (in seconds) of, 40distance scale of, 33–35energy scale, 44–47frequency scale of, 41–43size of, 29–30speed limit of, 329temperature scale, 44–47time scale of, 39–41

up-conversion (IF-to-RF), 60URLs (universal resource locators), 420, 422U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), 95, 96USB (universal serial bus), 154, 155USB connector, 154, 155USB flash drive

described, 137–141integrated circuits (ICs) in, 153–155

invention of, 140–141nuts and bolts, 141–153

USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF), 156USB mass storage controller IC, 154USB Memory Key, 140USB plugs, 155USB ports, 141, 155USB versions, 156user communication equipment, 425user PCs, 425user segment, of GPS, 312, 315user services, 425USPTO (U.S. Patent and Trademark Office), 95, 96UTC (Coordinated Universal Time), 316Utility patents, 96UV light, in optical projection lithography, 190UV-cured acrylate, 376, 377

vacancies, 167vacuum tube, 73–77vacuum tube amplifiers, 76valence band, 107, 118

edge, 108offset, 263

Van Allen radiation belts, 309, 310vaporization temperature, 194VCSEL (vertical cavity surface emitting laser),

372, 373velocity saturation, in semiconductors, 256velocity-field characteristics, of Si, Ge, and GaAs,

125vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL),

372, 373via, 194vibrator, in a 3G cell phone, 59–60Victoria, Queen (1819–1901), 73virus construction and dissemination, 428visible light

as another form of electomagnetic (EM)radiation, 328

colors of, 331energies associated with, 332frequency range of, 41–42

visible spectrum, 42, 43, 331, 337VLSI (very large-scale integration), 469voice modulation, in a cell phone, 53volatile memory, 142, 145Volta, Alessandro, 70voltage (V), 99

across a solar cell, 347for an arbitrarily doped junction, 227described, 457measuring potential energy, 457of a point (node) in a circuit, 457–458with respect to ground, 458as signals, 11

voltage amplifier, 244voltage drop

across a junction, 226down a wire, 216at equilibrium, 227






491 Index

voltage reference, 459, 460volts (V), 457von Neumann, John, 367VTCs (voltage transfer characteristics), of a

CMOS inverter, 259

wafer fabrication process, 164wafers, 469

in microelectronics, 24patterns, 187size, 24slicing a boule into, 167

Wales, Jimmy, 444walkie-talkie, 53Walsh, John, 307Wang, Z. L., 408warm start, for a GPS unit, 316WASS-capable GPS receiver, 319water, triple-point temperature of, 116water-based analogy, on MOSFET output current,

254Watson, James, 437Watson, Thomas A., 52wave vector, of an electron, 108wavelength(s)

of an electron, 32equivalence with energy, 331–332relation to frequency, 330superposition of semiconductors, 336

wavelength semiconductor diode laser, 382, 383wavelength-division multiplexing, 378waves, frequency of, 41, 43WCDMA (wideband CDMA), 58weak nuclear force, 455weapons systems, GPS coordinates of targets, 308Web

compared to the Internet, 420, 422history of, 422–423

Web browser, 423Web pages, 423, 426Web servers, 425, 426Weber, Wilhelm, 70Weber’s constant, 330Western Electric, 89wet etching, 182–183, 284wet oxides, 179Wheatstone, Charles, 70white LEDs, 363white light, 362–363wideband CDMA (WCDMA), 58Wikimedia Foundation, 444Wikipedia (reference), 443, 444Wild Kingdom, 30wirebonding, 203–204wireless local-area network (WLAN), 43,

61wireless telephony, 72wiring, of transistors, 27World Wide Web project, 423writable memory, 142write laser, 382–383write time, of e-beam lithography,

191write-protect switch, 154WWW. See Web

X-Men transistors, 262x-rays, 42, 43

yield, 469YouTube, 443

zinc oxide (ZnO), 408zincblende lattice, 104Zulu (Z) time, 316zumo, 322–325






Index

Technology

g cell phone standard

g cell phone am1

d system

d lattice

d packaging

analog cellular standard

analog signals

analog circuitry