Hungarian Turanism

Hungarian Turanism

Hungarian Turanism (Hungarian: Turánizmus or Tu-ranizmus) is a loosely defined and diverse phenomenonamong the history of Hungarian ideas. It includes manydifferent conceptions and served as a guiding principlefor many political and scientific movements. It was mostlively in the second half of the 19th century and in the firsthalf of the 20th century. Hungarian Turanism is basedon the idea the Hungarians’ ancestral homeland was inAsia.[1] It became an extremist political ideology afterWorld War One.

“Géza, the faithful king of Tourkia (i.e. Hungary)" on the HolyCrown of Hungary, from the 11th century.

Before the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin,the Hungarians were (semi-)nomads[2] and their culturewas similar to other steppe peoples. Most scientists pre-sume a Uralic homeland for the ancient Hungarian con-querors (mainly on linguistic grounds, and on the basisof limited genetic research carried out on a very limitednumber of ancient skeletons found in graves from the ageof the conquest[3][4]). The proto-Hungarian tribes livedin the Eurasian forest steppe zone,[5] and so these ancientancestors of Hungarians and their relationship with otherequestrian nomadic peoples has been and still is a topicfor research.[6]

As a scientific movement, Turanism was concerned withresearch into Asian cultures in the context of Hungarianhistory and culture. It was embodied and represented bymany scholars who had shared premises (i.e. the Asianorigin of the Hungarians, and their kinship with Asian

peoples), and who arrived at the same or very similar con-clusions. Turanism was a driving force in the develop-ment of Hungarian social sciences, especially linguistics,archaeology and Orientalism.Political Turanism was born in the 19th century, in re-sponse to the growing influence of Pan-Germanism andPan-Slavism, seen by Hungarians as very dangerous tothe state and nation of Hungary, because the country hadlarge ethnic German and Slavic populations.[1] This po-litical ideology originated in the work of the Finnish na-tionalist and linguist Matthias Alexander Castrén, whochampioned the ideology of Pan-Turanism — the beliefin the racial unity and future greatness of the Ural-Altaicpeoples. He concluded that the Finns originated in Cen-tral Asia and far from being a small, isolated people, theywere part of a larger community that included such peo-ples as the Magyars, the Turks, and the Mongols etc.[7]

Political Turanism was a romantic nationalist movement,which stressed the importance of common ancestry andcultural affinity between Hungarians and the peoples ofthe Caucasus and Inner and Central Asia, such as theTurks, Mongols, Parsi etc. It called for closer collabora-tion and political alliance between them and Hungary, asa means of securing and furthering shared interests and tocounter the threats posed by the policies of the great pow-ers of Europe. The idea for a “Turanian brotherhood andcollaboration” was borrowed from the Pan-Slavic conceptof “Slavic brotherhood and collaboration”.[8]

After the First World War, political Turanism played arole in the formation of Hungarian far-right ideologiesbecause of its ethnic nationalist nature.[9][10] It began tocarry anti-Jewish sentiments and tried to show the “ex-istence and superiority of a unified Hungarian race”.[10]

Nonetheless, Andrew C. Janos asserts that Turanism’srole in the interwar development of far-right ideologieswas negligible.[11]

In the communist era after the Second World War, Tu-ranism was portrayed and vilified as an exclusively fascistideology.[12] Since the fall of communism in 1989 therehas been a renewal of interest in Turanism.

1 Its roots, origins, and develop-ment

1.1 The beginnings

Friedrich Max Müller, the German Orientalist and philol-

1

2 1 ITS ROOTS, ORIGINS, AND DEVELOPMENT

Friedrich Max Müller’s Northern Division of Turanian Lan-guages

ogist, published and proposed a new grouping of the non-Aryan and non-Semitic Asian languages in 1855. In hiswork “The languages of the seat of war in the East. Witha survey of the three families of language, Semitic, Ar-ian, and Turanian.” he called these languages “Turanian”.Müller divided this group into two subgroups, the South-ern Division, and the Northern Division. Hungarian lan-guage was classed by him as a member of this NorthernDivision, in the Finnic Class, in the Ugric Branch, withthe Voguls and Ugro-Ostiakes as closest relatives.[14] (Inthe long run, his theory proved unsound, but his NorthernDivision was renamed and re-classed as the Ural-Altaiclanguages.) His theory was well known and widely dis-cussed in international scientific circles, and was knownto Hungarian scientists as well. He was invited to Bu-dapest, the Hungarian capital, by Ármin Vámbéry, theOrientalist and Turkologist, in 1874, and become an as-sociate member of the Hungarian Aceademy of Sciences.His public lectures received wide attention, and his terms(originally borrowed by him from Persian texts like theShahnameh which used the term “Turan” to denote theterritories of Turkestan, north of Amu Darya river, in-habited by nomadic warriors) “Turan” and “Turanian”become denizens in Hungarian language as “Turán” and“turáni”. The meaning of these terms was never definedofficially. Vámbéry himself used “Turan” to denote the

areas of Eastern Balkan, Central and Inner Asia inhab-ited by Turkic peoples, and used “Turanian” to denotethose Turkic peoples and languages (and he meant theFinno-Ugric peoples and languages as the members ofthis group), which lived in or originated from this “Tu-ran” area. Hungarian scientists shared his definition. Butin common parlance these terms were used in many (andoften different) meanings and senses.Hungarians have had a thousand year old, and still liv-ing tradition about the Asian origins of Magyars. Thistradition was preserved in medieval chronicles (such asGesta Hungarorum[15] and Gesta Hunnorum et Hungaro-rum[16]) as early as the 13th century. This tradition servedas starting point for the scientific research of the ethno-genesis of Hungarian people, which began in the 18thcentury, in Hungary and abroad. Sándor Kőrösi Csoma(the writer of the first Tibetan-English dictionary) trav-eled to Asia in the strong belief that he could find the kin-dred of Magyars in Turkestan, amongst the Uyghurs.[17]

"...when Kőrösi set off for the search of the ancient home-land of Magyars and the 'left behind Magyars’, he consid-ered that he might find those somewhere in Central Asia,respectively amongst the Uighurs...”[18]

Vámbéry Ármin had the same motivation for his travelsto Asia and the Ottoman Empire."...from this came my hope, that with the help of com-parative linguistics I could find a ray of light in CentralAsia, which dispels the gloom over the dark corners ofHungarian prehistory...”"...következett tehát ebből az a reménységem, hogyKözépázsiában az összehasonlító nyelvtudomány segít-ségével világosságot vető sugarat lelhetek, mely eloszlatja ahomályt a magyar őstörténelem sötét tájairól....” in: Vám-béry Ármin: Küzdelmeim. Ch.IV. p. 62.[19]

The linguistic theories of the Dutch philosopher MarcusZuerius van Boxhorn and the German thinker GottfriedWilhelm Leibniz gave the real basis of the modern sci-entific research of the origin of the Hungarian languageand people. Boxhorn conjectured that the European andIndo-Iranian languages were all derived from a sharedancestor language, and he named this ancestor language“Scythian”, after the equestrian, nomadic warriors of theAsian steppes. But linguists theorizing about ancestorlanguages had to deal with the common belief of the era,that, according to the Bible, Hebrew was the original lan-guage of all humans. Leibniz published material counter-ing the Biblical theory, and supported Boxhorn’s notionof a Scythian ancestor language.“Information about hither-to unknown peoples and lan-guages of Asia and the Americas came into the hands ofscholars such as Gottfried Leibniz, who recognized thatthere was no better method “for specifying the relation-ship and origin of the various peoples of the earth, thanthe comparison of their languages”. In order to classifyas many languages as possible in genealogical groupings,

1.2 The role of the Habsburgs 3

Leibniz proposed that similar materials be collected fromeach newly described language. To this end he askedthat explorers either obtain translations of well-knownChristian prayers such as the Pater Noster, or, better yet,“words for common things” (vocabula rerum vulgarium),a sample list of which he appended to a letter to theTurkologist D. Podesta (Leibniz 1768/1989b).The wordlist included numerals, kinship terms, body parts, necessi-tates (food, drink, weapons,domestic animals), naturalia(God, celestial and weather phenomena, topographic fea-tures, wild animals) and a dozen verbs (eat, drink, speak,see …). Leibniz took a particular interest in the expan-sion of the Russian Empire southward and eastward, andlists based on his model were taken on expeditions sentby the tsars to study the territories recently brought un-der their control, as well as the peoples living on theseand on nearby lands.” Kevin Tuite: The rise and fall andrevival of the Ibero-Caucasian hypothesis. 2008. in: His-toriographia Linguistica, 35 #1; p. 23-82.Leibniz recognized that the Semitic languages such asHebrew and Arabic, and some European languages likeSami, Finnish, and Hungarian did not belong to the samelanguage family as most of the languages of Europe. Herecognized the connection between the Finnish languagesand Hungarian. He placed the original homeland of theHungarians to the Volga-Caspian Sea region.These theories had a great impact on the research of theorigins of the Hungarian language and the ethnogenesis ofHungarian nation. Both of the two main views/theoriesabout the origin of the Hungarian people and language,the one about the Turkic origin, and the other about theFinno-Ugric origin had their scientific roots in them.In fact, the Turkic theory matched the tradition (the Ges-tas) and historical sources (like the works of ConstantineVII and Leo VI the Wise) better, but the accountsand works of travelers like Swedish Philip Johan vonStrahlenberg (published in his work:" An historico-geographical description of the north and east parts ofEurope and Asia ") turned the attention to the “Finnish-Hungarian connection”.[20]

The followers of the “Turkist” and “Ugrist” theories livedtogether peacefully, and the theories were refined as sci-ence developed. (In fact the two theories converged, aslinguists, like Rasmus Christian Rask, Wilhelm Schott(1802-1889) and Matthias Castrén recognized the sim-ilarities and connection between Finn-Ugric and Altaiclanguages. The German linguist and Orientalist Schottwas a proponent of Finn-Turk-Hungarian kinship, andconsidered the Hungarians a mixture of Turks and Hyper-boreans / i.e. Saami, Samoyed etc. /.[21]) The discourseremained fully scientific up until the Hungarian Revolu-tion of 1848 and the 1848-49 War of Independence butafter the bitter experiences of the war and the defeat ev-erything got political overtones."... the Sun went down into a sea of blood. The nightof immeasurable grief fell on Hungary; her noblest pow-

Philipp Johann von Strahlenberg about the kinship of Finnishand Hungarian language, in his book “An historico-geographicaldescription of the north and east parts of Europe and Asia” 1738.London.

ers were broken. Even the gates of scientific institutionsbecame closed...”"...a Nap vértengerbe áldozott le. Magyarországra amérhetetlen gyásznak éjszakája borult; legnemesebb erőitörve voltak. Még a tudományos intézetek kapui is bezárul-tak...” in: Herman Ottó: Petényi J. S. a magyar tu-dományos madártan megalapítója. p. 39.[22]

1.2 The role of the Habsburgs

Hungary’s constitution and her territorial integrity wereabolished, and her territory was partitioned into crownlands. This signalled the start of a long era of absolutistrule. The Habsburgs introduced dictatorial rule, and ev-ery aspect of Hungarian life was put under close scrutinyand governmental control. Press and theatrical/publicperformances were censored.[23][24]

German became the official language of public admin-istration. The edict issued on 1849.X.9. (Grundsätzefür die provisorische Organisation des Unterrichtswesensin dem Kronlande Ungarn), placed education under statecontrol, the curriculum was prescribed and controlled bythe state, the education of national history was confined,and history was educated from a Habsburg viewpoint.[25]

Even the bastion of Hungarian culture, the Academy

4 1 ITS ROOTS, ORIGINS, AND DEVELOPMENT

was kept under control: the institution was staffed withforeigners, mostly Germans and ethnic Germans, andthe institution was practically defunct until the end of1858.[26][27][28] Hungarians responded with passive resis-tance. Questions of nation, language, national origin be-came politically sensitive matters. Anti-Habsburg andanti-German sentiments were strong. A large numberof freedom fighters took refuge in the Ottoman Empire.This resulted in renewed cultural exchange, and mutualsympathy. Turks were seen by many as good allies ofthe Hungarian cause. Such was the atmosphere, whenVámbéry traveled to Constantinople in 1857 for the firsttime.[17]

“It should happen and it will happen - I encouraged myselfwith this, and did not hurt me other problems, just thisone: how could I get a passport from the strict and suspi-cious Austrian authorities, and exactly to Turkey, wherethe Hungarian emigration resided, and, as was believedin Vienna, made rebellious plans tirelessly.”"Mennie kell és menni fog, - ezzel biztattam magam ésnem bántott más gond, csak az az egy: hogy mi úton-módon kaphatok útlevelet a szigorú és gyanakvó osztrákhatóságtól; hozzá még épen Törökországba, hol akkor amagyar emigráczió tartotta székét és, mint Bécsben hitték,pártütő terveket sző fáradhatatlanúl." in: Vámbéry Ár-min: Küzdelmeim. Ch. IV. p. 42.[19]

And this atmosphere granted public interest for the thennew theory of Max Müller. The Habsburg governmentsaw this “Turkism” as dangerous to the empire, but hadno means to suppress it. (The Habsburg Empire lostlarge territories in the early 19th century /Flanders andLuxembourg/, and lost most of its Italian holdings a lit-tle later, so many members of the Austrian politicalelite (Franz Joseph I of Austria himself, Archduke Al-brecht, Duke of Teschen, major general Ferdinand FranzXaver Johann Freiherr Mayerhofer von Grünbühel forexample)[29]) dreamed about Eastern land grabs.[30][31])As a consequence of the Franco-Austrian War and theAustro-Prussian War, the Habsburg Empire was on theverge of collapse in 1866, because these misfortunatemilitary endeavours resulted in increased state spend-ing, speeding inflation, towering state debts and financialcrisis.[32]

The Habsburgs were forced to reconcile with Hungary,to save their empire and dynasty. The Habsburgs andpart of the Hungarian political elite arranged the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, despite the fact that theoverwhelming majority of the populace wanted full in-dependence. The Compromise was arranged and legiti-mated by a very small part of the Hungarian society (suf-frage was very limited: less than 8 percent of the pop-ulation had voting rights), and was seen by a very largepart of the population as betrayal of the Hungarian causeand the heritage of the 1848-49 War of Independence.This caused deep and lasting cracks in Hungarian soci-ety. Academic science remained under state scrutiny and

Vámbéry Ármin about Turanian peoples in his “Vámbéry Árminvázlatai Közép-Ázsiából. Ujabb adalékok az oxusmelléki orszá-gok népismereti, társadalmi és politikai viszonyaihoz.” 1868. Pest

pressure, and press remained under (albeit more permis-sive) censorship. Matters of nation, language, nationalorigin remained politically sensitive themes, and Turkismremained popular.“However, to get the Compromise accepted within the so-ciety posed serious difficulties. Many counties (for exam-ple Heves, Pest, Szatmár) rejected the Compromise andstood up for Kossuth, the opposition organized a networkof Democratic circles, on the Great Hungarian Plain anti-government and anti-Compromise demonstrations of sev-eral thousand men took place, etc. The government, sus-pending its liberal principles, decided to take firm countermoves: imprisoned László Böszörményi who publishedthe Kossuth letters, banned the Democratic circles, senta royal commissioner to the most resistant Heves County.The stabilization of the system and the admittance of newpolitical institutions, however, still dragged on for years.”"Viszont a kiegyezés elfogadtatása a társadalommal,komoly nehézségekbe ütközött. Több megye (példáulHeves, Pest, Szatmár) elutasította a kiegyezést és kiálltKossuth mellett, az ellenzék megszervezte a demokratakörök hálózatát, az Alföldön többezres kormány- éskiegyezés-ellenes népgyűlésekre került sor stb. A ko-rmány, felfüggesztve liberális elveit, határozott ellen-lépésekre szánta el magát: bebörtönözte a Kossuth leveleit

1.4 The “Ugric-Turkic War” 5

közlő Böszörményi Lászlót, betiltotta a demokrata köröket,a leginkább ellenálló Heves megyébe pedig királyi biz-tost küldött. A rendszer stabilizálása és az új politikai in-tézmények elfogadása azonban még így is évekig elhúzó-dott." in: Cieger András: Kormány a mérlegen - a múltszázadban.[33]

1.3 Ármin Vámbéry’s work

Vámbéry started his second journey into Asia in July1861 with the approval and monetary help of theAkadémia and its president, Emil Dessewffy. After along and perilous journey he arrived at Pest in May 1864.He went to London to arrange the English language pub-lication of his book about the travels. “Travels in Cen-tral Asia” and its Hungarian counterpart “Közép-ázsiaiutazás” were published in 1865. Thanks to his trav-els Vámbéry became an internationally renowned writerand celebrity. He became acquainted with members ofBritish social elite. The Ambassador of Austria in Lon-don gave him a letter of recommendation to the Emperor,who received him in an audience and rewarded Vám-béry’s international success by granting him professorshipin the Royal University of Pest.[19]

Vámbéry published his “Vámbéry Ármin vázlatai Közép-Ázsiából. Ujabb adalékok az oxusmelléki országok népis-mereti, társadalmi és politikai viszonyaihoz.” in 1868.Perhaps this was the first instance of the use of the word“turáni” in a Hungarian language scientific text.At the beginning of Hungarian Turanism, some of itsnotable promoters and researchers, like Ármin Vám-béry, Vilmos Hevesy,[34][35] (Also known as Wilhelm vonHevesy(1877-1945) He was the older brother of GyörgyHevesy, and an electrical engineer by profession, althoughhe was kind of a Finno-Ugrist publishing books andother writings about the Finno-Ugric-Munda kinship, like“Munda-Magyar-Maori, an Indian link between the an-tipodes new tracks of Hungarian origins” and “Finnisch-Ugrisches aus Indien” in the 1920s and 30’s.[36]) and IgnácGoldziher[37][38] were Jewish or of Jewish descent (Vám-béry was neither proud nor ashamed of his Jewish ances-try, he became a member of the Reformed Church, andconsidered himself Hungarian).Vámbéry was a key figure in the development of Tu-ranism, and in the development of the “scientific con-sciousness” of the general public. He was a talentedwriter: he presented serious scientific matters in an inter-esting, readable manner. His enjoyable books and otherwritings, presenting customs, traditions and culture offar-flung peoples and faraway places were key in raisingwide public interest in ethnography, ethnology and his-tory. In fact, the power of his books, coupled with thewidespread disillusionment about the political elite turnedpublic attention to the lower classes and peasantry, as bet-ter heirs and keepers of real Hungarian legacy.(The ne-ologists of the first half of the 19th century had turned

towards folklore, myths, ballads and tales in their searchof a new national literary style, but had not had interestin other aspects of rural peasant life.)Vámbéry’s later work, entitled “Magyar és török-tatárszóegyezések.”[39] and published in 1869-70, was the ca-sus belli of the “Ugor-török háború" (“Ugric-Turk War”),which started as a scientific dispute, but quickly turnedinto a long-lasting (it raged for two decades) bitter feud.In this work Vámbéry tried to prove with the help of wordcomparisons, that as a result of intermingling of the earlyHungarians with Turkic peoples, the Hungarian languagegot a distinct dual (Ugric AND Turkic) character, albeitit is basically Ugric in origin, so he presented a variant oflinguistic contact theory."...the Hungarian language is Ugric in its origin, but be-cause the nations later contact and historical transforma-tion it is equally Ugric and Turkic in character...”"...a magyar nyelv eredetében ugor, de a nemzet későbbiérintkezése és történeti átalakulásánál fogva egyformánugor és török jellemű...” in: Vámbéry Ármin: Magyar éstörök-tatár szóegyezések. p. 120.

1.4 The “Ugric-Turkic War”

“The fight, which my fanatical opponents, regrettably,brought over also to the field of personal remarks, lastedquite a long time, but the old Latin proverb was provenonce again: Philologi certant, tamen sub judice lis.”"A küzdelem, melyet fanatikus ellenfeleim, sajnos, átvitteka személyeskedés terére is, eltartott jó sokáig, de ezúttal isbevált a régi diák közmondás: Philologi certant, tamen subjudice lis." in: Vámbéry Ármin: Küzdelmeim. Ch. IX. p.130.[19]

Vámbéry’s work was criticized by Finno-Ugrist JózsefBudenz in “Jelentés Vámbéry Ármin magyar-török szóe-gyezéséről.”, published in 1871. Budenz criticised Vám-béry and his work in an aggressive, derogatory style, andquestioned Vámbéry’s (scientific) honesty and credibility.(Budenz’s work was investigated and analysed by a groupof modern linguists, and they found it neither as scien-tific nor as conclusive in the question of the affiliation ofHungarian language, as the author stated.)[40]

The historian Henrik Marczali, linguist Károly Pozder,linguist József Thúry, anthropologist Aurél Török, andothers supported Vámbéry.[1][41][42][43]

The Finn-Ugrist Pál Hunfalvy widened the front ofthe “Ugric-Turk War” with his book “Magyarországethnographiája.”,[44] published in 1876. In this book hestresses the very strong connection between language andnation (p. 48.), tries to prove that the Huns were Finn-Ugric (p. 122.), questions the credibility and origin ofthe Gestas (p. 295.), concludes that the Huns, Bulgarsand Avars were Ugric (p. 393.), mentions, that the Jewsare more prolific than other peoples, so the quickly grow-

6 1 ITS ROOTS, ORIGINS, AND DEVELOPMENT

ing number of them presents a real menace for the nation(p. 420.), and stresses what an important and eminentrole the Germans played in the development of Hungar-ian culture and economy (p. 424.).In his work titled “Vámbéry Ármin: A magyarok ere-dete. Ethnologiai tanulmány.”,[45] and published in 1882,Vámbéry went a step further, and presented a newer ver-sion of his theory, in which he claimed that Hungariannation and language are basically Turkic in origin, andthe Finn-Ugric element in them is a result of later contactand intermingling."...I see a compound people in Hungarians, in which notthe Finn-Ugric, but the Turkic-Tatar component gives thetrue core...”"...a magyarban vegyülék népet látok, a melyben nemfinn-ugor, hanem török-tatár elem képezi a tulajdonképenimagvat...” in: Vámbéry Ármin: A magyarok eredete.Ethnologiai tanulmány. Preface. p. VI.Vámbéry’s work was criticized heavily by his Finno-Ugrist opponents. This critique gave rise to the ever-circling myth of the “fish-smelling kinship” and its vari-ants. It should be noted, that no one of the authorshas ever given the written source/base of this accusationagainst the Turanist scientists. In fact no Turanist scientistwrote such things about the Finn-Ugric peoples. In realityit was coined by the Finno-Ugrist Ferdinánd Barna, in hiswork “Vámbéry Ármin A magyarok eredete czímű művenéhány főbb állításának bírálata.” published in 1884. Inthis work Barna called the Finn-Ugric peoples “a petty,fish fat eating people spending their woeful lives with fish-and easel-catching”. Perhaps this was a Freudian slip.The “Ugric-Turkic War” was never closed properly. Thisforced scientists to try to harmonize and synthesize thediffering theories somehow. This resulted in the devel-opment of a complex national mythology. This combinedthe Asian roots and origins of Magyars with their Euro-pean present. Turanism got a new meaning: it became thegiven name of a variant of Orientalism, which researchedAsia and its culture in context of Hungarian history andculture.Turanism was a driving force in the development of Hun-garian social sciences, especially linguistics, ethnogra-phy, history, archaeology, and Orientalism, and in thedevelopment of Hungarian arts, from architecture to ap-plied and decorative arts. Turanist scientists greatly con-tributed to the development of Hungarian and interna-tional science and arts.This is a short list of Turkist/Turanist scientists andartists, who have left a lasting legacy in Hungarian cul-ture:

• Ármin Vámbéry (1832-1913) was the founding fa-ther of Hungarian Turkology. He founded Europe’sfirst Turcology department at the Royal Universityof Pest (present day Eötvös Loránd University). He

The origin of 'fish fat smelling kinship' in the work of the Finn-Ugrist Barna Ferdinánd, titled “Vámbéry Ármin A magyarokeredete czímű műve néhány főbb állításának bírálata.” publishedin 1884.

was a member of the MTA (Hungarian Academy ofSciences).

• János Arany (1817-1882), poet, writer of a largecorpus of poems about Hungarian historical past.He supported Vámbéry in the “Ugric-Turkic War”.He was a member and secretary general of the MTA.

• Ferenc Pulszky (1814-1897), archaeologist, art his-torian. He was a member of the MTA and the di-rector of Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum (Hungarian Na-tional Museum).[46] He supported Vámbéry in the“Ugric-Turkic War”.

• Alajos Paikert (1866-1948) Was the founding fatherof the “Magyar Mezőgazdasági Múzeum” (Museumof Hungarian Agriculture), and one of the foundersof the Turan Society.

• Béla Széchenyi (1837-1918), traveler and explorerof Asia.[47] He was a member of the MTA.

• Jenő Zichy (1837-1906), traveler and explorer ofAsia.[48] He was a member of the MTA.

• Géza Nagy (1855-1915), archaeologist,ethnographer.[17][49] He was a member of theMTA.

1.4 The “Ugric-Turkic War” 7

• Henrik Marczali (1856-1940), historian.[17] He wasa member of the MTA.

• Sándor Márki (1853-1925), historian.[17] He was amember of the MTA.

• Lajos Lóczy (1849-1920), geologist, geographer.[17]

He was a member of the MTA.

• Jenő Cholnoky (1870-1950), geographer.[17] Hewas a member of the MTA.

• Vilmos Pröhle (1871-1946), Orientalist, linguist,one of the first researchers of Chinese and Japaneselanguage and literature in Hungary.[17][50]

• Benedek Baráthosi Balogh (1870-1945), Oriental-ist, ethnographer, traveler.[51]

• Gyula Sebestyén (1864-1946), folklorist,ethnographer.[17] He was a member of theMTA.

• Ferenc Zajti (1886-1961), Orientalist, painter. Hewas the warden/curator of the Oriental Collectionof the Fővárosi Könyvtár (“Library of the Capital”in English, the present day Fővárosi Szabó ErvinKönyvtár). He was the founder of the Magyar In-diai Társaság ( Hungarian India Society). He ar-ranged Rabindranáth Tagore’s visit to Hungary in1926.[52][53]

• József Huszka (1854-1934), art teacher,ethnographer.[17]

• Aladár Körösfői-Kriesch (1863-1920), painter,sculptor, artisan, art theorist, one of the founders ofthe Gödöllő artists’ colony, a leading figure of theHungarian Arts & Crafts movement.[17]

• Ödön Lechner (1845-1914), architect, who createda new national architectural style from the elementsof Hungarian folk art, Persian, Sassanian and Indianart.[17]

• Károly Kós (1883-1977), architect, writer, graphicartist, a leading figure of the Hungarian Arts &Crafts movement.[17]

The idea of a Hungarian Oriental Institute originatedfrom Jenő Zichy.[54] Unfortunately, this idea did not cometrue. Instead, a kind of lyceum was formed in 1910,called “Turáni Társaság” (The Hungarian Turan Society(also called The Hungarian Asiatic Society)). The Tu-ran society concentrated on Turan as geographic locationwhere the ancestors of Hungarians might had lived.“The goal of Turanian Society is the cultural and eco-nomic progress, confederation, flourishment of all Tura-nians, i.e. the Hungarian nation and all kindred Europeanand Asian nations, furthermore the geographical, ethno-graphical, economical etc. research of the Asian conti-nent, past and present. Political and religious issues are

Aladár Körösfői-Kriesch: “Circle Dance of Shamans” 1911.Marosvásárhely, Kulturpalota

excluded. It wishes to accomplish its objectives in agree-ment with non-Turanian nations.”"Turáni Társaság célja az egész turánság, vagyis a magyarnemzet és a velünk rokon többi európai és ázsiai népek kul-turális és gazdasági előrehaladása, tömörülése, erősödése,úgymint az ázsiai kontinens földrajzi, néprajzi, gazdaságistb. kutatása múltban és jelenben. Politikai és felekezetikérdések kizártak. Céljait a nem turáni népekkel egyetértveóhajtja elérni."[55]

The scholars of the Turan society interpreted the ethnicand linguistic kinship and relations between Hungariansand the so-called Turanian peoples on the basis of thethen prevailing Ural-Altaic linguistic theory. The So-ciety arranged Turkish, Finnish and Japanese languagecourses. The Turan Society arranged and funded five ex-peditions into Asia till 1914.(The Mészáros-Milleker ex-pedition, the Timkó expedition, the Milleker expedition,the Kovács-Holzwarth expedition, and the Sebők-Schutzexpedition.) The Society held public lectures regularly.Lecturers included `Abdu'l-Bahá[56] and Shuho Chiba.[57]

After the outbreak of First World War politics ensnarledthe work of the Society. In 1916, the Turan Societywas redressed into the “Magyar Keleti Kultúrközpont”(Hungarian Eastern Cultural Centre), and direct govern-mental influence over its operation grew.[1][58] The defeatin the First World War, and the following revolutionarymovements and Entente occupation of the country dis-rupted the operation of the Eastern Cultural Centre, soreal work began only in 1920. But the organisation wassplit into three that year, because of pronounced internalideological stresses. Those who wanted a more scincelikeapproach formed the “Kőrösi Csoma-Társaság” (KőrösiCsoma Society). The more radical political turanists leftthe Turan Society, and formed the “Magyarországi TuránSzövetség” (Turan Federation of Hungary).In 1920, Archduke Joseph Francis of Austria (ArchdukeJoseph Francis Habsburg) became the first patron of theHungarian Turan Society[59]

8 2 POLITICAL TURANISM

Archduke Joseph Francis Habsburg, the first patron of the Hun-garian Turan Society

2 Political Turanism

Hungarians and their ancestors lived amongst or in di-rect contact with Turanian/Turkic peoples from time im-memorial to 1908. (A common Hungarian-Turkish bor-der ceased to exist after 1908, in the wake of the annexa-tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the evacuation of theSanjak of Novibazar.) These peoples played an eminentrole in the birth and formation of Hungarian people, lan-guage, culture, state and nation. During the ethnogenesisof Hungarian people Kabar, Jász (Alan), Avar, Bulgar,Besenyő (Pecheneg), Kun (Cuman) tribes and populationfragments merged and amalgamated into the Hungarianpopulation.Hungary warred with the Ottoman Empire for centuries.As a result of a discord of succession Hungary brokeup into three parts in the 16th century: one was underHabsburg rule, one became part of the Ottoman Empire(1541.VIII.29.), and the third formed the “keleti MagyarKirályság” (Eastern Hungarian Kingdom)/ “Erdélyi Fe-jedelemség” (Principality of Transylvania). Erdély be-came an ally of the Ottomans (1528.II. 29.).[61] The in-tensive everyday contacts in the one and a half centuriesthat followed resulted in pronounced Ottoman Turkish in-fluence on Hungarian art and culture from music to jew-ellery and clothing, from agriculture to warfare. In thelast third of the 17th century strife intensified betweenthe Ottomans and the Habsburgs. The main scene of

these power struggles was the territory of Hungary. TheOttoman attempts at further territorial expansion failedin the end and the Habsburgs reconquered the Hungar-ian territories. But there was a conflict in the circles ofHungarian political elite: many members of it were un-willing to swap the Ottoman alliance for direct Habsburgrule. A large group aspired for full independence, butfelt Turkish dependence more amenable than Habsburgreign. Thököly’s liberation movement and Rákóczi’s Warof Independence meant the climax of this Turkism. So,as one can see, Turkish orientation had a long tradition inHungary.Turkism was reborn in the wake of the 1848-49 War ofIndependence. During the war Hungary was attacked bythe Habsburgs, and many of her ethnic minorities turnedagainst the country. Serious clashes occurred betweenthe Hungarians and the Vlachs of Eastern Hungary andthe Serbs of the South. There were serious atrocitiesagainst ethnic Hungarians; these events are rememberedas “oláhjárások” and “rácjárások” ("Vlach rampages” and"Rascian rampages”).[62] Hungary was defeated with thehelp of Russian military intervention.These painful events and experiences changed Hungari-ans’ attitudes profoundly: They began to feel themselvesinsecure and endangered in their own home. From thistime on, Pan-Slavism and Pan-Germanism were seen asserious threats to the existence of Hungary and Hungar-ians. Hungarians looked for allies and friends to securetheir position. They turned towards the rivals of the Hab-sburgs - to Turkey, to the Italians, even to the Prussians- for support and help. Hungarians were interested in astable, strong and friendly Turkey, capable of preventingRussian and/or Habsburg expansion in the Balkans.Hungarian political movements and attempts to regainindependence proved unfruitful. At the same time, theHabsburgs were unable to acquire the leading position ofthe German union, and Germany became united underPrussian rule. The Habsburgs took their empire to theverge of collapse with a series of miscalculated politicaland military moves. This led to the Austro-HungarianCompromise of 1867. The Hungarian supporters of theCompromise have argued that the already weakened Aus-tria is no longer a threat to the Hungarians, but can helpprevent Slavic expansion.Despite the Compromise, the Hungarians were ambiva-lent towards these old-new Austrian allies.“If the balance of opinion in Hungary were always deter-mined by sober political calculation, this brave and in-dependent people, isolated in the broad ocean of Slavpopulations, and comparatively insignificant in numbers,would remain constant to the conviction that its positioncan only be secured by the support of the German elementin Austria and Germany. But the Kossuth episode, andthe suppression in Hungary itself of the German elementsthat remained loyal to the Empire, with other symptomsshowed that among Hungarian hussars and lawyers self-

9

confidence is apt in critical moments to get the better ofpolitical calculation and self-control. Even in quiet timesmany a Magyar will get the gypsies to play to him thesong, 'Der Deutsche ist ein Hundsfott' ('The German isa blackguard').” Bismarck, Otto von: Bismarck, the manand the statesman: being the reflections and reminiscencesof Otto, Prince von Bismarck. 1898. Vol. II. p. 255-256.[63]

In the half-century prior to the First World War, someHungarians encouraged Turanism as a means of unit-ing Turks and Hungarians against the perils posed bythe Slavs and Pan-Slavism. However Pan-Turanism wasnever more than an outrider to the more prevalent Pan-Turkist movement.[64] Turanism helped in the creation ofthe important Turkish-Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian-Austro-Hungarian military and strategic alliances.The movement received impetus after Hungary’s defeatin World War I. Under the terms of the Treaty of Trianon(1920.VI.4.), the new Hungarian state constituted only32,7 percent of the territory of historic, pre-treaty Hun-gary, and lost 58,4 percent of its total population. Morethan 3,2 million ethnic Hungarians, one-third of all Hun-garians resided outside the new boundaries of Hungary,in the successor states, under oppressive conditions. OldHungarian cities of great cultural importance like Poz-sony, Kassa, Kolozsvár were lost. Under these circum-stances no Hungarian government could survive withoutseeking justice for Magyars and Hungary. Reuniting theMagyars became a crucial point in public life and on thepolitical agenda. Public sentiment became strongly anti-Western, anti-French, and anti-British. Outrage led manyto reject Europe and turn towards the East in search ofnew friends and allies in a bid to revise the terms of thetreaty and restore Hungarian power.“Disappointment towards Europe caused by 'the betrayalof the West in Trianon', and the pessimistic feeling ofloneliness, led different strata in society towards Tu-ranism. They tried to look for friends, kindred peoplesand allies in the East so that Hungary could break out ofits isolation and regain its well deserved position amongthe nations. A more radical group of conservative, rightistpeople, sometimes even with an anti-Semitic hint propa-gated sharply anti-Western views and the superiority ofEastern culture, the necessity of a pro-Eastern policy,and development of the awareness of Turanic racialismamong Hungarian people.” in: Uhalley, Stephen and Wu,Xiaoxin eds.: China and Christianity. Burdened Past,Hopeful Future. 2001. p. 219.[65]

Turanism never became official, because it was out ofaccord with the ideological background of the regime.But it was used by the government as an informal toolto break the country’s international isolation, and buildalliances. Hungary signed treaties of friendship and col-laboration with the Republic of Turkey in 1923,[66] withthe Republic of Estonia in 1937,[67] with the Republic ofFinland in 1937,[68] with Japan in 1938,[69] with Bulgaria

in 1941.[70]

In Transylvania, “Turanist ethnographers and folkloristsprivileged the peasants’ cultural 'uniqueness’, locating acultural essence of Magyarness in everything from fish-ing hooks and methods of animal husbandry to ritual folksongs, archaic, 'individualistic' dances, spicy dishes andsuperstitions.”[71] According to the historian KrisztiánUngváry “With the awakening of Hungarian nationalismat the beginning of the 20th century, the question becametopical again. The elite wanted to see itself as a militarynation.The claims of certain linguistic researchers regard-ing the Finno-Ugric relationship were therefore stronglyrejected, because many found the idea that their nationwas related to a peaceful farming people (the Finns) asinsulting...The extremist Turanians insisted on “ties of an-cestry” with the Turkish peoples, Tibet, Japan and eventhe Sumerians, and held the view that Jesus was not a Jewbut a Hungarian or a “noble of Parthia”.”[72]

3 Turanism and Hungarian fas-cism

The leader of the Hungarian fascist Arrow Cross Party,Ferenc Szálasi, believed in the existence of a dis-tinct Turanid Hungarian race (which included JesusChrist). The idea was a key part of his ideology of“Hungarism”.[73]

In Hungary some fascists (and non-fascists) tried to linkthe ancestors of the Hungarians to Timur, the Ottomansand Japan, which some Hungarians of the 1930s de-scribed as the 'other sword of Turan' (the first sword beingHungary).

4 Turanist belief-systems after1989

4.1 Christian Turanists

A Hungarian non-commissioned officer Ferenc JósBadiny wrote his book ( Jézus Király, a pártus herceg)“King Jesus, the Parthian prince”, where he inventedthe theory of Jesus the Parthian warrior prince. ManyChristian Hungarian Turanists held the view that JesusChrist was not a Jew but a proto-Hungarian or a “no-ble of Parthia”.[72] The theory of “Jesus, the Parthianprince” are such, or the revivification of real or supposedelements of priest-magicians of ancient “magic” Middle-Eastern world, shamanism, and pagan ancient Hungarianreligion. Also some muslim Turkish Turanists held theview that Muhammad was not an Arab but a Sumerian,and Sumerians are Turanid according to Turanist theses.It is an opportunity for the Christian Turanists to linkJesus Christ to the ancient middle-eastern mystery and

10 6 REFERENCES

Jesus Christ as Parthian-Hungarian warrior prince

the ancient pagan Hungarian beliefs. Both Catholic andProtestant religious leaders of Hungary acted against thistheory and beliefs.[75]

The right-wing Jobbik party and its president Gábor Vonaare uncompromising supporters of Turanism and Pan-Turkism (The ideology of Jobbik considers Hungariansas a Turkic nation.)[76]

4.2 The Habsburg conspiracy theory

The Habsburg conspiracy theory is very popular amongstpolitical Turanists, which was invented only in the1970s.[77] According to the myth, the Habsburgs enviedthe glorius Turanian past and “ancestry” of the Hungar-ian nation, therefore Habsburgs created a plan to hideit from the Hungarian and European public opinion. Inthe reality, it was Emperor Francis Joseph who used hispolitical prestige to give a university cathedra (as pro-fessor) for Ármin Vámbéry, the leaders of Hungarianturanists.[78][79]

4.3 Kurultáj

See also: Kurultai

The Kurultáj is a tribal assembly based on the commonheritage of the peoples of Central Asian nomadic origin.

(Azerbaijani, Bashkirs, Bulgarians, Buryats, Chuvash,Gagauz, Hungarians, Karachays, Karakalpaks, Kaza-khs, Kyrgyz, Nogai, Tatars, Turks, Turkmen, Uighurs,Üzbeks, Yakuts etc.) It is also a popular tourist attractionin Hungary (from late 2000s) and Central Asia. The firstKurultáj was in Kazakhstan in 2007 and the last one wasorganized in 2014 at Bugac, Hungary.[80][81]

In the 1990s a well developed souvenir and merchandisebusiness has grown around Turanism, traditionalist andhistorical reenactment groups, which is quite similar toother well known international examples of business ofthis kind. According to the opinion of Hungarian re-searcher Igaz Levente this merchandise industry grownaround modern Hungarian Turanism became a kind ofbusiness, which he called “Szittya biznisz” (Scythian busi-ness), and it has not got much to do with ancient Hungar-ian traditions.[82]

5 See also

• Curse of Turan

• Pál Teleki

• Turanism (similar Turkic ideology)

• Hungarian neopaganism

• Ármin Vámbéry

• Ignác Goldziher

6 References[1] “FARKAS Ildikó: A magyar turanizmus török kapcsolatai

(“The Turkish connections of Hungarian Turanism”)".www.valosagonline.hu [Valóság (2013 I.-IV)]. 2013. Re-trieved 7 March 2014.

[2] GYÖRFFY György: István király és műve. 1983. Gon-dolat Könyvkiadó, Budapest, p. 252.

[3] KOVÁCSNÉ CSÁNYI Bernadett: Honfoglalás kori,valamint magyar és székely populációk apai ágigenetikai kapcsolatrendszerének vizsgálata. http://www2.sci.u-szeged.hu/fokozatok/PDF/Kovacsne_Csanyi_Bernadett/tezisfuzet_magyar_csanyiB.pdf

[4] MENDE Balázs Gusztáv: Archeogenetika és a hon-foglalás kor népességtörténete: új módszer – régi prob-lémák. http://www.matud.iif.hu/08okt/03.html

[5] HAJDÚ Péter: Ancient culture of the Uralian peoples,Corvina, 1976, p. 134

[6] ZIMONYI István: A magyarság korai történeténeksarokpontjai. Elméletek az újabb irodalom tükrében.2012. http://real-d.mtak.hu/597/7/dc_500_12_doktori_mu.pdf

11

[7] EB on Matthias Alexander Castrén. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98799/Matthias-Alexander-Castren

[8] http://www.britannica.com/bps/search?query=turanism

[9] Traian Sandu, Vers un profil convergent des fascismes ?:“Nouveau consensus” et religion politique en Europe cen-trale, Editions L'Harmattan,2010, p. 213

[10] "...In addition, as the cornerstone for racial nationalism,Hungarian “Turanism” came into being. This pseudo-scientific ideology strove to prove the existence and su-periority of a unified Hungarian “race” and therefore in-evitably incorporated an anti-Jewish aspect.” in: ZoltánVÁGI, László CSŐSZ, Gábor KÁDÁR: The Holocaust inHungary: Evolution of a Genocide. p.XXXIV.

[11] “While Turanism was and remained little more than afringe ideology of the Right, the second orientation of thenational socialists, pan-Europaism, had a number of ad-herents, and was adopted as the platform of several na-tional socialist groups.” JANOS, Andrew C.: The Politicsof Backwardness in Hungary, 1825-1945. 1982. p.275.

[12] "Magyarországon az 1944-ben uralomra jutott Nemzetszo-cialista Párt több tételt átvett a turanizmus eszmeköréből,aminek következtében a turanizmus népszerűségeerősen lecsökkent, majd a szocializmusban „fasisztává”minősült."/"In Hungary the Nationsocialist Party whichascended to power in 1944, took over several thesesfrom Turanism’s range of ideas, and as a result thepopularity of Turanism strongly dwindled, and thenin the socialist era it was labelled as “fascist”."/ in:“turanizmus”. lexikon.katolikus.hu [Magyar KatolikusLexikon (Hungarian Catholic Lexicon)]. Retrieved 7March 2014.

[13] KATIČIĆ, Radoslav: A contribution to the general theoryof comparative linguistics. 1970. p.10.

[14] MÜLLER, Friedrich Max: The languages of the seat ofwar in the East. With a survey of the three familiesof language, Semitic, Arian and Turanian. 1855.https://archive.org/details/languagesseatwa00mlgoog

[15] Anonymus: Gesta Hungarorum. http://mek.oszk.hu/02200/02245/02245.htm

[16] Kézai Simon mester Magyar krónikája. http://mek.oszk.hu/02200/02249/02249.htm

[17] Magyar Életrajzi Lexikon. http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/index.html

[18] "...amikor Kőrösi elindult a magyarok őshazájátés a ‘hátramaradt magyarokat’ megkeresni,úgy vélte, azokra valahol Közép-Ázsiában, il-letve az ujgurok között bukkanhat rá...”http://csoma.mtak.hu/hu/csoma-elete.htm

[19] VÁMBÉRY Ármin: Küzdelmeim. 1905. http://mek.oszk.hu/03900/03975/03975.pdf

[20] STRAHLENBERG, Philipp Johann von: An historico-geographical description of the north and east partsof Europe and Asia http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/010825073

[21] " Die Stammväter der Magyaren in Ungarn waren, wie dieGeschichte leise andeutet und der Ur-Kern ihrer Sprachezu bestätigen scheint, ein Gemisch von Türken und Hyper-boreern. Ihre häufigen Wanderungen hatten noch fernereAmalgamation mit Indo-Germanischen Völkern zu Folge,und so entwickelte sich der heutige Ungar, aus mancher-lei Völker-Elementen eben so geläutert und männlichschön hervorgegangen, wie sein heutiger Nachbar und Ur-Verwandter, der Osmane. " SCHOTT, Wilhelm: Versuchüber die Tatarischen Sprachen. 1836. p.7.

[22] HERMAN Ottó: Petényi J. S. a magyar tudományosmadártan megalapítója. http://mek.oszk.hu/12100/12102/12102.pdf

[23] BUZINKAY Géza: A magyar irodalom és sajtóirányítása a Bach-korszakban. http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00021/00290/pdf/MKSZ_EPA00021_1974_90_03-04_269-293.pdf

[24] CSOHÁNY János: Leo Thun egyházpolitikája. In:Egyháztörténeti Szemle. 11/2. 2010. http://www.uni-miskolc.hu/~{}egyhtort/cikkek/csohany-thun.htm

[25] Az Entwurf hatása a történelemtanításra.http://janus.ttk.pte.hu/tamop/tananyagok/tort_tan_valt/az_entwurf_hatsa_a_trtnelemtantsra.html

[26] BOLVÁRI-TAKÁCS Gábor: Teleki József, Sárospatakés az Akadémia. http://www.zemplenimuzsa.hu/05_2/btg.htm

[27] VEKERDI László: Egy könyvtár otthonai, eredményei ésgondjai. http://tmt.omikk.bme.hu/show_news.html?id=3135&issue_id=390

[28] Vasárnapi Ujság. 1858.XII.19. http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00030/00251/pdf/VU-1858_05_51_12_19.pdf

[29] KOS, Franz Josef: Die Politik Österreich-Ungarnswährend der Okkupationskrise 1874/75-1879. Böhlau,Köln-Wien, 1984,p.42, p.51.

[30] PALOTÁS Emil: Okkupáció–annexió 1878–1908.http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/historia/95-01/ch08.html

[31] http://staff.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/lect10.htm

[32] GOOD, David F.: The Economic Rise of the HabsburgEmpire, 1750-1914. 1984. p.82.

[33] CIEGER András: Kormány a mérlegen - a múltszázadban.http://c3.hu/scripta/szazadveg/14/cieger.htm

[34] http://mtda.hu/books/zajti_ferenc_magyar_evezredek.pdf

[35] http://mek.oszk.hu/09300/09396/html/01.htm

[36] DRIEM, George van: Languages of the Himalayas: anethnolinguistic handbook. 1997. p.161-162.

[37] HANEBRINK, Paul: Islam, Anti-Communism, andChristian Civilization: The Ottoman Menace in InterwarHungary, Cambridge Journals

[38] Steven Totosy de Zepetnek, Louise O. Vasvari: Compar-ative Hungarian Cultural Studies (page:48)

12 6 REFERENCES

[39] VÁMBÉRY Ármin: Magyar és török-tatár szóe-gyezések.” In Nyelvtudományi közlemények VIII. p.109-189.http://www.nytud.hu/nyk/reg/008.pdf

[40] Angela MARCANTONIO, Pirjo NUMME-NAHO, Michela SALVAGNI: THE ”UGRIC-TURKIC BATTLE”: A CRITICAL REVIEW.http://www.kirj.ee/public/va_lu/l37-2-1.pdf

[41] THÚRY József: Az ugor-magyar theoria. 1. rész. 1884.http://epa.oszk.hu/02300/02392/00030/pdf/EPA02392_egy_phil_kozl_08_1884_02_131-158.pdf

[42] THÚRY József: Az ugor-magyar theoria. 2. rész. 1884.http://epa.oszk.hu/02300/02392/00031/pdf/EPA02392_egy_phil_kozl_08_1884_03-04_295-311.pdf

[43] THÚRY József: Az ugor-magyar theoria. 3. rész. 1884.http://epa.oszk.hu/02300/02392/00032/pdf/EPA02392_egy_phil_kozl_08_1884_05_416-440.pdf

[44] HUNFALVY Pál: Magyarország ethnographiája.http://www.fszek.hu/mtda/Hunfalvy-Magyarorszag_ethnographiaja.pdf

[45] VÁMBÉRY Ármin: A magyarok eredete. Ethnologiaitanulmány.1882.http://digitalia.lib.pte.hu/?p=3265

[46] http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/ABC11587/12489.htm

[47] http://mek.oszk.hu/05300/05389/pdf/Loczy_Szechenyi_emlekezete.pdf

[48] http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/ABC17155/17265.htm

[49] http://epa.oszk.hu/01600/01614/00002/pdf/nyjame_02_1959_051-061.pdf

[50] http://kcst.hu/keletkutatas/Keletkutatas_2012-tavasz.pdf

[51] http://www.neprajz.hu/bbb/coll.htm

[52] SZABÓ Lilla: Zajti Ferenc festőművész és MedgyaszayIstván építész magyarságkutatásai. in: Kultúra, nemzet,identitás. A VI. Nemzetközi Hungarológiai Kongresszu-son (Debrecen, 2006. augusztus 23–26.) elhang-zott előadások. 2011.http://mek.oszk.hu/09300/09396/09396.pdf

[53] http://terebess.hu/keletkultinfo/lexikon/zajti.html

[54] VINCZE Zoltán: Létay Balázs, a magyar asszirológialegszebb reménye http://www.muvelodes.ro/index.php/Cikk?id=155

[55] "http://mtdaportal.extra.hu/books/teleki_pal_a_turani_tarsasag.pdf

[56] http://www.bahai.hu/a-bahai-hit/magyarorszagi-tortenet/abdul-baha-budapesten/#id%C3%81PRILIS_9_SZERDA

[57] Vasárnapi Ujság. 1913.III.16. http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00030/03094/pdf/VU_EPA00030_1913_11.pdf

[58] http://www.muvelodes.ro/index.php/Cikk?id=155

[59] http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tkt/ostortenet-nemzettudat/ch07.html

[60] HUXLEY, Aldous: Writers and Readers. 1936.

[61] MAKKAI László, MÓCSY András eds.: Erdélytörténete. Első kötet. 1986. p.409-421.http://mek.oszk.hu/02100/02109/html/93.html

[62] BOTLIK József: Magyarellenes atrocitások a Kárpát-medencében. http://adattar.vmmi.org/fejezetek/1896/07_magyarellenes_atrocitasok_a_karpat_medenceben.pdf

[63] BISMARCK, Otto von: Bismarck, the man and the states-man: being the reflections and reminiscences of Otto,Prince von Bismarck. 1898. Vol. II. p. 255-256.

[64] EB on Pan-Turanianism. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/440695/Pan-Turanianism

[65] UHALLEY, Stephen and WU, Xiaoxin eds.: China andChristianity. Burdened Past, Hopeful Future. 2001. p.219.

[66] 1924. évi XVI. törvénycikk a Török Köztársasággal Kon-stantinápolyban 1923. évi december hó 18. napjánkötött barátsági szerződés becikkelyezéséről. http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=7599

[67] 1938. évi XXIII. törvénycikk a szellemi együttműködéstárgyában Budapesten, 1937. évi október hó 13. napjánkelt magyar-észt egyezmény becikkelyezéséről. http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=8078

[68] 1938. évi XXIX. törvénycikk a szellemi együttműködéstárgyában Budapesten, 1937. évi október hó 22. napjánkelt magyar-finn egyezmény becikkelyezéséről. http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=8084

[69] 1940. évi I. törvénycikk a Budapesten, 1938. évinovember hó 15. napján kelt magyar-japán barátságiés szellemi együttműködési egyezmény becikkelyezéséről.http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=8115

[70] 1941. évi XVI. törvénycikk a szellemi együttműködés tár-gyában Szófiában az 1941. évi február hó 18. napjánkelt magyar-bolgár egyezmény becikkelyezéséről. http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=8169

[71] László Kürti The Remote Borderland: Transylvania in theHungarian Imagination, SUNY Press, 2001, p.97

[72] See Ungváry

[73] Stanley Payne A History of Fascism, 1914-1945 (Univer-sity of Wisconsin Press, 1995) pp.272-274

[74] JÁNOS, Andrew C.: East Central Europe in the ModernWorld Stanford University Press, 2002 pp.185-186

[75] http://hetivalasz.hu/english_periscope/shamans-in-the-pantry-25940

[76] http://www.jobbik.com/jobbik_news/europe/3198.html

[77] http://finnugor.elte.hu/mostort/ostortnyelveszet1.pdf

13

[78] http://www.tenyleg.com/index.php?action=recordView&type=places&category_id=3115&id=319584

[79] http://www.nyest.hu/renhirek/akiknek-el-akarjak-venni-a-multjukat

[80] Kurultaj official website

[81] http://www.politics.hu/20120810/deputy-house-speaker-greets-asian-ethnic-groups-in-parliament/

[82] Barna Borbas (05.05.13). "Élet a szittya bizniszen túl –utak a magyar hagyományőrzésben” (in Hungarian). HetiValasz. Retrieved 10.05.13. Check date values in: |date=,|accessdate= (help)

7 Further reading• Emel Akcah and Umut Korkut: Geographical Meta-

narratives in East- Central Europe: Neo- Turanism inHungary,(2012 Central European University)|

• Joseph Kessler Turanism and Pan-Turanism in Hun-gary: 1890-1945 (University of California, Berke-ley, PhD thesis, 1967)

14 8 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1 Text• Hungarian Turanism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_Turanism?oldid=628413847 Contributors: Janko, Kusunose,

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8.2 Images• File:Ambox_content.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f4/Ambox_content.png License: ? Contributors:

Derived from Image:Information icon.svg Original artist:El T (original icon); David Levy (modified design); Penubag (modified color)

• File:Edit-clear.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: ? Contributors: The Tango! DesktopProject. Original artist:The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (althoughminimally).”

• File:Géza_I.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/G%C3%A9za_I.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: Own work, scanned by Szilas from A magyar Szent Korona by Tóth Endre, Szelényi Károly, Kossuth 2000, Budapest Original artist:Unknown

• File:Jozsef_Ferenc_főherceg.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Jozsef_Ferenc_f%C5%91herceg.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: Magyar Turáni társaság Original artist: Unknown

• File:Körösfői-Kriesch_Aladár_-_Sámánok_körtánca_1911_Marosvásárhely_Kulturpalota.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/K%C3%B6r%C3%B6sf%C5%91i-Kriesch_Alad%C3%A1r_-_S%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok_k%C3%B6rt%C3%A1nca_1911_Marosv%C3%A1s%C3%A1rhely_Kulturpalota.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Originalartist: Maghasito

• File:Max_Müller’{}s_Northern_Division_of_Turanian_Languages.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Max_M%C3%BCller%27s_Northern_Division_of_Turanian_Languages.png License: Public domain Contributors: The languages ofthe seat of war in the East. With a survey of the three families of language, Semitic, Arian, and Turanian. 1855. London:Williams andNorgate. 2nd edition Original artist: Friedrich Max Müller

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• File:Philipp_Johann_von_Strahlberg_about_the_kinship_of_Finnish_and_Hungarian_language,_in_his_book_An_historico-geographical_description_of_the_north_and_east_parts_of_Europe_and_Asia_1738._London.png Source:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Philipp_Johann_von_Strahlberg_about_the_kinship_of_Finnish_and_Hungarian_language%2C_in_his_book_An_historico-geographical_description_of_the_north_and_east_parts_of_Europe_and_Asia_1738._London.png License: Public domain Contributors: Philip Johan von Strahlenberg: An historico-geographical description of the north andeast parts of Europe and Asia 1738. London Original artist: Philip Johan von Strahlenberg

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• File:The_origin_of_'fish_fat_smelling_kinship'_in_the_work_of_the_Finn-Ugrist_Barna_Ferdinánd..png Source:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/The_origin_of_%27fish_fat_smelling_kinship%27_in_the_work_of_the_Finn-Ugrist_Barna_Ferdin%C3%A1nd..png License: Public domain Contributors: Barna Ferdinánd: “Vámbéry Ármin A magyarokeredete czímű műve néhány főbb állításának bírálata.” 1884. Original artist: Barna Ferdinánd

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