How Do Engineered Systems Prevent and Manage Pollution in Water and Soil? … and what is the relevance to biotechnologists? The demand for employees with.

How Do Engineered Systems Prevent and How Do Engineered Systems Prevent and Manage Pollution in Water and Soil? … and what Manage Pollution in Water and Soil? … and what is the relevance to biotechnologists? is the relevance to biotechnologists?

The demand for employees with the combined The demand for employees with the combined expertise of environmental engineering and expertise of environmental engineering and microbiology is growing … .microbiology is growing … .

Areas of emphasis include & not limited to:Areas of emphasis include & not limited to:·  Biological methods for characterization and remediation ·  Biological methods for characterization and remediation of contaminated sitesof contaminated sites·   Biological sensors or sensor technology development ·   Biological sensors or sensor technology development and applicationand application·   Biological processes in natural systems·   Biological processes in natural systems·   Biological treatment of water and wastewater·   Biological treatment of water and wastewater·   Biological aspects of the built environment·   Biological aspects of the built environment·   Application of genetic techniques to characterizing ·   Application of genetic techniques to characterizing natural and engineered environmental systemsnatural and engineered environmental systems

Some examples… Some examples…

Water Treatment SystemsWater Treatment Systemsremove pollutants from lake or river or groundwater to remove pollutants from lake or river or groundwater to produce potable drinking waterproduce potable drinking water

Water Treatment Concerns: Water Treatment Concerns: Microbial PathogensMicrobial Pathogens

What kind are in the water to be treated?What kind are in the water to be treated? What is their source?What is their source? Have they been removed by treatment?Have they been removed by treatment?

Sewage Treatment SystemsSewage Treatment Systemsremove pollutants from sewage to return water to a lake, remove pollutants from sewage to return water to a lake,

river or groundwater.river or groundwater.

What constituents of sewage would require treatment?

A series of physical and A series of physical and biological processesbiological processes

The conventional biological The conventional biological process employs activated process employs activated sludge.sludge.

These systems typically These systems typically consist of an aeration basin consist of an aeration basin and a clarifierand a clarifier

Aerobic

Up until recently, activated sludge was treated Up until recently, activated sludge was treated as a “black box,” with little attention given to as a “black box,” with little attention given to the key microbial “players.”the key microbial “players.”

The times that microbes get attention is when they:The times that microbes get attention is when they:

a) Cause foaming or sludge bulkinga) Cause foaming or sludge bulking

Or Or b) when they are specialized for a needed function, b) when they are specialized for a needed function, e.g.e.g., ,

PAOs (Phosphorus Accumulating Organisms)PAOs (Phosphorus Accumulating Organisms)

Typically biological sewage Typically biological sewage treatment includes an treatment includes an aeration basin and a aeration basin and a clarifierclarifier

……and sewage treatment plants and sewage treatment plants also includes other microbiological also includes other microbiological treatment to digest the solids treatment to digest the solids (sludge) that are collected.(sludge) that are collected.

Anaerobic

There are also many exciting new There are also many exciting new innovations in wastewater treatment innovations in wastewater treatment that attempt to better mimic nature: that attempt to better mimic nature: natural attenuationnatural attenuation

The Living Machine

……and constructed wetlandsand constructed wetlands

Industrial Wastewater Treatment SystemsIndustrial Wastewater Treatment Systemsremove pollutants from industrial wastewaterremove pollutants from industrial wastewater to return water to a lake, river or groundwater to return water to a lake, river or groundwater

Water Reuse SystemsWater Reuse Systemsremove pollutants from treated wastewater remove pollutants from treated wastewater so so that water can be reused for nonpotable & even potable that water can be reused for nonpotable & even potable use (?)use (?)

Remove Pollutants from GroundwaterRemove Pollutants from Groundwater

PoPollution occurs due to leaks from septic tanks, llution occurs due to leaks from septic tanks, underground storage tanks, hazardous waste underground storage tanks, hazardous waste dumping, landfills, lagoons, fuel spills, military dumping, landfills, lagoons, fuel spills, military storage of chemical weapons, and agriculture storage of chemical weapons, and agriculture sources contributing fertilizers, herbicides, and sources contributing fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides.pesticides.

Groundwater Treatment SystemsGroundwater Treatment Systems

And each source creates a plumeAnd each source creates a plume

Engineered MethodsEngineered MethodsMicrobial treatmentMicrobial treatment

Soil Treatment Systems Soil Treatment Systems

remove pollutants from remove pollutants from soilsoil

Soil becomes contaminated by Soil becomes contaminated by the same sources as the same sources as groundwater, but it can’t be groundwater, but it can’t be cleaned up in the same waycleaned up in the same way

Biological methods have employed composting …Biological methods have employed composting …

And “enhanced” bioremediation And “enhanced” bioremediation … .… .

Finally, there are biological Finally, there are biological systems to treat gases … biofilterssystems to treat gases … biofilters

Recent Topics: Risk Management and BiofuelsRecent Topics: Risk Management and Biofuels

Use of molecular techniques to protect the Use of molecular techniques to protect the environment, including Risk assessments of GMOsenvironment, including Risk assessments of GMOs

Renewable energy and resources:Renewable energy and resources: engineering plants engineering plants for the production of clean energy, biofuel, biomass, for the production of clean energy, biofuel, biomass, and animals for food production, etc.and animals for food production, etc.

Environmental Biotechnology is the multidisciplinary integration of sciences and engineering in order to utilise the huge biochemical potential of microorganisms, plants and parts thereof for the restoration and preservation of

the environment and for the sustainable use of resources

OUTLINE:OUTLINE:

1.1. Molecular Ecology Molecular Ecology

2.2. Bioremediation (site restoration) and Bioremediation (site restoration) and Biotechnology for waste treatmentsBiotechnology for waste treatments

3.3. Biosensor (monitoring of pollution)Biosensor (monitoring of pollution)

4.4. Environmental applications of genetically Environmental applications of genetically modified organisms and Genetic Exchange in modified organisms and Genetic Exchange in EnvironmentEnvironment

5.5. BiofuelBiofuel

1.1. Molecular EcologyMolecular Ecology

Understanding nature by molecular techniques of:Understanding nature by molecular techniques of:

DNA fingerprintingDNA fingerprinting for population genetic for population genetic studies; become more important for biodiversity studies; become more important for biodiversity research to study kinship relationshipresearch to study kinship relationship

AuthenticationAuthentication; inspect endangered species with ; inspect endangered species with minimal samples using non-invasive techniqueminimal samples using non-invasive technique

ForensicForensic analysis, to properly identify the analysis, to properly identify the “evidence” for species identification “evidence” for species identification

WHAT FOR?WHAT FOR?

Phylogenetic studyPhylogenetic study: : e.g.e.g., horse family; compare , horse family; compare between species or strainsbetween species or strains

Population studyPopulation study: compare within species : compare within species

collected from different locations, collected from different locations, e.g.e.g., compare , compare

between Asian and African populationsbetween Asian and African populations

Molecular EcologyMolecular Ecology

Authentication studyAuthentication study: external morphology : external morphology

cannot give positive identification of a species, cannot give positive identification of a species,

e.g.e.g., specimen of meat samples or dried plants , specimen of meat samples or dried plants

ground in powder formground in powder form

EcoEcoRI digestions of RI digestions of TilapiaTilapia genomic DNA genomic DNA

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MSL AFD T W F TM (50 bp)11 1 21 32 232U

2.2. Bioremediation (site restoration) and Bioremediation (site restoration) and Biotechnology for Waste TreatmentsBiotechnology for Waste Treatments

Ocean ranchingOcean ranching for stock restoration ( for stock restoration (e.g.e.g., cultured salmon, , cultured salmon,

grouper and abalone released to the sea or artificial reef)grouper and abalone released to the sea or artificial reef)

RecoveringRecovering of damaged sites to a “clean” or less harmful of damaged sites to a “clean” or less harmful

site after dredgingsite after dredging

Remove chemicalsRemove chemicals using biological treatments on site ( using biological treatments on site ( in in

situsitu) or ) or ex situex situ

Chemicals:Chemicals: heavy metals, trace organics or mixtures heavy metals, trace organics or mixtures

Bacterial or fungal degradation of chemicalsBacterial or fungal degradation of chemicals

Engineered microbes for better and more efficient removal of Engineered microbes for better and more efficient removal of

chemicals on-sitechemicals on-site

Redox Clean-Up ReactionsRedox Clean-Up Reactions

Anaerobic or aerobic metabolism involve oxidation and Anaerobic or aerobic metabolism involve oxidation and

reduction reactions or Redox reactions for detoxificationreduction reactions or Redox reactions for detoxification

Oxygen could be reduced to water and oxidise organic Oxygen could be reduced to water and oxidise organic

compounds. Anaerobic reaction can use nitratecompounds. Anaerobic reaction can use nitrate

In return, biomass is gained for bacterial or fungal growthIn return, biomass is gained for bacterial or fungal growth

In many cases, combined efforts are needed, indigenous In many cases, combined efforts are needed, indigenous

microbes found naturally in polluted sites are usefulmicrobes found naturally in polluted sites are useful

Problems with bioremediationProblems with bioremediation

Work Work in vitroin vitro, may not work in large scale. Work well in , may not work in large scale. Work well in the laboratory with simulation, may not work in the field. the laboratory with simulation, may not work in the field. Engineering approach is neededEngineering approach is needed

Alternatively, select adapted species on site (indigenous Alternatively, select adapted species on site (indigenous species) to remediate similar damagespecies) to remediate similar damage

Most sites are historically contaminated, as a result of Most sites are historically contaminated, as a result of production/transport/storage/dumping of waste. They production/transport/storage/dumping of waste. They have different characteristics & requirementshave different characteristics & requirements

Those chemicals are persistent or recalcitrant to Those chemicals are persistent or recalcitrant to microbial breakdownmicrobial breakdown

Use of bacteria in bioremediationUse of bacteria in bioremediation

Greatly affected by unstable climatic and environmental Greatly affected by unstable climatic and environmental

factors from moisture to temperaturefactors from moisture to temperature

e.g., soil pH is slightly acidic; petroleum hydrocarbon e.g., soil pH is slightly acidic; petroleum hydrocarbon

degrading bacteria do not work well at <10degrading bacteria do not work well at <10CC

These microbes are usually These microbes are usually thermophilic anaerobesthermophilic anaerobes

Fertilisers are needed. Seeding or bioaugmentation could Fertilisers are needed. Seeding or bioaugmentation could

be useful toobe useful too

They contain monooxygenases and dehydrogenases to They contain monooxygenases and dehydrogenases to

break down organic matters including toxic substancesbreak down organic matters including toxic substances

PseudomonasPseudomonas

Genetically engineered bacteria (Genetically engineered bacteria (PseudomonasPseudomonas) with ) with

plasmid producing enzymes to degrade octane and many plasmid producing enzymes to degrade octane and many

different organic compounds from crude oildifferent organic compounds from crude oil

However, crude oil contains thousands of chemicals However, crude oil contains thousands of chemicals

which could not have one microbe to degrade them allwhich could not have one microbe to degrade them all

Controversial as GE materials involvedControversial as GE materials involved

Use of fungi in bioremediationUse of fungi in bioremediation

LipomycesLipomyces can degrade paraquat (a herbicide) can degrade paraquat (a herbicide)

RhodotorulaRhodotorula can convert benzaldehyde to benzyl alcohol can convert benzaldehyde to benzyl alcohol

Candida Candida can degrade formaldehydecan degrade formaldehyde

GibeberellaGibeberella can degrade cyanide can degrade cyanide

Slurry-phase bioremediation is useful too but only for Slurry-phase bioremediation is useful too but only for

small amounts of contaminated soilsmall amounts of contaminated soil

Composting can be used to degrade household wastesComposting can be used to degrade household wastes

White rot fungiWhite rot fungi

White rot fungi can degrade organic pollutants in soil and White rot fungi can degrade organic pollutants in soil and

effluent and decolorise kraft black liquor, effluent and decolorise kraft black liquor, e.g.e.g., ,

Phanerochaete chrysosporiumPhanerochaete chrysosporium can produce aromatic can produce aromatic

mixtures with its lignolytic systemmixtures with its lignolytic system

Pentachlorophenol, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (Pentachlorophenol, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (e.g.e.g., ,

DDT), even TNT (trinitrotoluene) can be degraded by DDT), even TNT (trinitrotoluene) can be degraded by

white rot fungiwhite rot fungi

Phyto-remediationPhyto-remediation

Effective and low costEffective and low cost

Soil clean up of heavy metals and organic compoundsSoil clean up of heavy metals and organic compounds

Pollutants are absorbed in roots, thus plants removed Pollutants are absorbed in roots, thus plants removed

could be disposed or burnedcould be disposed or burned

Sunflower plants were used to remove cesium and Sunflower plants were used to remove cesium and

strontium from ponds at the Chernobyl nuclear power strontium from ponds at the Chernobyl nuclear power

plantplant

Transgenic plants with exogenous metallothionein (a Transgenic plants with exogenous metallothionein (a

metal binding protein) used to remove metalsmetal binding protein) used to remove metals

Waste water treatmentsWaste water treatments

Bioremediation of water or groundwater or materials Bioremediation of water or groundwater or materials

recovered from polluted sitesrecovered from polluted sites

Ex situEx situ: As many bacteria work better in controlled : As many bacteria work better in controlled

conditions, conditions, e.g.e.g., anaerobic, higher temperature, effluent , anaerobic, higher temperature, effluent

(sewage treatment) or solid materials (composting) can be (sewage treatment) or solid materials (composting) can be

treated with bacteria to decompose organic matterstreated with bacteria to decompose organic matters

Primary treatmentPrimary treatment: screening and emulsification: screening and emulsification

Secondary treatmentsSecondary treatments: Nutrient removal and chemical : Nutrient removal and chemical

removalremoval

Nutrient removalNutrient removal

Phosphate removal by polyphosphate accumulating Phosphate removal by polyphosphate accumulating

organisms and glycogen accumulating organismsorganisms and glycogen accumulating organisms

Nitrogen removal by Nitrogen removal by NitrosomonasNitrosomonas which denitrify nitrite which denitrify nitrite

to nitrogen gas. Anaerobic ammonium oxidation is also to nitrogen gas. Anaerobic ammonium oxidation is also

importantimportant

Algae could absorb many nutrients and pollutants. Algae could absorb many nutrients and pollutants.

Dunaliella. ChlorellaDunaliella. Chlorella and and Spirulina Spirulina are valuable speciesare valuable species

Dye removal and chemical removalDye removal and chemical removal

Azo-dye (N=N) removalAzo-dye (N=N) removal

Sensitive to redox and anaerobic treatments can Sensitive to redox and anaerobic treatments can

decolorise azo dyesdecolorise azo dyes

Specific reductase enzymes are needed to detoxify the Specific reductase enzymes are needed to detoxify the

dye after discolorationdye after discoloration

Chemical treatment or biological treatment, Chemical treatment or biological treatment, e.g.e.g., ,

Candidatus Brocadia AnammoxidansCandidatus Brocadia Anammoxidans for ammonia for ammonia

removalremoval

3.3. BiosensorBiosensor(monitor pollution)(monitor pollution)

Measurement of mutagenic activity (microtox and Measurement of mutagenic activity (microtox and

mutatox tests with lux gene from mutatox tests with lux gene from VibrioVibrio))

Biomarkers of exposures to pollutants (stress proteins)Biomarkers of exposures to pollutants (stress proteins)

Detection of pathogens by multiplex-PCRDetection of pathogens by multiplex-PCR

Detection of toxins (Ciguatoxin)Detection of toxins (Ciguatoxin)

Ames 1973 developed a rapid screening method

based on mutation of Salmonella typhimurium. The mutant strains used

in the Ames Tests are histidine defective

(unable to synthesise histidine). Back mutation

make them able to survive on plates without

histidine

BioDetection SystemsBioDetection Systems

CALUXR Bioassay CALUXR Bioassay A sensitive bioassay for A sensitive bioassay for

exposure to dioxins and related exposure to dioxins and related compoundscompounds

Synthetic gene promoter Synthetic gene promoter created and linked to a reporter created and linked to a reporter gene which gives colour when gene which gives colour when the gene promoter is turned onthe gene promoter is turned on

The synthetic gene promoter The synthetic gene promoter contains multiple cis-acting contains multiple cis-acting elements responsible for dioxin elements responsible for dioxin (DRE) and dioxin receptor (Ah (DRE) and dioxin receptor (Ah receptor) binding.receptor) binding.

The reporter gene is tranfected The reporter gene is tranfected into a cell-line for the bioassay.into a cell-line for the bioassay.

Stress ProteinsStress Proteins

Metallothionein for exposure to heavy metalsMetallothionein for exposure to heavy metals

Cytochrome P450 (CYP) IA1 for exposures to trace Cytochrome P450 (CYP) IA1 for exposures to trace organicsorganics

Vitellogenin (an egg yolk protein) for exposure to Vitellogenin (an egg yolk protein) for exposure to environmental estrogensenvironmental estrogens

Heat shock protein for general stress conditions Heat shock protein for general stress conditions

These biomarkers are NOT biomarkers of These biomarkers are NOT biomarkers of toxic effectstoxic effects. . They are biomarkers of exposures. Thus, controversialThey are biomarkers of exposures. Thus, controversial

Biomarkers have biological relevance and usually less Biomarkers have biological relevance and usually less expensive than chemical analyses. Data could be expensive than chemical analyses. Data could be diagnostic and indicativediagnostic and indicative

Pathogen detectionPathogen detection

Bacteria: coli form bacteria, Bacteria: coli form bacteria, salmonella, Legionella, Vibrio,salmonella, Legionella, Vibrio, etc.etc.

Virus: Influenza, SARS, hepatitus, polio, etc.Virus: Influenza, SARS, hepatitus, polio, etc.

Algae: dinoflagellates, diatoms, toxic algae, ciguatoxin, Algae: dinoflagellates, diatoms, toxic algae, ciguatoxin, etc.etc.

Multiplex technology is being developed: one run for Multiplex technology is being developed: one run for many pathogensmany pathogens

Collection with minimal amount of samples: water, soil, or Collection with minimal amount of samples: water, soil, or airair

Use PCR or real-time PCR techniquesUse PCR or real-time PCR techniques

Microarray techniqueMicroarray techniquefor environmental screening and for environmental screening and

detectiondetection

NOT really quantitative, it’s qualitativeNOT really quantitative, it’s qualitative A rapid screening procedure for A rapid screening procedure for

pathogens or multiple biomarkers to pathogens or multiple biomarkers to monitor or identify the problem. Require monitor or identify the problem. Require later verification and real-time PCR later verification and real-time PCR detection with antibody confirmationsdetection with antibody confirmations

Array of probes (biomarkers/pathogens) Array of probes (biomarkers/pathogens) placed on a piece of glass or other solid placed on a piece of glass or other solid surface. DNA or RNA from a test surface. DNA or RNA from a test environmental sample, is then applied environmental sample, is then applied to the solid surface and wherever there to the solid surface and wherever there is a match with a probe sequence, is a match with a probe sequence, specific and sensitive hybridisation specific and sensitive hybridisation occurs, resulting in the generation of a occurs, resulting in the generation of a signalsignal

Methods are still under developmentMethods are still under development

4.4. Environmental applications of genetically Environmental applications of genetically modified organismsmodified organisms

Insect Bt resistance, Insect Bt resistance, producing a bacterial producing a bacterial toxin from Bacillus toxin from Bacillus thuringiencis (Bt); thuringiencis (Bt); insects (dipterans) die insects (dipterans) die when eating the plantswhen eating the plants

Extensively used in the Extensively used in the past 20 yearspast 20 years

Green groups Green groups complained that this is complained that this is “gene pollution”“gene pollution”

New TraitsNew Traits 74% Herbicide 74% Herbicide

resistantresistant 19% Insect resistant19% Insect resistant 7% Both7% Both

Major GM cropsMajor GM crops 58% Soybean58% Soybean 23% corn23% corn 12% cotton12% cotton 6% Canola6% Canola

Genetic Exchange in the Environment Genetic Exchange in the Environment

Risk Assessments and Biotechnology Regulations (Risk Assessments and Biotechnology Regulations (e.g.e.g., , environmental use permits)environmental use permits)

To detect the 35s CaMV (Cauliflower mosaic virus) To detect the 35s CaMV (Cauliflower mosaic virus) promoter sequence or NOS (nopaline synthase gene promoter sequence or NOS (nopaline synthase gene terminator) DNA sequence by terminator) DNA sequence by Quantitative PCR for GMO Quantitative PCR for GMO detectiondetection

GMOs: Bacteria is associated with disease and hence is GMOs: Bacteria is associated with disease and hence is always held up by fears. always held up by fears. e.g.e.g., antibiotic –resistance, antibiotic –resistance

GEM: The concern is antibiotic resistant plasmid GEM: The concern is antibiotic resistant plasmid horizontally transferred to other microorganismshorizontally transferred to other microorganisms

5. 5. Bio-fuelsBio-fuels

PlantPlant--derivedderived fuelsfuels:: plantplant species species for hydrocarbon (oil) production, for hydrocarbon (oil) production, e.g.e.g., rape-seed, sunflower, olive, , rape-seed, sunflower, olive, peanut oils. Or ethanol production peanut oils. Or ethanol production of sugars (or cellulose) derived from of sugars (or cellulose) derived from plantsplants

Conversion of used cooking oil to Conversion of used cooking oil to bio-fuel (called bio-fuel (called bio-dieselbio-diesel))

BiogasBiogas: gases from composts or : gases from composts or landfill, but methane is a green landfill, but methane is a green house gashouse gas

Bioethanol and biofuel cellBioethanol and biofuel cell

Sugar caneSugar cane, sugar beet wastes, high starch material , sugar beet wastes, high starch material (cassava, potatoes, millet) to be hydrolysed by (cassava, potatoes, millet) to be hydrolysed by starch starch hydrolysing enzymehydrolysing enzyme to to convert sucrose or glucose to convert sucrose or glucose to ethanolethanol. Mainly used in Brazil. Mainly used in Brazil

Corn ethanol: Corn ethanol: 22% less carbon emission, used in the US.22% less carbon emission, used in the US.

Bio-dieselBio-diesel: 68% less carbon emission; oils from soybean : 68% less carbon emission; oils from soybean (US) or canola oil (Germany)(US) or canola oil (Germany)

Cellulosic ethanolCellulosic ethanol: 91% less carbon emission, but difficult : 91% less carbon emission, but difficult to change cellulose to ethanolto change cellulose to ethanol

Hydrogen energy however is the trend of future renewable Hydrogen energy however is the trend of future renewable energy without carbon emission: a journey to forever … energy without carbon emission: a journey to forever … … .… .

Problem is how to generate the hydrogen; too costly with Problem is how to generate the hydrogen; too costly with conventional chemical methods or reverse osmosisconventional chemical methods or reverse osmosis

A Pathway for our Future Energy?A Pathway for our Future Energy?

A microbial bioreactor providing fuel directly in the anodic compartment

of the electrochemical cell 

Microbial biofuel cells:

A microbial bioreactor providing fuel separated

from the anodic compartment of the electrochemical cell

The Working Principle of An Enzyme Fuel Cell

The enzyme and mediator are immobilised on the anode

         Rough layout of the anode

structure

Other optionsOther options

Various bacteria and algae, for Various bacteria and algae, for example example Escherichia coliEscherichia coli, , Enterobacter aerogenesEnterobacter aerogenes, , Clostridium butyricumClostridium butyricum, , Clostridium acetobutylicumClostridium acetobutylicum, and , and Clostridium perfringensClostridium perfringens have have been found to be active in been found to be active in hydrogen production under hydrogen production under anaerobic conditionsanaerobic conditions

The most effective HThe most effective H22 production production is observed upon fermentation of is observed upon fermentation of glucose in the presence of glucose in the presence of Clostridium butyricumClostridium butyricum (strain IFO (strain IFO 3847, 35 mmol/h H3847, 35 mmol/h H22 evolution by evolution by 1 g of the microorganism at 37°C)1 g of the microorganism at 37°C)

SummarySummary of applied environmental Science/Biotech of applied environmental Science/Biotech Potable water, Sewage, Industrial waste, Groundwater and Soil treatmentsPotable water, Sewage, Industrial waste, Groundwater and Soil treatments

Gas treatment - Gas treatment - Treatment of gaseous waste. Biofilters – Treatment of gaseous waste. Biofilters – e.g.e.g., dechlorination of air., dechlorination of air.

Detection, Monitoring, and effecting Change in Detection, Monitoring, and effecting Change in Environmental pollutionEnvironmental pollution

Effects on health and ecosystemEffects on health and ecosystem

Microorganisms in the prevention, elimination and evaluation of chemical pollutionMicroorganisms in the prevention, elimination and evaluation of chemical pollution

Environmental monitoring. Chemical and physical analyses. Determining populations & activitiesEnvironmental monitoring. Chemical and physical analyses. Determining populations & activities

Biosensors. Screening for microbial toxicity. RegulationsBiosensors. Screening for microbial toxicity. Regulations

Microbial processes involved in the elimination of waste and pollutantsMicrobial processes involved in the elimination of waste and pollutants

Bioremediation of organically polluted soil, underground waters. Factors affecting biodegradationBioremediation of organically polluted soil, underground waters. Factors affecting biodegradation

Bioavailability. Acclimatisation. Bioremediation technologies. BiosupplementationBioavailability. Acclimatisation. Bioremediation technologies. Biosupplementation

Bioremediation of soil and underground waters polluted with metalsBioremediation of soil and underground waters polluted with metals

Phytoremediation of metals. Elimination of heavy metals from aqueous effluent.Phytoremediation of metals. Elimination of heavy metals from aqueous effluent.

Precipitation, bioabsorption and transformationPrecipitation, bioabsorption and transformation

Measuring pollution in wastewater. Composition of effluent. Aerobic treatment of sludge. Measuring pollution in wastewater. Composition of effluent. Aerobic treatment of sludge. Anaerobic digestion. Elimination of nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphurAnaerobic digestion. Elimination of nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur

Biotechnologies to minimise the generation of waste and other products. Clean technologies.Biotechnologies to minimise the generation of waste and other products. Clean technologies.

Microorganisms and fuels. Biofuels: bioethanol, biodiesel, biogas, hydrogen. Microbial extraction Microorganisms and fuels. Biofuels: bioethanol, biodiesel, biogas, hydrogen. Microbial extraction of oil. Desulphurisation and denitrogenisation of oil. Solubilisation and desulphurisation of carbonof oil. Desulphurisation and denitrogenisation of oil. Solubilisation and desulphurisation of carbon

Biomining. Bacterial leachate of metals by class. Microbial recovery of metals and mineralsBiomining. Bacterial leachate of metals by class. Microbial recovery of metals and minerals

Microorganisms and agriculture. Use of symbionts and pathogens. Nitrogen fixers. Mycorrhiza. Microorganisms and agriculture. Use of symbionts and pathogens. Nitrogen fixers. Mycorrhiza. Microbial biopesticides: Microbial biopesticides: BBtt, fungal insecticides and baculovirus, fungal insecticides and baculovirus