Transfer of Japanese HRM practices to the emerging economy of South Asia: an empirical study based on Bangladeshi context Introduction: The concept of Human Resource Management (HRM) was developed initially in the U.S. in the 1960s and 1970s (Brewster, 1995). Over a span of 20 years or so, the topic of human resource management (HRM) has become one of the most documented in the management literature (Boxall, 1995). And it is the demand of time to examine HRM systems of Asian countries particularly the important emerging markets which are based in the south continent. The elements of cohesiveness and collectiveness, such as harmony, information sharing, loyalty, on-job-training, and teamwork etc. were key dimensions of the ‘new’ HRM paradigm, but had existed in East Asian organizations for a long time. By combining the individualistic elements of management practices with East Asian (particularly Japanese) management practices, the HRM paradigm was expected to improve the competitiveness of organizations and the well-being of both individuals and organizations (Schuler and Jackson, 1987). In terms of the research issue on the transfer of human resource practices, Kostova and Roth (2002) note that in institutional theory a key perspective is that organizations sharing the same environment will employ similar practices.
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Transfer of Japanese HRM practices to the emerging economy of South Asia:
an empirical study based on Bangladeshi context
Introduction:
The concept of Human Resource Management (HRM) was developed initially in the U.S.
in the 1960s and 1970s (Brewster, 1995). Over a span of 20 years or so, the topic of human
resource management (HRM) has become one of the most documented in the management
literature (Boxall, 1995). And it is the demand of time to examine HRM systems of Asian
countries particularly the important emerging markets which are based in the south continent.
The elements of cohesiveness and collectiveness, such as harmony, information sharing, loyalty,
on-job-training, and teamwork etc. were key dimensions of the ‘new’ HRM paradigm, but had
existed in East Asian organizations for a long time. By combining the individualistic elements of
management practices with East Asian (particularly Japanese) management practices, the HRM
paradigm was expected to improve the competitiveness of organizations and the well-being of
both individuals and organizations (Schuler and Jackson, 1987).
In terms of the research issue on the transfer of human resource practices, Kostova and
Roth (2002) note that in institutional theory a key perspective is that organizations sharing the
same environment will employ similar practices. However, many elements of an institutional
environment, such as culture and legal systems, are often specific to a nation organizational
practices can be expected to vary between the countries like Bangladesh and Japan. Transfer
success could also be affected by the degree of national cultural differences of the home country
and the recipient country, with regard to the practice that is being transferred (Hofstede 1993). In
general it is argued that the success of transfer of a practice from a parent company to a
subsidiary is negatively associated with the cultural distance between the countries of the parent
company and the subsidiary (Taylor et al 1996). Transfer success and adaptation are also
impacted by a range of other factors such as the impact of the social, political, economic and
strategic context, the pressures for global integration versus local responsiveness and the
evolving mentality that the MNE is facing (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 2000).
At present the South and East Asian region produces more goods and services than either
North America or the European Union and this trend is likely to speed up in the years to come
(Stehle, 2004). Moreover, many of the important emerging economies are located in Asia.
Further, they attract enormous amount of foreign direct investment (FDI). It is also predicted that
most new members of the newly affluent nations would come from Asia in the 21st century
(Tan, 2002). Anyway, before we proceed further in this framework we need to understand the
complex context of Asia which makes it difficult to conduct a meaningful cross national HRM
analysis. It is very important to acknowledge that each nation within the region (Eastern region
such as Japan and Southern region properly known as “Asia-Pacific” or subcontinent that
includes, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka) has an independent set of socio-economic
components (Abdullah, Boyle and Joham, 2010). These differ from nation to nation, arising
unavoidably from the interplay of social relations unique to themselves. Hence, there is a clear
need to see the management phenomena as part and parcel of the distinctive political, socio-
economic, cultural and institutional system of a country in the region (Hasegawa, 2002;
Morishima, 1995).
Emerging economy of South Asia:
The subcontinent consist populous economies like Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri
Lanka are attracting huge FDI (Parikh, 1999).
Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka all share the common characteristic of being a
former British colony and all inherited the infrastructure, political and administrative structures
left behind by them after gaining independence (Kelegama, 1998). While the colonial era did
leave South Asia in an advantageous position with respect to administrative structures and
industrialization, there were also negative impacts on the colonies, which warrant recognition.
The most significant effect was the “denial of self-esteem” and also the aggravation of ethnic
conflicts amongst different ethnic groups by the ‘divide and rule’ policy. Still suffering from
these effects at the time of gaining independence, these South Asian nations, subconsciously or
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consciously acted to repudiate the policies of the British rule in order to seek out their own
identities and rebuild their cultures (Parikh, 1999).
During the 1950s and 1960s some South Asian countries such as India and Sri Lanka,
were predicted to be the most rapidly growing economies of the future. These nations were
comparable to and in some cases, exceeded their East Asian counterparts in terms of per capita
GDP and the advent of industrialization (Goyal, 1999). The South Asian nations also had a
significant advantage over East Asia in inheriting the modern legal, administrative and political
structures left over from British Colonial rule. However, fifty years hence these South Asian
economies have not been able to live up to popular expectation and are now burdened with low
rates of growth, political instability, poverty and indebtedness, amongst other stifling attributes
(Parikh, 1999). Like another author said, after independence the bureaucrats performed both
roles, despite their relative inexperience in leadership. This has carried on to the present day and
as a result the roles of policy makers and leaders are not distinct in South Asia but fulfilled by
inexperienced bureaucrats (Bardhan 1998).
The story of the four South Asian economies can be described as a case of a promising
beginning that never quite consolidated into sustained economic success. They were – or at least
some of them were – endowed with initial conditions that were, in many ways, better than those
faced by some of the East Asian economies (Hossain, Islam, and Kibria, 1999). Basically the
subcontinent region consists of a single large country, India, surrounded by a number of medium
and small nations such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and
Maldives. While India accounts for about 79 per cent of the region’s GDP, Pakistan contributes
11 per cent, Bangladesh, 6 per cent and Sri Lanka, another 2 per cent (Ahluwalia, 2005). Most of
the South Asian economies have made significant economic progress in the last two decades and
are well on track to becoming major regional or even world economic powerhouses (Abdullah,
Boyle and Joham, 2010).
Bangladesh is strategically located between the emerging markets of South Asia and the
fastest growing markets of Southeast Asia and the ASEAN countries (Abdullah, Boyle and
Joham, 2010). Bangladesh is also one of the pioneers in the region for economic liberalization. It
has adopted the best policies of South Asia to attract Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Doing
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business in Bangladesh is much easier than most of the developing countries. A recent report
entitled “Doing Business in 2007: Creating Jobs” published jointly by World Bank and IFC
placed Bangladesh in 68th position in terms of ease of doing business among 175 countries
(World Bank, 2007). This places Bangladesh ahead of other countries in the region such as India
ranked 88th and China ranked 128th (Abdullah, Boyle and Joham, 2010).
HRM practices in South Asian Region
The economy of most of the South Asian countries especially; Bangladesh, India and
Pakistan are still based on agriculture while a very small industrial sector employing near about
40 percent of the active labor force (Ernst & Young, 2007). Smallness of industrial sector may
seem to be very affable to the development of a healthy industrial relationship but this could not
be realized even in 21st century mainly because of some historical and traditional cultural
background, some are in fact attributable to the poor administration system and legal system
regarding industrial relations in the country (Ernst & Young, 2007). Although during the British
rule, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh made remarkable headway in terms of industrialization. In
particular, India’s first industrialization experience was in the 1860s when India demonstrated
record levels of growth. By the early 1900s India had large textile and jute manufacturing
industries and, its total exports accounted for 11 per cent of national income (Srinivasan, 1991).
The colonial powers (British rule) did not support the growth of a significant industrial and
efficient HRM practices in the region of the subcontinent (Bangladesh India and Pakistan)
because of their own interest. HRM practices had suffered a relative neglect in most of the South
Asian countries. Largely, this had resulted from a past orientation of management in which HRM
was primarily viewed as the regulation of labor or employees relations (Qureshi, 1986).
Although at present there are some trade unions but most of them are politically biased which
actually hampering the real purpose of trade unions. South Asian trade unions are organized
mostly on the basis of political, regional and even personal loyalties which was encouraged by
the capitalists who often had restored to the policy of buying a fraction of the union or putting up
one of their own to divide the union movement by extending some “under the table favors” to a
group of union leaders (Miah, 2006).
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However, at present many companies have started to reorganize their HRM function on
traditional personnel administration lines. In several large size companies personnel departments
are playing a more active role in areas such as recruitment, selection, training, administrative
functions, welfare activities etc (Shetty and Prasad, 1971). Yet, their key responsibility remains
to be formulating action plans to manage unions, and on how to control employees to minimize
labor costs. Only in exceptional cases, some large business enterprises as well as MNCs have
asked their personnel managers to take up the role of culture builders by bringing management
and employees closer to each other for long-term performance gains. Qureshi, Z. I. (1994)
explained that, many organizations have also started to realize that HR managers must take a
proactive role consistent with two strands of thought in the current literature on HRM. The first
emphasizes the relationships between HRM practices and their short and long run impact on the
employees’ motivation and performance, on the effectiveness of the firm, and also upon the
society as a whole (Scarpello & Ledvinka, 1988).The second underscores the importance of
linking HRM practices and the corporate culture (Ulrich, 1990).
HRM practices in Japan
Among the world’s largest 500 companies, 64 are Japanese. So for the last few decades,
substantial attention has been given to Japan (Collinson, & Wilson, 2006). Though different
scholars have attributed Japan’s economic success to many different factors but it has been
believed that Japan’s secret lies in its approach to management. Human resource management
(HRM) has been argued by many as an important factor in the success of Japanese companies on
world markets when it experienced significant economic growth during the 1980s (Pudelko,
2004). Because of this fact many other nations not only Asian but also Europeans and American
nations tried to learn and apply Japanese style of management to attain success in their countries.
Japanese HRM has attracted a significant degree of attention from the West over the years. With
the relative rise in the economic fortunes of Japanese companies, many have pointed towards the
Japanese style of HRM as a source of competitive advantage (Beechler, 1994).
Human Resource department in Japan play a vital role to harmonize and control the
evolution of all managers and workers, managing their careers according with the company’s
needs (Dalton and Benson, 2002). In opposition to the decentralized nature of most operations in
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Japanese corporations and corporate groups, the function of human resources is done with an
elevated degree of centralization. This duality, operational decentralization- human resources
centralization, constitutes one of the most distinctive characteristics of niponic companies (Miah,
2006). Moreover, decisions regarding recruitment, training and development, succession
planning, career management and retirement are also responsibility of human resource
department to make sure the complete integration of members of the organizational culture.
Given the long-term commitment of Japanese firms to their core employees, it is not
surprising that considerable care is taken when selecting them. The Japanese companies recruit
once a year (Ehsan & Jinnah, 1999). The employees are recruited at the entry level after high
school or graduation. They are recruited not because of some special ability but rather because
they are found to be conducive to the company’s vision (Ornatowski, 1998). The emphasis given
to general ability rather than specific vocational skills during selection reflects a preference on
the part of Japanese employers (Thomas, 1993). People are hired according to their academic
“curriculum” or personal qualities and also because they promise to be loyal employees whose
talents can be adapted to the particular needs of the organization without the vices of previous
experience (Miah, 2006).
Japanese enterprise based unions (kigyo-nai kumiai) have had a positive outlook in
respect to salary negotiations with preference on job security for their members (Selmer, 2001).
These unions assure supportive behavior by their members, in exchange for proper behavior by
companies and with the integration of the firms' training, wage setting, and redundancy systems
(Ornatowski, 1998).
HRM strategies, including an internal labor market, a company philosophy that expresses
concerns for employee needs, and focus on cooperation and teamwork in a unique company
environment (Beecher, 1994). With these three general Japanese HRM strategies, techniques of
open communication, job rotation and internal training, a competitive appraisal system,
importance of group work, consultative decision making, and concerns for employees are
expressed (Dedoussis, 2001).
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It was also noted that Japanese organizations put emphasis on human resources which are
reflected in three HRM strategies, including an internal labor market, a company philosophy that
expresses concerns for employee needs, and focus on cooperation and teamwork in a unique
company environment (Beecher, 1994). Moreover, Japanese firms use careful screening of job
candidates to ensure that the qualifications fit with the value system and corporate culture of the
business firm (Selmer, 2001).
However, Japan's greatest recession since the post-second world war has stressed
relationships among keiretsu members (the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers and
distributors in closely knit groups) as key firms are forced to end established links with minor
companies (Dedoussis, 2001).The breakdown of the keiretsu system of cross-shareholding and
favored trading among member corporations of a business group has severely harmed the safety
net of supporting the long-term growth strategy of Japanese firms and their ability to protect
employees from downside market risks (Selmer, 2001; Gerlach, 1992). Deregulation is another
force for change and has made Japanese markets more accessible to competitors, both foreign
and domestic. In protected industries such as financial services, distribution and agriculture,
there are only a few firms that are prepared for the challenge of competition and uncertainty
(Lincoln and Nakata, 1997). Changes also have been made in the cultural aspects of Japanese
human resource management. Individual performance and results-oriented performance are
replacing group performance and loyalty due to the new criteria for creating salary levels, with
the principle of ‘freedom and self-responsibility' for the 'independent individual' (Takashi, 2003;
Sanford, 1995). There have also been changes to careers, recruitment and long-term
employment. Formal management and supervisory training is gradually replacing informal on-
the-job training (Selmer, 2001).
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Significance of transferring
Japanese HRM practices in Bangladesh:
Today’s world is becoming more competitive. All want to capture the world market. In
this situation many foreign countries are spreading their business in our country. Japan is one of
them. Many Japanese company are started their business here. Bangladesh can take some
positive HRM practices from them.
As to the reason for transfer, one of the most developed arguments is that competition in
the global economy on the basis of competitive advantages is the incentive for MNCs to transfer
and recombine new knowledge and practices across borders (Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1995;
Kostova, 1999). Hall and Soskice (2001) believe that the existing social system of a nation
generates national comparative advantage. Thus one can expect that MNCs tend to possess those
‘superior’ HR practices that are developed in support of their national comparative advantage
and to transfer them to their subsidiaries worldwide. This can be regarded as a demonstration of
the “country-of-origin” effects (Ferner, 1997; Edwards, 2004). For example, In Japanese HR, all
the decisions are taken by the suggestions of each employee. Each worker and employee can take
part and give suggestion to the decision making process by QC circle (Jun and Muto, 1995: 127).
Also Management and subordinate relationship in Japan is very cordial. This make a good
relationship between senior and junior and it is an outstanding feature of Japanese HR practice.
Conversely, in Bangladesh the decision making process is very centralized (Ehsan, 1999).
Through the transfer of Japanese HR practices such Bangladeshi system may change. Such
practice can help to improve the total condition of the company, individual performance as well
as Bangladeshi economy.
Edwards (2004, p.401-402) distinguishes between two forms of international integration:
standardization and segmentation. He argues that “In those sectors in which MNCs have
developed standardized operations, the transfer of employment practices is likely to be more
attractive to management”; whereas “in MNCs which have segmented their international
operations”, even where the degree of integration is high, “there will be little incentive to transfer
practices across borders”. This is evident in many relevant studies. Examples include Japanese
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MNCs in Asian subsidiaries making low value-added products, which exhibit no transfer of
Japanese employment relations (Dedoussis, 1995).
Another approach explaining the incentives for MNCs to transfer HR practices looks at
political relationships within organizations (Edwards, 2004; Kostova, 1999). Edwards (2004,
p.393) terms this explanation “the political approach”, indicating that “actors in organizations
can be willing to engage in the process of transfer as a way of obtaining legitimacy and to
advance their own interests”. Furthermore, Kostova (1999, p.319) bases this approach on
resource dependence theory and institutional theory. She argues that MNC subsidiaries “may
develop perceptions of dependence on the parent” due to various resources such as technology,
capital, and promotion of the subsidiary staff, etc. She suggests that “under such conditions of
dependency and intra-organizational competition”, a subsidiary will try to implement parent
company’s practices as a way of gaining internal legitimacy.
Transferring the HRM practices is very important. It helps to change and modify our
MNC’s HRM practices. The bureaucracy of our country is hazardous. It is noteworthy that
transfers of HR practices can occur in various directions within the MNC, including transfers
from parent companies to foreign subsidiaries, from subsidiaries to parent companies, or from
one subsidiary to another (Taylor et.al., 1996; Kostova, 1999). However, According to the
culture and values of host country some practices can be taken. Like, Japanese are very sharing.
They love teamwork and want to do this. This is their uniqueness. This is practiced by all the
Japanese companies. But this practice is impossible to some other countries to implement.
Countries that are homogeneous and individual can never practice this (Szulanski 1996, Kostova
& Roth 2002).
So transferring has an effect to the emerging economy in the MNC in Bangladesh. There
is thus a need for closer attention to process dynamics in the design and implementation of
SHRM, given the more likely hybrid of human resource systems and practices in the South Asian
context, and the allied concept of reverse diffusion, where host-country practices may influence
those of the parent company (Miah et al., 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006).
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Theoretical framework
Home country characteristics:
Talking about home country characteristics is indicating the cultural and corporate local
environments of Japan. The first and the most important management system of Japanese
companies is the adaptation of convergence theory. Its management model and in particular its
HRM model has, at least until recently, been frequently depicted as very different from Western-