History of Aeronautics Part1

Version 1 - Part OneVersion 1 - Part One

ContentsContents

1 1 -- QuotesQuotes AA and B

BA or B

“Inventions reached their limit long ago, and I see no hope for further development.”- Julius Frontinus, 1st century A.D.

”Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible!”- Physicist, Lord Kelvin, President, Royal Society, [ENGLAND] 1885.

“All attempts at artificial aviation are not only dangerous to life but doomed to failure from an engineering standpoint.”

— editor of 'The Times' of London, 1905

“Only time is wanted to make cars disappear…”

— Scientific American Editorial, 1895

“Airplanes are interesting toys but of no military value.”— Marshal Ferdinand Foch, professor of strategy, Ecole Superiure de Guerre, 1911

— editor of 'The Times' of London, 1905

Airbus will never launch the A380 airliner, and we will built the Sonic Cruiser

— Phil Condit, former Boeing Co. CEO

“Deregulation will be the greatest thing to happen to the airlines since the jet engine.”--Richard Ferris, CEO United Airlines, 1976

Aviation QuotesAviation Quotes

“We do not consider that aeroplanes will be of any possible use for war purposes”- Richard Haldane, British Secretary of State for War, 1910

“Man must rise above the Earth, to the top of the atmosphere and beyond, for only thus will he fully understand the world in which he lives.”— Socrates

"Once you have tasted flight, you will forever walk the earth with your eyes turned skyward, for there you have been and there you will always long to return."-- Leonardo da Vinci

“It's only the beginning but the implications are terrific.”— Gerald Sayer, first flight in the Gloster-Whittle E28 jet, 1941.

“A mile of road will take you a mile, but a mile of runway will take you anywhere.”-- Anonymous


The English, a haughty nation, arrogate to themselves the empire of the sea; the French, a buoyant nation, make themselves masters of the air.— The Count of Provence (afterward Louis XVIII of France), Impromptu

on the first successful balloon ascension by the brothers Montgolfier, 1783. In original French, "Les Anglais, nation trop fière, S'arrogent l'empire des

mers; Les Français, nation légère, S'emparent de celui des airs."mers; Les Français, nation légère, S'emparent de celui des airs."


• The only way to test the limits of the possible is by going beyond them into the impossible

• When an elderly but distinguished scientist says something is possible, he is probably right. When he says something is impossible, he is very likely

Arthur C. ClarkeArthur C. Clarke


he says something is impossible, he is very likely wrong

•• Any sufficiently advanced technology is Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magicindistinguishable from magic

2 2 -- Great InventionsGreat Inventions

Great InventionsGreat Inventions


Ancient WorldAncient World

1,000,000 B.C.Patterned tools

360,000 B.C.Camp fire

20,000 B.C.Arrow and Bow

9,000 B.C.Agriculture

6500 B.C.Wheel

6000 B.C.

1700 B.C.Windmills

1450 B.C.Sundial

700 B.C.Musical notation6000 B.C.

Beer (Sumerians)

5000 B.C.Irrigation

3500 B.C.Fixed Wheels on Carts (Chariots)(first wheeled vehicles in history)Riverboats2800 B.C.Egyptians devise the 12-month, 365-day calendar. 2600 B.C.AbacusLiterature1800 B.C.Mathematics and Astronomy

2000 B.C Horses are domesticated (and used for transportation)

Musical notationGunpowder

640 B.C.First Library

400 B.C.Two Greeks invent the catapult, the first artillery weapon

100 B.C.Astronomical calculator


100100--1700 A.D.1700 A.D.

1500Flush Toilets1514First bullet

1590Compound microscope

1609Galileo's Telescope

1621

105 A.D.Paper invented in China by Ts'ai Lun180 A.D.Wheelbarrow700 A.D.Block printing 770 A.D. Iron Horseshoe1023First paper money printed in China First blast furnace

1650First air pump

1656Pendulum clock

1663Reflecting telescope1676Universal joint (Robert Hooke)

First paper money printed in China1025Optics

1249Roger Bacon gives earliest European recipe for gunpowder1335First public clock

1455First Gutenberg Bible

1485Leonardo DaVinci designs the first parachute

1494

Whiskey


17001700--190019001700Steam boilers

1760Benjamin Franklin invents the bifocal lens

1765Steam engine

1796Inoculation/vaccination

1800First suspension bridge

1801First electric arc lamp

1846Sewing Machine

1860Pasteurization

1867Dynamite (Alfred Nobel)

1876Thomas Edison 's incandescent bulbAlexander Graham Bell invents the telephone

1877Edison 's gramophone and phonograph1804

Steam-powered locomotive

1809Aerodynamics (George Cayley)

1816Stethoscope

1820Electromagnetism

1831

Electric generator

1837Telegraph

1839Daguerreotype cameraVulcanized Rubber

1877Edison 's gramophone and phonograph

1885Benz's automobile

1886Coca Cola

1888Eastman's camera

1893Edison's "movies"

1895X-Rays

1899Tape recorder Practical airship (Santos Dumont)Great InventionsGreat Inventions

19001900--19491949

1900Escalator

1901Vacuum CleanerAssembly LineRadio1903ElectrocardiogramRemote Control (Leonardo Quevedo)1904Ice Cream Cone

1920Band-AidHair Drier1922Radar1923Hearing aidTraffic lights1924Liquid fueled rocket1926Quantum Mechanics

1940Modern HelicoptersColor Television1942Nuclear ReactorDuct Tape1943Synthetic rubber1944Blood Banks1945Microwave Oven

1905Theory of Relativity (Einstein)Popsicle1906Airplane (Santos Dumont)1907 Paper Towels1910Neon Light (Georges Claude)1912Shopping Bag1913Bra (Mary Phelps Jacob)Auto Mass Production (Henry Ford)1917Sonar

Quantum MechanicsGalactic Rotation1927Television1928First differential analyzing computerBubble GumYo-yo1932Electron MicroscopeRemote-controlled model airplane1935Ballpoint Pen1938MonopolyNylon StockingsTeflon (Roy Plunkett)

Microwave OvenTupperwareAtomic Bomb1946Disposable DiapersThe Bikini1947TransistorHolographyInstant PhotographyFirst Supersonic FlightKitty Litter1948ScrabbleVelcro1949LEGO


19501950--19701970

1950Credit Card (Diners)Frisbee1951Business CalculatorLiquid PaperSuperglue1952Mr. Potato HeadDiet Soft DrinkHydrogen BombTranquilizer

1965Hand Held CalculatorAstroturfSoft Contact Lenses1966Electronic Fuel Injection1968Computer MouseMicroprocessorRAM (Random Access Memory)1969First Man on Moon (Apollo XI)

1957Soviets send Sputnik to SpaceFortranAluminum Cans for Soft Drinks1958Integrated CircuitHula HoopModem1959MicrochipInternal PacemakerTranquilizer

1953Black Box (airplanes)Radial Tires1954Milk CartonOral ContraceptivesNon Stick PanSolar CellGenetic Code1955Fiber opticsTV Remote Control1956 Computer Hard DiskScotch Guard

First Man on Moon (Apollo XI)Arpaned (first internet)Artificial HeartATM ConcordeBoeing 747

1970Bar Code ScannersLiquid Crystal Display (LCD)Floppy Disk

Internal PacemakerBarbie Doll1960LaserHalogen Lamp1961Valium1962AudiocassetteSilicon Breast Implants“SpaceWar” (first computer game)1963Videodisc1964Acrylic PaintBASIC


19711971--19851985

1971KevlarDot matrix printerfood processorVCR

1972Compact disc

Word Processor

1973Ethernet network DisposableLighter (BIC)

1978VisiCalc (First Spreadsheet)Jarvik-7 (artificial heart)

1979Cellular PhonesCray SupercomputerWalkmanRoller Blades

1980Hepatitis-B vaccineLighter (BIC)

Gene Splicing

1974Post It NotesRubik’s CubeLiposuction

1975Betamax and VHSLaser Printer

1976Ink Jet Printer

1977Apple personal computerPC ModemMagnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Hepatitis-B vaccine

1981MS-DOSIBM-Personal ComputerSpace Shuttle

1982Human Growth Hormone genetically Engineered1983Soft Bifocal LensesCabbage Patch KidsVirtual RealityCompact Disc1984Apple Macintosh1985Microsoft Windows


19861986--20052005

1996Web TV

1997Gas Powered Fuel CellsTeletubbies

1998Viagra

2000Dolly the cloned sheepHonda presents its Asimo robot

2001

1986High Temperature SuperconductorSynthetic SkinDisposable Camera (Fuji)19873-D video gamesDisposable Contact Lenses1988Digital Cellular PhonesDopple RadarProzacRU-486 (abortion pill)

2004 - SpaceShipOne

2001Near Shoemaker, first spacecraft to land on asteroidFirst complete genetic map of laboratory mouseHuman Geonome

2003The world’s first digital camera with a organic light-emitting diode (OLED) is launched by Kodak

2004SpaceShipOne is the first private craft to reach an altitude of 100 km

2005Probe Huygens of the Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn’s is the first one to land on Titan as well as the first on a moon outside of moon-earth system

RU-486 (abortion pill)1989High Definition TV1990HTML and HTTP Protocol (WWW)1991Digital Answering Machines1992Smart Pill1993Pentium1994HIV Inhibitors1995Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)JAVA (Just Another Vain Acronym)


Growth of World Population and Technology EvolutionGrowth of World Population and Technology Evolution


3 3 -- Flight PhysicsFlight Physics

Earth’s AtmosphereEarth’s AtmosphereAircraft fly within the Earth's atmosphere, the gaseous envelope that surrounds the planet. The atmosphere's weather, temperature, and properties allaffect aircraft flight, as does the way in which air, the fluid of interest to aerodynamicists, moves around and over the parts of an aircraft.

The primary ingredients in the Earth's atmosphere are nitrogen (78 percent) and oxygen (21 percent). The remaining one percent consists of argon,carbon dioxide, several trace gases (extremely small amounts), and water vapor. Above about 90 kilometers from the Earth's surface, the differentgases begin to settle or separate out according to their respective densities. In ascending order one would find high concentrations of oxygen, helium,and then hydrogen, which is the lightest of all the gases.

The Earth's atmosphere is divided into different levels or regions primarily by temperature. The lowest region of the atmosphere is the troposphere,which begins at the Earth's surface and extends to an altitude of approximately 18 kilometers. Around the North and South Poles, the troposphere isonly a little more than 8 kilometers deep. The temperature of the troposphere decreases about 2 degrees Celsius, or 6.5 degrees Celsius per 1000 m.Humans live in the troposphere and most weather phenomena occur here.

The tropopause is the dividing line between the troposphere and the next region, the stratosphere, which is found between approximately 18 and 50kilometers above sea level. The temperature throughout the tropopause is constant. The stratosphere contains a type of oxygen called ozone (O3) thatabsorbs sunlight, resulting in temperatures similar to those found near the Earth's surface. The ozone layer absorbs harmful solar ultraviolet radiationand protects the Earth. The temperature in the stratosphere rises with altitude, reaching about -40 degrees C at 48 kilometers up. Almost all aircraftflight occurs in the troposphere and stratosphere.

Flight Physics

flight occurs in the troposphere and stratosphere.

Between altitudes of approximately 50 and 90 kilometers is the mesosphere. In this region, the temperature first increases to about 10 degrees C, thendecreases until about 80 kilometers altitude to as low as -90 degrees C. In the he mesopause, a sub-layer contained in the mesosphere, the temperatureremains constant. The ionosphere, sometimes called thermosphere, begins at approximately 90 kilometers above sea level and extends to 9,656kilometers. Temperature in the thermosphere increases to about 1,204 degrees C. The exact temperature depends on solar activity. The region beyondthe Earth's atmosphere is referred to as space, or outer space.

The regions of the atmosphere can also be characterized by the distribution of various chemical processes that happen within them, by their molecularcomposition, and also by the dynamic and kinetic processes that occur within each region.

Weather conditions that occur within the troposphere affect flight and are carefully studied partly for that reason. Conditions such as wind,temperature, water in the atmosphere, atmospheric pressure, and turbulence all affect the way an aircraft flies.

Winds are a natural motion of the air parallel to the Earth's surface caused by the uneven heating and cooling of the Earth and atmosphere. Air that isheated rises because the heat applied to air decreases the air's density to the point where it is lighter in weight than the surrounding cooler air. Air athigher altitudes also exerts less atmospheric pressure because fewer air molecules are present and because of the lesser effect of gravity. (Atmosphericpressure is the force exerted by the air over a specified area.) When less dense air rises, it displaces the cooler, denser air, which moves horizontally tofill the lower pressure area created. This horizontal motion is wind. Motion in a vertical or nearly vertical direction is called a current.

Earth’s AtmosphereEarth’s AtmospherePilots have to compensate for the direction and velocity of winds to stay on course. Although statistical averages of wind speed as a function ofaltitude have been calculated, real wind velocity at any particular time and place varies considerably from the statistical average. To avoid drift as aresult of wind, pilots should consult local airports for wind conditions and forecasts along their intended flight path.

Differences in temperature and pressure within an airflow result in turbulence, or small-scale motion of the atmosphere. An aircraft experiencesturbulence because small currents of wind are moving in a different direction from the main flow of wind. Turbulence also occurs because of windsblowing over irregular terrain. In passenger aircraft, turbulence may cause minor problems such as spilled coffee and in extreme cases, injuries ifseat belts are not fastened. Excessive shaking or vibration may render the pilot unable to read instruments. In cases of precision flying such as forair-to-air refueling, bombing and gunnery, or aerial photography, turbulence-induced motions of the aircraft are a nuisance. Turbulence-inducedstresses and strains over a long period may cause fatigue in the airframe and particularly heavy turbulence may cause the loss of control of anaircraft or even immediate structural failure.

A thunderstorm is the most violent of all turbulences. In a thunderstorm strong updrafts and downdrafts exist side by side. The severity of the aircraftmotion caused by the turbulence will depend upon the magnitude of the updrafts and downdrafts and their directions. Many private aircraft havebeen lost to thunderstorm turbulence because of structural failure or loss of control. Commercial airliners generally fly around such storms for thecomfort and safety of their passengers.

Flight Physics

comfort and safety of their passengers.

The atmosphere contains moisture in the form of water vapor. Water vapor is less dense than dry air and consequently, humid air (air containingmore water vapor) is less dense than dry air. Because of this, a plane's takeoff roll will be longer, its rate of climb slower, and its landing speedhigher in humid air than in denser dry air. Further, forms of precipitation such as icing on aircraft wings, zero visibility in fog or snow, and physicaldamage caused by hail all affect aircraft performance.

Air density is a very important factor in the lift, drag, and engine power output of an aircraft and depends upon the local temperature and pressure.Since the standard atmosphere does not indicate true conditions at a particular time and place, it is important for a pilot to contact a local airport forlocal atmospheric conditions. From these local temperature and pressure readings, density may be obtained and, hence, takeoff distance and enginepower output may be determined.

The water vapor also poses danger for the air transportation system. Water droplets are instable usually spherical nucleation of water in theatmosphere. Their diameter varies ranging from 15 μm to 200 μm and they are found in altitudes below 6,700 m. When those particles hits aircraftparts like wing and tail surfaces leading edges, they instantaneously change their state becoming ice if the outside air temperature is below zero. Icebuilding up on control and lifting surfaces will alter their aerodynamic shape leading to loss of control and lift. For this reason, aircraft are equippedwith anti-ice or deice systems. Advanced systems contain probes for ice detection that automatically activate the anti-ice devices in the event iceposes a danger for the flight safety.

Earth’s AtmosphereEarth’s Atmosphere

Flight Physics

AerodynamicsAerodynamicsAerodynamics, a complex word originating from the Greek words air and power, literally it meaning air inmotion, is the branch of the larger field of mechanics – the science of motion of bodies in general.Aerodynamics studies the laws of motion concerning the forces that fluids, and particularly air, exert on bodiesmoving through it. The word aerodynamics itself was not officially documented until 1837. However, theobservation of fluids and their effect on objects can be traced back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle in 350B.C. Aristotle conceived the notion that air has weight and observed that a body moving through a fluidencounters resistance.Archimedes, another Greek philosopher, also has a place in the history of aerodynamics. A hundred years later,in 250 B.C., he presented his law of floating bodies that formed a basic principle of lighter-than-air vehicles.He stated that a fluid - either in a liquid or a gaseous form - is continuous, basically restating Aristotle's theory

Flight Physics

of a hundred years earlier. He comprehended that every point on the surface of a body immersed in a fluid wassubject to some force due to the fluid. He stated that, in a fluid, “each part is always pressed by the wholeweight of the column perpendicularly above it.” He observed that the pressure exerted on an object immersedin a fluid is directly proportional to its depth in the fluid. In other words, the deeper the object is in the fluid,the greater the pressure on it. Deep-sea divers, who have to accustom themselves to changes in pressure bothon the way down into the sea and again on the way up to the surface, directly experience this phenomenon.Fluid Mechanics studies the motion of fluids at low speeds, where a gas behaves practically like anincompressible liquid. In these conditions, the enthalpy of a gas is large in comparison with its kinetic energy,and one does not have to take into account the variation of enthalpy with the speed of flow. The mechanics of agas differs from that of a liquid when the relative velocity between the gas and the body under consideration ishigh.

MathematicsMathematics

§ Isaac Newton (1643 – 1727)§ Laid the foundation (along with Leibniz)

for differential and integral calculus§ It has been claimed that the Principia is

the greatest work in the history of the physical sciences.

§ Book I: general dynamics from a mathematical standpoint

§ Book II: treatise on fluid mechanics§ Book II: treatise on fluid mechanics§ Book III: devoted to astronomical and

physical problems. Newton addressed and resolved a number of issues including the motions of comets and the influence of gravitation.

§ For the first time, he demonstrated that the same laws of motion and gravitation ruled everywhere under a single mathematical law.

AerodynamicsAerodynamics

Flight Physics

Vortex and LiftVortex and Lift

Helicopter

Delta WingTrapezoidal WingFlight Physics

Shape and DragShape and Drag

Flight Physics

Flow ControlFlow Control

Flaps

Suitable shape

Nacelle chinVortex generators

Enhanced wingtip

Flight Physics

Flow Control Flow Control -- WingtipsWingtips

Flight Physics

Flow Control Flow Control –– Formation FlightFormation Flight

The NASA’s Air Vehicles Directorate is currently studyinga novel form of formation flight. For centuries, flocks ofmigratory birds have flown in large formations. Onereason for this is the drag reduction obtained by flying inclose proximity to wakes generated by other birds.Photographic studies of Canadian Geese indicate theaverage spacing between adjacent birds is very close to theoptimum predicted by simple aerodynamic theory. Smallheart monitors implanted in White Pelicans show reducedheart rates while flying in formation compared toindividual flight. Recent advances in automatic controltheory, combined with the ability to accurately determinethe location of aircraft, may now make this practical foraircraft.

Right. NASA’s Autonomous Flight Formation

Flight Physics

Flow ControlFlow Control

Flow at high angle of attack

Handley Page H.P.17(1920)

Slotted wing

Flight Physics

Insect FlightInsect Flight

FRUIT FLY USES three different aerodynamicmechanisms to support its weight in the air. During muchof the wing stroke (1), a leading-edge vortex forms andincreases lift, a process called delayed stall because thevortex does not have time to detach, which is whathappens when an aircraft stalls. At the end of a stroke (2,3, 4), the wing rotates, which produces rotational liftanalogous to a tennis ball hit with backspin. At the startof the upstroke (5), the wing passes back through thewake of the downstroke. The wing is oriented so that thisincreased airflow adds further lift, a process called wakecapture.

Flight Physics

4 4 ––Animal FlightAnimal Flight4 4 ––Animal FlightAnimal Flight

The separate continents of the Paleozoic, after having drifted apart through thefragmentation of the supercontinent of Rodinia, around 650 million years ago

PangeaPangea

Above. During the LatePermian, tectonic movement ofthe plates led to the formationof one huge land mass calledPANGEA.

fragmentation of the supercontinent of Rodinia, around 650 million years ago(Vendian period) eventually drifted together again during the Paleozoic, colliding toform the supercontinent of Pangea during the Devonian and Carboniferous periods,some 350 million years ago. More specifically Pangea was assembled by thecollisions of three main blocks, Gondwanaland, Euramerica, and Siberia, during thePermo-Carboniferous time, around 350 to 260 million years ago. Various smallerblocks, especially in southeastern Asia, were late arrivals. In the initial collisionbetween Gondwanaland and the northern continents, South America butted centralEuramerica. Modern Spain and central France are former pieces of Venezuela.Pangea was essentially complete by the Kungurian epoch (late early Permian). Asliding motion then carried Gondwanaland 3500 kilometers westward, relative to thenorthern landmasses, until Africa was abutting North America by the Norian epoch(Late Triassic), producing the classic Pangea configuration. Pangea was to remainintact for some 250-300 million years, finally breaking up in the early to Mid-Cretaceous, some 130-100 million years ago. However, for much of its long historythe supercontinent was actually a series of large islands, separated from each otherby shallow continental sea.

Animal FlightAnimal Flight

The Future in 250 million Years?The Future in 250 million Years?

Is this what will become of the Earth's surface? The surface of the Earth is broken up into several large plates that are slowly shifting. About 250 million years ago, the plates on which the present-day continents rest were positioned quite differently, so that all the landmasses were clustered together in


the landmasses were clustered together in one supercontinent now dubbed Pangea. About 250 million years from now, the plates are again projected to reposition themselves so that a single landmass dominates. The above simulation from the PALEAOMAP Project shows this giant landmass: Pangea Ultima. At that time, the Atlantic Ocean will be just a distant memory, and whatever beings inhabit Earth will be able to walk from North America to Africa.

The Pioneers of FlightThe Pioneers of Flight

InsectsInsects:: 350 million years.Protoavis:Protoavis: 215 million years, more birdlike than ArcheopteryxPterosaursPterosaurs:: 200 million years, launched themselves from cliffs. Wings were of skin between fingers.ArcheopteryxArcheopteryx:: this creatured had feathers. Transformation of the skin to feathers (150 million years ago). BirdsBirds:: Several families of birds were established 50 million years ago. No big jaws or teeth.


InsectsInsectsThe oldest definitive insect fossil is the Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti, estimated at 396-407 million years old. This species already possessed dicondylic mandibles, a feature associated with winged insects, suggesting that wings may already have evolved at thistime. Thus, the first insects probably appeared earlier, in the Silurian period.

The subclass Apterygota (wingless insects) is now considered artificial as the silverfish (order Thysanura) are more closely related to Pterygota (winged insects) than to bristletails (order Archaeognatha). For instance, just like flying insects, Thysanura have so-called dicondylic mandibles, while Archaeognatha have monocondylic mandibles. The reason for their resemblance is not due to a particularly close relationship, but rather because they both have kept a primitive and original anatomy in a much higher degreethan the winged insects. The most primitive order of flying insects, the mayflies (Ephemeroptera), are also those who are most morphologically and physiologically similar to these wingless insects. Some mayfly nymphs resemble aquatic thysanurans.


morphologically and physiologically similar to these wingless insects. Some mayfly nymphs resemble aquatic thysanurans.

Modern Archaeognatha and Thysanura still have rudimentary appendages on their abdomen called styli, while more primitive and extinct insects known as Monura had much more developed abdominal appendages, as seen here. The abdominal and thoracic segments in the earliest terrestrial ancestor of the insects would have been more similar to each others than they are today, and the head had well developed compound eyes and long antennae. Their body size is not known yet. As the most primitive group today,Archaeognatha, is most abundant near the coasts, it could mean that this was the kind of habitat where the insect ancestors became terrestrial. But this specialization to coastal niches could also have a secondary origin, just as could their jumping locomotion, as it is the crawling Thysanura who are considered to be most original (plesiomorphic). By looking at how primitive cheliceratan book gills (still seen in horseshoe crabs) evolved into book lungs in primitive spiders and finally into tracheae in more advanced spiders (most of them still have a pair of book lungs intact as well), it is possible the trachea of insects was formed in a similar way, modifying gills at the base of their appendages.

So far there is nothing that suggests the insects were a particularly successful group of animals before they got their wings.

InsectsInsects

The following records relate to the flight of insects:• Migration distance => Painted Lady Butterfly, from North Africa to Iceland, a distance of 4,000 miles.• Fastest flight in insects => Sphinx Moths, speed of 33 mph.• Fastest wingbeat => Midge, at 62,760 beats per minute.• Slowest wingbeat => Swallowtail butterfly -- 300 beats/minute.• Highest altitude => Some butterflies have been observed flying at altitudes up to 20,000 feet.• Largest wings, modern => Wingspans of some butterflies and moths are the largest of all modern insects.• Largest wings, extinct => The wingspans of fossil dragonflies, existing millions of years ago, were more than two feet.


Sharovipteryx mirabilis Sharovipteryx mirabilis Early Triassic, 245 million years agoEarly Triassic, 245 million years ago

Wings of birds and bats are actually front legs that were transformed for flying. Wings of pterodactyles also originated from front legs. But Sharovipterix had wings on its hind legs! Bone structure indicates that Sharovipterix could not be an active flyer. But it could be a glider. Dr. Allan an active flyer. But it could be a glider. Dr. Allan Edward Munro thinks that its front legs are too small for climbing trees. It is also possible that Sharovipterix jumped as a grasshopper and used the membrane for maneuvering in the air and for extending the jump. The membrane could be used also for display.


Protoavis and ArchaeopteryxProtoavis and Archaeopteryx

ProtoavisProtoavis-- 215 millions years215 millions years

"Just as the 150-million-year-old Archaeopteryx fossil is beingreinstated as the earliest known bird after considerablecontroversy, along come two crowsize skeletons that are notonly 75 million years older than Archaeopteryx but also morebirdlike, according to the paleontologists who discovered them.The Washington, D.C.-based National Geographic Society,which funded the work, announced this week that SankarChatterjee and his colleagues at Texas Tech University inLubbock found the 225-million-year-old fossils near Post, Tex."

Chatterjee has named the new fossil Protoavis.

(Weisburd, S.; "Oldest Bird and Longest Dinosaur," Science News, 130:103, 1986.)

In southern Germany, 150 million years ago, countless sea lilies wereimbedded in fine lime-muds between drowned coral reefs on the floorof a moderately deep sea. However, the most famous fossils from thesestrata are five specimens of archaeopteryx, generally considered to bethe oldest known bird, and certainly the focus of continuingdebate. Archaeopteryx was small, with a wingspan of 0.5 m andweighed about 325 g. Its feathers were similar to those of flying birds,but its skeleton closely resembled that of a small carnivorous dinosaur.The brain was relatively large for an animal of that epoch. Wasarchaeopteryx a feathered dinosaur, an ancestral bird, or neither, orboth? They lived during the late Jurassic period, 140 million years ago.

ArchaeopteryxArchaeopteryx-- 150 million years150 million years


PterosaurusPterosaurus

The largest pterosaur (Quetzalcoatlus, wonderfully named for the Aztec winged serpent god) had a wing span fromeleven to twelve meters long. Despite its huge size, the skeleton was lightly built and the whole animal probablyweighed no more than 100 kilograms. Its neck was extremely long, its slender jaws were toothless and its head wastopped by a long, bony crest. Unlike most other pterosaur fossils the Quetzalcoatlus remains have not been found inmarine strata but in the sand and silt of a large river's flood plain and this has raised questions about how it lived.Pterosaur wing's main support was an amazingly elongated fourth digit in the hand. Fibers in the wing membrane addedstructural support and stiffness. At least some pterosaurs may have had some sort of hair-like body covering, whichcould very well mean that they were endothermic. Pterosaurs had a diverse range of head types, as you can tell from thepictures above. Their ability to fly probably allowed them to evolve into many niches, taking advantage of manydifferent food sources, which would explain the range of skull morphology seen.


PterosaurusPterosaurus

12-m wingspan (EMB-110: 15.3 m)

Brazilian Coast 127 million years ago

Ornithocheirus


RahonaRahona OstroniOstroni

• For more than 100 years, paleontologists have debated which came first: dinosaur eggs or prehistoric chickens. Basedon such primitive birds as ArchaeopteryxArchaeopteryx, most have come to accept that birds evolved from small, terrestrial dinosaursknown as theropods.• But a vocal minority of researchers has held out, arguing--among other things--that birds are too old to have therapodancestry. They note that the most bird-like therapods date to about 115 million years ago, whereas ArchaeopteryxArchaeopteryxspecimens appear in the fossil record no sooner than 150 million years ago.• Compared to ArchaeopteryxArchaeopteryx, though, RahonaRahona ostromiostromi is a spring chicken, dating to only 65 to 70 million years ago.• Compared to ArchaeopteryxArchaeopteryx, though, RahonaRahona ostromiostromi is a spring chicken, dating to only 65 to 70 million years ago.And RR.. ostromiostromi is in many ways even more dino-like. The skeleton of RahonaRahona exhibits a striking mosaic of therapodand derived avian features. Perhaps most dramatic new finding is that the raven-sized bird bears a sickle-shaped clawon the second toe of its hind foot--a trait it shares only with fast, predaceous therapods called maniraptorans. This groupincludes Deinonychus and Velociraptors. In addition, this toe is much thicker on RR.. ostromiostromi than on other birds, as isalso true of meniraptorans. And like ArchaeopteryxArchaeopteryx, RR.. ostromiostromi has a long, saurian tail.• RR.. ostromiostromi is perhaps most bird-like in terms of its hips and legs, some researchers presume that it fits in at the base ofthe bird family tree, alongside ArchaeopteryxArchaeopteryx. The seeming age difference between the two may mean that RR.. ostromiostromi -- having been isolated on Madagascar -- represents an evolutionary holdover. Whatever the case, RR.. ostromiostromi is clearlyone of the most primitive birds ever discovered. As for the theory that birds have dinosaur origins, these researchers say,"it clinches it for us."


How Flying Creatures Appeared?How Flying Creatures Appeared?

TwoTwo modelsmodels ofof thethe evolutionevolution ofof flightflight havehave beenbeen proposedproposed:: in the "trees-down" model, birds evolved from ancestors that lived in trees and could glidedown, analogous to today's flying squirrels. In the "ground-up" model, thedown, analogous to today's flying squirrels. In the "ground-up" model, theancestors of birds lived on the ground and made long leaps.

Pterosaurus: gliders?Feathered Dinos: takeoff run?


Powered FlightPowered Flight• Insects

GlidersGliders• Squirrels• Lemurs

How Good is Half a Wing?How Good is Half a Wing?


• Insects• Birds• Bats• Pterosaurs?

• Lemurs• Marsupials• Fish• Frogs• Snakes• Lizards

Was the breaking up of Pangea or a sudden Was the breaking up of Pangea or a sudden climate change the reason for a possible end of the climate change the reason for a possible end of the

What happened to the first feathered flying dinos?What happened to the first feathered flying dinos?

climate change the reason for a possible end of the climate change the reason for a possible end of the Protoavis Dynasty?Protoavis Dynasty?

However, the Evolutionary trend to produce However, the Evolutionary trend to produce flying dinosaurs continued later.flying dinosaurs continued later.


Feathered Dinosaurs Found in China(fossils were dated between 125 and 145 million years old)

A model of what the Caudipteryx may have looked like.

The fossils are considered theropod dinosaurs rather than true birds because they lack a number of The fossils are considered theropod dinosaurs rather than true birds because they lack a number of features seen in features seen in ArchaeopteryxArchaeopteryx and more advanced birds, says Norell, a researcher of theand more advanced birds, says Norell, a researcher of the American American Museum of Natural HistoryMuseum of Natural History . He and his colleagues doubt that the creatures could fly because they had . He and his colleagues doubt that the creatures could fly because they had relatively short forelimbs, short feathers, and a body twice the size of relatively short forelimbs, short feathers, and a body twice the size of ArchaeopteryxArchaeopteryx. What’s more, . What’s more, their feathers had a symmetrical shape like that seen in flightless birds today.their feathers had a symmetrical shape like that seen in flightless birds today.


Feather Evolution PathFeather Evolution Path

SourceSource: Scientific American

Rear wings with asymmetrical feathers


GigantoraptorGigantoraptorGigantoraptor erlianensis stood more than 16 feet (fivemeters) tall and weighed a ton and a half, or roughly 1,400kilograms. Featuring a toothless beak on its head and ashort tail for balance, the enormous birdlike dinosaurmeasured more than 26 feet (eight meters) in length.Living more than 65 million years ago at the end of theCretaceous period, this big bird precursor has complicatedthe seemingly shrinking descent from Archaeopteryx to themodern sparrow.Paleontologist Xing Xu of Beijing's Institute of VertebratePaleontology and Paleoanthropology and colleagues

SourceSource: Scientific American Animal FlightAnimal Flight

Paleontology and Paleoanthropology and colleaguesdiscovered the animal while prospecting for fossils in theErlian Basin of the Gobi Desert in north-central China in2007. Based on its size, the paleontologists initiallyclassified it as member of the tyrannosaur lineage, but bitsof beak, leg and other bones revealed that it more properlybelonged to the oviraptorosauria group, heretofore agrouping of small, feathered creatures weighing only a fewpounds. "It is the largest known beaked dinosaur," Xu says.Adds paleontologist Mark Norell of the American Museumof Natural History in New York City: "I was justflabbergasted when I saw it because it was so big."

Microraptor ("small thief") is a genus of small, dromaeosaurid dinosaur known from well-preserved fossil remains recovered from Liaoning, China, and dating from the early Cretaceous Period (Barremian stage), 130-125.5 million years ago. Like Archaeopteryx, it demonstrates the close evolutionary relationship between birds

Microraptor GuiMicroraptor Gui


evolutionary relationship between birds and dinosaurs, for it had long pennaceous feathers on its limbs and tail. Two species have been named, M. zhaoianus and M. gui. It has recently been suggested that all of the specimens belong to a single species, which is properly called M. zhaoianus. Cryptovolans, another four-winged dromaeosaur, may also be a species of Microraptor.

Microraptor GuiMicroraptor Gui

Like its close relative Cryptovolans (possibly a junior synonym of Microraptor), Microraptor had two sets of wings, on both its fore- and hind legs (close studies of the Berlin specimen of the primitive bird Archaeopteryxshow that it too, had flight feathers on its hind legs, albeit shortened). The long feathers on the legs of Microraptor were true flight feathers as seen in modern birds, with asymetrical vanes on the arm, leg, and tail

WingsWings


feathers. As in bird wings, Microraptor had both primary (anchored to the hand) and secondary (anchored to the arm) flight feathers. This standard wing pattern was mirrored on the hind legs, with flight feathers anchored to the upper foot bones as well as the upper and lower leg. It had been proposed by Chinese scientists that the animal glided, and probably lived in trees, pointing to the fact that wings anchored to the feet of Microraptor would have hindered their ability to run on the ground, and suggest that all primitive dromaeosaurids may have been arboreal.

After the Big Extinction that took place 65 million years agoAfter the Big Extinction that took place 65 million years ago

This creature lived 50 million years ago on earth. It was an adult person’s height and ate the predecessor of today’s horse.


Predatory Dinosaurs Had BirdPredatory Dinosaurs Had Bird--like Pulmonary System like Pulmonary System

The pulmonary air-sac systems of dinosaurs and birds exhibit striking similarities, including predicted regions air of sac integration into the skeleton. The air sacs act like bellows to move air through the rigid

lungs. (Credit: Zina Deretsky, National Science Foundation)

Flight is in the airFlight is in the air

Paul MacCready’s QuetzalcoatlusPaul MacCready’s Quetzalcoatlus, 19871987


Velo

city

Spee

d

Birds Birds

Speed (top right) and maneuverability(bottom right) of birds depend on size(and Weight) and von wing planform.Mid-sized, sharp-wingtip birds likecommon swift or falcon peregrine aretop-speed fliers. The speed spectrum

Man

euve

rabi

lity

Weight

top-speed fliers. The speed spectrum(black line) goes thinner when the weightincreases. Small birds and those withshorter, wide wings and large tail are ableto perform rapid acceleration and stop.


Falcon PeregrineFalcon Peregrine

The relationship between Peregrine Falcons and humans goes back thousands of years. Once highly prolific and widespread throughout the world, Peregrine Falcons were commonly used throughout Europe, Asia and the Middle East in the practice of Falconry. Peregrines are naturally docile and easily lent themselves to taming by humans who saw the Falcon's hunting prowess as an asset in hunting for food. The Peregrine’s magnificent speed and power also made it the favorite bird for falconers in the Middle Ages. The female, which is slightly larger made it the favorite bird for falconers in the Middle Ages. The female, which is slightly larger and more powerful than the male, was preferred, and only she is given the title of “falcon.” A male Peregrine is referred to as a “tiercel” meaning third. Although falconry has fallen out of favor, there are still those who practice it today.

The peregrine is the fastest bird on record reaching horizontalcruising speeds of 65-90 km/h ( 40-55 mph) and notexceeding speeds of 105-110 km/h (65-68 mph). Whenstooping, the peregrine flies at much greater speeds however,varying from 160-440 km/h (99-273 mph)!


GannetGannetGannetGannet


Source: Daryll Stinton,,the design of the airplane.

5 5 -- Human FlightHuman Flight5 5 -- Human FlightHuman Flight

The history of civilization dates back a few thousand years, but the history of aviation is quite recent, only about a century old. The camera film was created in 1825. In 1895, a motion picturewas shown for the first time before an audience in Berlin. Likewise, early developments in aviation are well recorded. Because the history of the aerostat started long before that of theairplane, it is less known. Ancient inscriptions and texts indicate that the Chinese used hot air balloons and gigantic kites before the Christian era in order to survey the battlefield. TheMongols used lighted kites to communicate during the Battle of Legnica against the Poles in 1241 A.D. Much later, Brazilian Jesuit Bartholomeu de Gusmão, born to Portuguese parents,rediscovered the principle of the hot air balloon. In 1709, Gusmão built a small and unmanned balloon and performed a demonstration at the court of King Dom João V. In France, JeanPilâtre de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes made the first recorded flight in history in 1783, on board a balloon built by the Montgolfier brothers. From then on, ballooning became a rage.In 1785, Jean-Pierre Blanchard and John Jeffries departed from England on a balloon and crossed the English Channel. In 1794, France opened a ballooning school. France used two ballooncorps in the battles of Maubeuge and Fleurus and in the Mainz siege in the following year. In July of 1849 Austrian troops used balloons for the first time to drop bombs on Venice. As of themid 19th century, two new trends emerged based on the steam engine: the race to fly a lighter-than-air airship with engines and directional control, and the development of fixed-wingaircraft.In 1852, the Frenchman Henri Giffard was the first to fly a lighter-than-air craft with engines and steam propellers. From then on, numerous crafts followed, including Paul Haelein's craft in1872 and Charles Ritchel's in 1878. Paul Haelein from Germany was the first to use internal combustion engines on an airship. Hydrogen, used as fuel to lift the airship, was stored in onlyone tank. In the United States, Charles Ritchel made demonstrations of a lighter-than-air craft built with impermeable fabric and a tubular structure with room for the pilot and an engine, andmanaged to sell five units of his flying machine. Several other airships produced significant innovations before the turn of the century.Over time, the airplane began to take on a familiar shape. In 1799, the English George Cayley correctly outlined the lift, drag, and thrust forces that act on the airplane when flying. Hepointed out the importance of using cambered airfoils to produce a suitable lift, as well as designed gliders with control surfaces. These gliders were built and made successful flights in themid 19th century. As of 1891, the German Otto Lilienthal performed about 2000 glider flights. Both Lilienthal and Cayley wrote books and articles about light theory that influenced the workof the pioneers that followed. Several attempts were made at flying with steam engine aircrafts, but these flights were not successful owing o their high weight-power ratio. Only after theinternal combustion engine was improved did flying with a heavier than air aircraft become possible.In December 1903, the Wright brothers took to the air on the Flyer biplane, recognized by many historians as the first manned flight. In October 1906, Santos Dumont made the first historicalmanned flight on the 14Bis at the Bagatelle field, publicly witnessed by thousands of people and certified by an official entity, the Aero Club of France. The Wright brothers were the first tocarry passengers on their flights in Europe in 1908; the English Channel was crossed for the first time by Louis Blériot in 1909. The First World War greatly stepped up aviation growth.Shortly after the War, the first airlines were founded and started operating with retrofitted bomber planes. German manufacturer, Junkers, designed and produced the world's first all-metalplanes, as some were used in combat in the later stages of the First World War. The Junkers F.13 was the first airplane intended for passenger transportation, having made its maiden flight in1919.Experimental development was performed side-by-side with theoretical work carried out by scientists and researchers. Thus, fluid mechanics had been evolving a long time. In 1738, DanielBernoulli published his findings on the relationship between pressure and gas velocity. Bernoulli's assistant, Leonard Euler, published some articles in 1750 containing his famous equationson the behavior of compressible fluids. Italian mathematician Joseph Lagrange and French mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace studied Euler's findings and tried to solve his equations. In1788, Lagrange introduced a new model for fluid flow as well as new equations for calculating velocity and pressure. In 1789, Laplace developed an equation that would help solve Euler'sequations. It is still used in modern aerodynamics and physics. Laplace also successfully calculated the speed of sound. In addition to these theoretical advancements, experiments inaerodynamics were also producing more practical results. In 1732, the French chemist Henri Pitot invented the Pitot tube, a device that enables the calculation of velocity at a point in aflowing fluid. This would help explain the behavior of fluid flow. The English engineer Benjamin Robins performed experiments in 1746 using a whirling arm device and a pendulum tomeasure drag at low and high speeds. In 1759, the English engineer John Smeaton also used a whirling arm device to measure the drag exerted on a surface by moving air. He proposed theequation D = kSV2, where D is the drag, S is the surface area, V is the air velocity, and k is a constant, which Smeaton claimed was necessary in the equation. This constant became known asSmeaton's coefficient, and the value of this constant was debated for years. Those making the first attempts at flight, including the Wright brothers, used this coefficient. The French scientistJean-Charles Borda published the results of his own whirling arm experiments in 1763. Borda verified and proposed modifications to current aerodynamic theories and was able to show theeffect that the movement of one object had on another nearby object. The Navier-Stokes equations, considered the most complete mathematical model of fluid flow, were written in thebeginning of the 19th century. However, this system of equations was solved only halfway through the 20th century. For this reason, aviation pioneers largely used experimentation andemployed less complex theoretical models in order to achieve their goals.

Around 2300 BCAround 2300 BCRepresentation of aviation with king Etana on top of an eagle in the ruins of Ninive (above)

750 BC750 BCemergence of the legend of Daedalus and Icarus

around 400 BCaround 400 BCthe often-scribed pigeon of the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarant could have been a kite

200 BC200 BCemergence of the legend of Alexander, in which Alexander of Macedonia flies in company of some half-starved griffins to the end of the world. This motive turns up frequently.

First ThoughtsFirst Thoughts

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griffins to the end of the world. This motive turns up frequently.

220 BC220 BCrecords indicate that the Chinese used kites as rangefinders

2. cent. BC 2. cent. BC -- 5. cent.5. cent.Out of the Nazca-culture there are kept large "earth drawings" up to several km in the desert of Peru. A new hypothesis explains them as prehistoric starting places for kites or hanggliders.

10 cent.10 cent.The glider kite is presumed to have gained currency around the Pacific. It was probably manned and used for military, religious and ceremonial reasons.

12471247The Mongolian army uses lighted kites in the battle at Liegnitz

12821282 Marco Polo reports on manned and ritual kite ascents.

1316 1316 -- 13901390 Albert of Saxony, Bishop of Halberstadt, holds the opinion that air could carry a reasonably constructed machine as water can carry a ship (Archimedes principle).

14961496 the Italian Mathematician Giambattista Danti is supposed to have flown from a tower. There are many descriptions of supposed flights and attempts to fly in many countries. In the Middle Ages the ability to fly was attributed by popular belief to saints and witches.

About 1500About 1500 Flight-technical studies of Leonardo da Vinci In his notes designs for a parachute, a helicopter and a Ornithopter were found as well as notes of studies of airflows.

First ThoughtsFirst Thoughts

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About 1500About 1500 Hironymus Bosch shows at his triptych "The temptation of the holy Antonius" among other things two fighting airships above a burning town.

15581558 Giambattista della Porta publishes a theory and a construction manual for a kite.

16441644 The Italian physicist Evangelista Toricelli manages to give proof of the atmospheric pressure; he also produces a vacuum.

1654 The physicist and mayor of Magdeburg Otto von Guericke measures the weight of air and demonstrates his famous "Magdeburger Halbkugeln" (hemispheres of Magdeburg): 16 horses are unable to pull two completely airless hemispheres, whichstick to each other only because of the external air pressure, apart from each other (above).

16781678 Supposed flight of the French locksmith Besnier with a flapping wing machine.

16801680 The Italian physicist Alphonso Borelli shows in his treatise "movements of animals" that the flapping of wings with the muscle power of the human arm cannot be successful.

The Quest for FlightThe Quest for Flight

• By 17th Century, ancient ideas inspired scientific theories and experiments

• Characteristics of the atmosphere and the discovery of gasses and

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• Characteristics of the atmosphere and the discovery of gasses and properties led to lighter-than-air balloon experiments

• Airships needed power and direction control• Glider flying increased understanding of flight forces, wing

geometry & controls

Aeronautical ScienceAeronautical Science

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Faces of Fluid Mechanics : some of the greatest minds of history helped to establish the science of fluid mechanics

Da Vinci Newton Leibniz

Fluid MechanicsFluid Mechanics

Archimedes(287-212 BC)

Da Vinci(1452-1519)

Newton(1643-1727)

Leibniz(1646-1716)

Leonhard Euler(1707-1783)

Daniel Bernoulli

(1700-1782)Claude Navier

(1785-1836)GeorgeStokes(1819-1903)

Osborne Reynolds(1842-1912)

Ludwig Prandtl(1875-1953)

Aeronautical ScienceAeronautical Science

The Navier-Stokes equations are the basic governing equations for a viscous, heat conducting fluid. It is a vector equation obtained by applying Newton's Law of Motion to a fluid element and is also called the momentum equation. It is supplemented by the mass conservation equation, also called continuity equation and the energy equation. Usually, the term Navier-Stokes equations is used to refer to all of these equations.

Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier’s name is associated with the famous Navier-Stokes equationsthat govern motion of a viscous fluid. He derived the Navier-Stokes equations in a paper in 1822.

NavierNavier--Stokes EquationsStokes Equations

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that govern motion of a viscous fluid. He derived the Navier-Stokes equations in a paper in 1822.His derivation was however based on a molecular theory of attraction and repulsion betweenneighbouring molecules. Euler had already derived the equations for an ideal fluid in 1755 whichdid not include the effects of viscosity. Navier did not recognize the physical significance ofviscosity and attributed the viscosity coefficient to be a function of molecular spacing.

The equations of motion were rederived by Cauchy in 1828 and by Poisson in 1829. In 1843 Barrede Saint-Venant published a derivation of the equations that applied to both laminar and turbulentflows. However the other person whose name is attached with Navier is the Irish mathematician-physicist George Gabriel Stokes. In 1845 he published a derivation of the equations in a manner thatis currently understood.

Aeronautical EngineeringAeronautical Engineering

Variable speed driveVariable speed drive

Leonardo da VinciLeonardo da Vinci

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Another theoretical gear system that anticipates a number of modernapplications. By meshing the three cogged wheels of different diameters to thesame lantern wheel, three different speeds of rotation result, a principle used inthe transmission of the modern automobile.

Leonardo da VinciLeonardo da VinciSpring Driven CarSpring Driven Car

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It is doubtful that any such vehicle was ever constructed. Though springs had been known sinceancient times, their use to supply power first appeared in clocks and watches made after Leonardo'stime. He recognized their potential usefulness in such theoretical designs as this, and in a drawing fora flying machine in which springs were intended to provide an aid to manpower.


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Leonardo da Vinci, the most versatile genius of the Renaissance, is best remembered as the painter ofthe Mona Lisa (c. 1503) and The Last Supper (c. 1495). But he is almost equally famous for hisastonishing multiplicity of talents: architecture, sculpture, music, engineering, geology, hydraulicsand the military arts, all with success, and in his spare time doodled sketches for working parachutesand flying machines like helicopters that resembled inventions of the 19th and 20th centuries. Hemade detailed drawings of human anatomy which are still highly regarded today. Was also known forhis engineering of canal locks, cathedrals, and engines of war. Leonardo also was quirky enough towrite notebook entries in mirror (backwards) script, a trick which kept many of his observations frombeing widely known until decades after his death.

ParachuteParachute


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In June 2000, a British man, Adrian Nicholas built aparachute based on Leonardo’s ideas. He droppedhimself from a hot air balloon 3,000 metres abovethe ground, after ignoring expert advice that thecanvas and wood contraption would not fly. MrNicholas said he thought da Vinci would have beenpleased, even if the vindication of his idea came fivecenturies late.

Francesco Lana Francesco Lana --16501650

On November 11, 1647 a sixteen year old Italian boy became a novice in theSociety of Jesus in Rome. That in itself was not extraordinary. It was themind of the young man that was extraordinary. He was one of the Jesuits whoshone in the world of scientific ideas. Francesco Lana was the first personknown to have systematically applied mathematics to solving the problems oflighter-than-air flight.

You may have seen sketches of a gondola-like ship upheld by four globes andsteered by a sail. Francesco's concept was that if one were to eliminate all theair from a sphere of thin metal, it would become lighter than air and able torise. So far, his reasoning was based on sound principles. Blaise Pascal had

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rise. So far, his reasoning was based on sound principles. Blaise Pascal hadshown that air pressure decreases with altitude. Two scientists at Magdeburglater showed that it would take a team of eight horses to overcome outside airpressure and pull apart two halves of a heavy sphere that had been emptied ofair using such a vacuum pump. Then Robert Boyle wrote a treatise onvacuum, based on experiments conducted with the vacuum pump that RobertHooke built for him. Francesco knew of their work.

However, technology only works when all natural factors that affect it aretaken into account. Francesco thought that the spherical shape of the globeswould hold them rigid. He was wrong. He did not realize that the sameoutside air pressure which made it so hard for the horses to separate theexperimental sphere in Magdeburg would squash his flimsy globes. To keepthem from being flattened, a lighter gas of equal pressure was needed inside.

Bartholomeu de Gusmão Bartholomeu de Gusmão (1685(1685--1724)1724)

1709

72Passarola

Benjamin Robins’ Whirling Arm Device Benjamin Robins’ Whirling Arm Device 17461746

73

Benjamin Robins, the British mathematician, proved that air resistance was a critical factor in the flight ofprojectiles in 1746. His apparatus consisted of a whirling arm device in which weight (M) turned a drum androtated the test object .

Montgolfier Brothers (1783)Montgolfier Brothers (1783)Two brothers, Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, made manned, lighter-than-air flight possible. These two papermakers living in France, although not scientists, were highly educated and Interested in science and flight. They had read the works of the English scientist Joseph Priestly who, In 1774, had discovered oxygen and had written scientific papers on the properties of air.

In 1782, while watching a fire in his fireplace, Joseph became interested in the "force" that caused the sparks and smoke to rise. He made a small bag out of silk and lighted a fire under the opening at the bottom causing it to rise. The brothers thought

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opening at the bottom causing it to rise. The brothers thought the burning created a gas which they called "Montgolfier gas." They didn't realize that their balloons rose because the heated air inside was lighter than the surrounding air.

In June 1783, the brothers put on their first public demonstration using a paper-lined linen bag 38-feet in diameter. The balloon rose to an altitude of 6,000 feet and traveled over a mile before landing. After a demonstration before the Academy of Science in Paris, in which the brothers sent aloft a sheep, rooster, and duck, man was ready to fly. In Paris, on November 21, 1783, two men flew for the first time in a lighter-thanair craft. They were Pilatre de Rozier, who later became the first man killed in an aircraft accident, and Marquis d'Arlandes, an infantry officer. The flight lasted 25 minutes and covered a little more than five miles.

Por ocasião da ascensão de1785, o aeronauta VicenzoLunardi, com uma fleumaperfeitamente britânica, agitaUnion Jack. Lunardi efetuouum primeiro vôo prolongadoatravés da Inglaterra em 1784;mais tarde, percorreuigualmente a Escócia. Apesardas asa e dos remos, não lhe

Balonismo tornaBalonismo torna--se uma febre na Europase uma febre na Europa

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das asa e dos remos, não lhefoi possível dirigir o seubalão.

Em 1798, um cavaleiro sobe em umbalão. As exibições aeronáuticastornaram-se cada vez mais comuns.

Charles Green Flights between 1821 and 1852Charles Green Flights between 1821 and 1852

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Lithograph depicting the ‘Royal Nassau’ balloon containing Green, Jerrad, Moss, Spinney, Brunsdon and Hughes,ascending from the rotunda at Montpellier Gardens in Cheltenham, Gloucestershire. English aeronaut CharlesGreen (1785-1870) used this coal gas-filled balloon (formerly known as the ‘Royal Vauxhall’) for his mostfamous flight from London to Nassau in Germany in 1836. It was on this voyage, along with passengers RobertHolland MP and Thomas Monck Mason, that Green successfully completed the world's longest flight, covering anestimated 480 miles (770 km) in 18 hours. After achieving this feat, Green had an endless supply of patrons eagerto make an ascent in the famous balloon.

Balloon @ WarBalloon @ War

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The French were the first to use balloons for aerial reconnaissance in 1794, during their conflict with Austria. Thisreconnaissance contributed to the French victory by providing a way for the French to observe the makeup andactivities of their enemies.After the French Revolution had ended, one of the first acts of the Committee of Public Safety was to appoint anadvisory commission that recommended using observation balloons to help France's armies. They set aside anarea in the Paris suburbs for conducting secret balloon experiments. There, the world's first military observationballoon, L'Entrepremant," was constructed in 1793 under the guidance of the scientist Charles Coutelle andassisted by N.J. Cont‚.

Henri Giffard Henri Giffard -- 18521852Giffard's first flight took place on September 24, 1852. He traveledalmost 17 miles (27 kilometers) from the Paris racecourse to Trappesmoving approximately 6 miles per hour (10 kilometers/hour).However, Giffard's airship could be steered only in calm or nearlycalm weather. With any more wind, the airship could fly only in slowcircles. A lightweight engine powerful enough to overcome more thanlight breezes had not yet been invented. Using current technology, anengine with enough power to operate an airship in windy conditionswould have been prohibitively heavy. Not until the development oflight, efficient internal combustion engines at the end of thenineteenth century would airships become practical.Realizing that the engine was too heavy for his balloon, on his next

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Realizing that the engine was too heavy for his balloon, on his nextflight Giffard suspended it beneath a second, large bag of 113,000cubic feet (3,200 cubic meters) capacity. On a trial trip, gas escapedand the balloon became misshapen. The nose tilted up and some ofthe lines that held the car in place broke. The balloon escaped fromthe net and burst. Surprisingly, Giffard and his passenger were onlyslightly injured.For Giffard's third and final attempt, he planned an even largerballoon—1,970 feet (600 meters) long, 98 feet (30 meters) indiameter at the middle, and with a capacity of 7,800,000 cubic feet(220,871 cubic meters). He designed a steam engine that weighed 30tons (27,216 kilograms) which he thought would move the ship at 45miles per hour (72.4 kilometers per hour) in still air. However,because of its cost, this huge airship was never built.

Tissandier Brothers Tissandier Brothers -- 18831883The brothers Albert and Gaston Tissandier ofFrance designed and constructed the firstairship powered by electricity. The current wassupplied by 24 bichromate of potash cells to aSiemens 1.5 horsepower (1.1 kilowatts) at 180revolutions per minute. The engine drove a largetwo-bladed pusher propeller through reductiongearing. The speed achieved in calm air was stillonly 3 miles per hour (4.8 kilometers per hour)since the ratio of power to weight was no better

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since the ratio of power to weight was no betterthan Giffard's had been. It can be clearlyobserved the influence of Tissandier airshipconfiguration on the design of Santos-Dumontno. 3.

Santos-Dumont No. 3

La France La France -- 18841884

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In 1884, Charles Renard and Arthur C. Krebs, inventors and military officers in the French Army Corps of Engineers, built anelongated balloon, La France, which was a vast improvement over earlier models. La France was the first airship that couldreturn to its starting point in a light wind. It was 165 feet (50.3 meters) long, its maximum diameter was 27 feet (8.2 meters),and it had a capacity of 66,000 cubic feet (1,869 cubic meters). Like the Tissandiers' airship, an electric, battery-poweredmotor propelled La France, but this one produced 7.5 horsepower (5.6 kilowatts). This motor was later replaced with one thatproduced 8.5 horsepower (6.3 kilowatts).A long and slender car consisting of a silk-covered bamboo framework lined with canvas hung below the balloon. The car,which was 108 feet long (33 meters), 4.5 feet (1.4 meters) wide, and 6 feet (1.8 meters) deep, housed the lightweight batteriesand the motor. The motor drove a four-bladed wooden tractor propeller that was 23 feet (7 meters) in diameter but which couldbe inclined upwards when landing to avoid damage to the blades. Renard also provided a rudder and elevator, ballonnets, asliding weight to compensate for any shift in the center of gravity, and a heavy guide rope to assist in landing.The first flight of La France took place on August 9, 1884. Renard and Krebs landed successfully at the parade ground wherethey had begun - a flight of only 5 miles (8 kilometers) and 23 minutes but one where they had been in control throughout.During 1884 and 1885, La France made seven flights. Although her batteries limited her flying range, she demonstrated thatcontrolled flight was possible if the airship had a sufficiently powerful lightweight motor.

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Zeppelin LZ 1Zeppelin LZ 1

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Zeppelin LZ 2Zeppelin LZ 2

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I got Lost: Minerva I got Lost: Minerva -- 18641864

The Minerva, a fanciful aerialexploration balloon engraved at theOrdnance Survey Office in England

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Ordnance Survey Office in Englandin 1864, having been conceived byProf. Robertson as a floatinggarrison with detachable smallballoon, steerable parachute, cannonarmament and much more.

Balloons @ WarBalloons @ War

Balloons had been used degrees of success whenfirst used in the French Revolution. The UnitedStates first used balloons for military purposesduring the Civil War. While balloonists for boththe North and South accomplished many militarymissions, the use of balloons stopped in 1863when the Union disbanded its balloon corps. Thefailure was a result of many factors, such ascommanders playing down the importance of

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commanders playing down the importance ofballoons, rivalries between balloonists, and theSouth's lack of materials to build balloons. Afterthe Civil War ended, many of the militaryballoonists became barnstormers. These men, andlater women, would travel around the countrycharging for rides, shooting off fireworks,dropping animals with parachutes, andperforming aerial trapeze acts. In the 1880s and1890s, people began jumping with parachutesfrom balloons.

Federal observation balloon Intrepid being inflated.

Battle of Fair Oaks, Va., May 1862. (NARA 111-B-680)

Remote piloted dirigibleRemote piloted dirigiblec. 1900c. 1900

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Well before the race for wireless telegraphy and as far back as 1893 in St. Nikola Tesla demonstrated remote control of objects bywireless. This was two full years before Marconi began his experiments. His demonstrations of remote control climaxed in anexhibition in 1898 at Madison Square Garden in which Tesla caused a small boat (right) to obey commands from the audience. Ofcourse, it was Tesla interpreting the verbal requests and sending appropriate frequencies to tuned circuits in the miniature ship,but to the audience it was magic. To the press, Tesla prophesied a future in which telautomatons (robots) did man's bidding,perhaps some day exceeding mankind. Tesla had already decided that men were "meat machines", responding only to stimuli andincapable of free will, so to him the succession of man by machine seemed less preposterous. He also chose to join others in therace to use America's newfound technological superiority to devastate the Spanish in the the Spanish-American War. He offeredhis remote controlled boat to the military as a new kind of "smart-torpedo" that would make war so terrible nations would ceaseto wage it.

Crossing the English Channel Crossing the English Channel -- 19101910Ernest Thompson Willows (1886 - 1926) baute im Alter von 19Jahren schon sein erstes Luftschiff. Sein erster großer Erfolg war dieFahrt von Cardiff nach London in der Nacht vom 6.-7. August 1910.Am 4. November des gleichen Jahres startete er zusammen mitseinem Mechaniker Frank Godden zu einer Fahrt nach Paris. Siestarteten in Wormwood Scrubs, in der Nähe von London. Nach derÜberquerung des Ärmelkanals mußten sie in Frankreich, in der Nähevon Douai, landen, da die Luftzufuhr ins Ballonett gestört war. Damit

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von Douai, landen, da die Luftzufuhr ins Ballonett gestört war. Damitwaren Willows und Godden die ersten, die den Ärmelkanal vonEngland nach Frankreich überquert hatten, nachdem einen Monatzuvor das Clement-Bayard-Luftschiff Nr. 2 von Frankreich nachEngland gefahren war.

Willows Nr. 3 hatte eine Länge von 36,5 meinen maximalen Durchmesser von 12,2 mund ein Volumen von 900 m3. Der Motorleistete 35 PS.

Severo MaranhãoSevero Maranhão

Another Brazilian, Severo Augusto de Albuquerque Maranhão, born inMacaíba, Rio Grande do Norte State in the northeast of Brazil,designed and flew the dirigible Bartolomeu de Gusmão in Rio deJaneiro in1894. He also developed and constructed a second machine,the PAX. Two four-cylinder Buchet engines with 16 and 24 hp poweredthe PAX. Two pusher propellers set at 50 rpm drove the aircraft. The

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the PAX. Two pusher propellers set at 50 rpm drove the aircraft. Theforward and aft propeller diameters were 5 and 6m, respectively. Inaddition, two other propellers were placed normal to the machine’slongitudinal axis for lateral control only. A further propeller was placedbelow the deck and was employed to control the pitch movement of the30-m-long aircraft. Maranhão had some insights in designing the PAX,which were not taken into account by his predecessors. One of themwas the placement of the traction line coincident with the drag one tobetter control and handle the airship. However, he unfortunately diedduring his flight on the PAX on Mai 12th, 1902 in Paris.

Severo Maranhão Severo Maranhão –– Navy RebellionNavy Rebellion

Revolt of the Armada, September 6, 1893. The Revolta da Armada begins in Rio de Janeiro when a group high officials in the Navy demand new elections, stating that they are called for by the Constitution since Deodoro da Fonseca resigned from the presidency after less then two years. The rebels threaten to bomb Rio de Janeiro city. They move to the south in seek of support, but President Floriano Peixoto acquires new ships and puts down the revolt in March of 1894.

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Above. Encouraçado Aquidaban no dique seco do Arsenalde Marinha, 1894. Uma das principais unidades daesquadra brasileira, tornou-se, durante a Revolta daArmada, capitânia dos revoltosos. Em dezembro de 1893,junto com outras unidades sediciosas, rompeu a barra doRio de Janeiro e dirigiu-se para o sul do pais. Na noite de10 de junho de 1894, estava fundeado junto à ilha deAraçatuba (SC), quando recebeu um impacto de torpedopela proa, que o fez afundar. Posto a flutuar novamente,foi trazido de volta ao Rio de Janeiro, e é visto, nestafotografia, em fase de reparos.

Above. Damaged rebel ship, 1894.An unidentified vessel can also beenseen careened on its port side. Right.Trenched Armstrong cannons, 1894.

Severo Maranhão Severo Maranhão –– Navy RebellionNavy Rebellion

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The Bartholomeu de Gusmão airship at Campo do Realengo, no Rio de Janeiro, in 1894. The aircraftwas designed by Augusto Severo and built by the Parisian Lachambre establishment and also by ateam led by Severo in Brazil. Source: Museé de L`Air Le Bourget .

Severo Maranhão Severo Maranhão -- 19021902

91Above. The PAX airship.


92


93

Augusto Severo Airport Airport @ Natal, RNAugusto Severo Airport Airport @ Natal, RN

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5 5 -- Human FlightHuman FlightHeavier than AirHeavier than Air

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Vittorio Sarti Vittorio Sarti -- 18281828

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Surviving design of the "Aereo Veliero" (aerial sailing ship) by Vittorio Sarti, a Florentine cobbler settled inBologna, were remark-able for the period. The aircraft possessed two contra-rotating co-axial rotors, each formed,as it were, of three sails on to which were forced jets of steam issuing from a large number of nozzles cut into themast.

Sir George CayleySir George Cayley

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“I am apt to think that the more concave the wing to a certain extent, the more it givessupport, and that for slow flights a long thin wing is necessary, whereas for short quickflights a short broad wing is better adapted. “


98

Sir George Cayley is one of the most important people in the history of aeronautics. Many consider him the first truescientific aerial investigator and the first person to understand the underlying principles and forces of flight. His builthis first aerial device in 1796, a model helicopter with contra-rotating propellers. Three years later, Cayley inscribed asilver medallion (above) which clearly depicted the forces that apply in flight. On the other side of the medallion Cayleysketched his design for a monoplane gliding machine. In 1804 Cayley designed and built a model monoplane glider ofstrikingly modern appearance. The model featured an adjustable cruciform tail, a kite-shaped wing mounted at a highangle of incidence and a moveable weight to alter the center of gravity. It was probably the first gliding device to makesignificant flights.


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A drawing of an airfoil (streamlined body) based onthe contour of a trout. This idea failed to influencelater scientists, until aerodynamic theories in theearly 20th century evidenced the benefits of thickairfoil sections. (It is easy to observe that this shapeis not too different from a symmetrical NACAairfoil).

Cayley’s VTOL AircraftCayley’s VTOL Aircraft

Bell/Boeing V-22 Osprey

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Cayley made these drawings for a vertical take-off and landing aircraft in 1843. Although the design looks fanciful by modernstandards, it has features that have appeared in successful helicopters (the wide fanlike rotors resemble those used on the deBothezat machine flown by the U.S. Army in 1922; the lateral side- by-side arrangement of the rotors is similar to the record-breaking Focke helicopters built in Germany in the late 1930's). One especially interesting feature is the design of the blades:they flatten down to form a solid disc and act as a wing in forward flight. The bird's- head bowsprit may have been adeliberately humorous touch.

Bell/Boeing V-22 Osprey

Samuel Henson Samuel Henson -- 18401840

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British inventors John Stringfellow and William Samuel Henson,collaborated to create the first model of an airliner in the 1840's.They called this model the Aerial Steam Carriage. This modelwas powered from a steam engine and launched from a wire.This model had propellers, fuselage, wheeled landing gear, andflight control by means of a rear elevator and rudder. Themodel was unsuccessful because it failed to climb. However, thismodel was the first to closely resemble modern day aircraft.

Left. The Aerial Transit Company's Aerial Steam Carriage Depicted In

India. Note The Launching Ramp On The Left And The Tower To Permit

Passengers To Board.

Samuel Henson Samuel Henson -- 18401840

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RightRight. Patent Drawing Of . Patent Drawing Of The Aerial Steam Carriage The Aerial Steam Carriage

-- 18421842

Lawrence HargraveLawrence HargraveLawrence Hargrave was firmly committed to sharing the fruits of hisresearch, even though he conducted his experiments in Australia, farfrom the bustle of European and American aeronautics. He regularlycommunicated with the Royal Society of New South Wales and throughthat group (of which he was a member) to the rest of the world. He didn'tpatent the ground-breaking results of his research, believing thatwhatever he could do to promote the development of flying machineswould be reward enough. Hargrave was also an historian, and remarkedthat the inventor of a new mode of transportation had never been maderich by that invention, patented or not. Octave Chanute certainly knew ofHargrave and appreciated the importance of what Hargrave was thendoing. One of Hargrave's earliest achievements was to demonstrate thatfor a wing to lift and move through air efficiently, the center of pressure

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for a wing to lift and move through air efficiently, the center of pressureought to be located at about 25% of the chord length of the wing section.This was an understanding of great significance and to ensure that itwould find application by any aerial experimenters so interested,Hargrave published his discovery. It seems quite likely that Chanute hada hand in Hargrave's donation of his No. 14 to the Field ColumbianMuseum in Chicago, Illinois, during 1894. No. 14 performed a flight of312 feet in 19 seconds, powered by compressed air driving flapping-wing-type propellers which he termed “Trochoided planes”.

Hargrave's experiments with a series of powered experimental modelflying machines were of great interest to people then involved withaeronautics and aerial research. Chanute's now-classic 1894 book“Progress In Flying Machine” devoted more than thirteen pages toHargrave's work.

Above. Hargrave celular kites, 1893.

Otto LilienthalOtto Lilienthal

Above. The work with gliders in Germany by the Lilienthal brothers, Otto and Gustav, was, arguably, the most important aerial effort prior to that of the Wright brothers and Santos Dumont. Otto Lilienthal's numerous flights, over 2,000 in number, demonstrated beyond question that unpowered human flight was possible, and that total control of an aerial

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number, demonstrated beyond question that unpowered human flight was possible, and that total control of an aerial device while aloft was within reach.

Left - Lilienthal taking off from the building atophis artificial hill - ca. 1895. Above. TheLilienthal brothers were the first in knownhistory to employ drag polar graphs.

Lilienthal Lilienthal –– Vorflügelapparat 1895Vorflügelapparat 1895

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Lilienthal called this big monoplane a "device for experiments". Different control mechanisms were tested on this monoplane glider. The conspicuous front wing tip controller (Vorflügel) was intended to prevent crashes, which happened frequently in the case of a negative angle of incidence. A wingwarping control and turnable drag surfaces were also tested.

Lilienthal Lilienthal –– USAUSA

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Reconstruction of a Lilienthal glider in the United States, 1894 by A. Herring picture out of Lilienthal's estate

Lilienthal Lilienthal –– Wing FlappingWing Flapping

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In the last 20 years of his live Gustav Lilienthal started intensive research on thick wing profiles an wing flapping. The "großer Vogel" (big bird), Altwarp, (Stettiner Haff, [1915 ?]); Parts of the apparatus are kept in the Otto Lilienthal museum in Anklam, Germany.

Clement Ader Clement Ader -- 18901890

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Clement Ader was, by all accounts, a brilliant man who taught himself engineering. His interest in aeronauticalmatters began in earnest in 1870 when he constructed a gas balloon, and later he invented a number of electricalcommunications devices. He is most well-known, however, for his two remarkable flying machines, the Ader Eoleand the Ader Avion No. 3.Clement Ader claimed that while he was aboard the Ader Eole he made a steam-engine powered low-level flight ofapproximately 160 feet on October 9, 1890, in the suburbs of Paris, from a level field on the estate of a friend.However, according to Army’s reports and testimony from some people he failed to achieve flying.

Hiram Stevens Maxim Hiram Stevens Maxim -- 18941894

Hiram Maxim made a fortune from his invention of the Maxim machine gun, and he used a goodbit of that fortune to explore heavier-than-air flight. Maxim began his aerial experiments atBaldwyns Park, England, in the late 1880's, leading to the construction in 1893 of his enormousbiplane Test-Rig, which weighed about 7,000 pounds. The 3.5-ton machine was equipped with twosteam engines each produced 180 hp, and turned two propellers each 17-1/2 feet in diameter. Sincethe device was intended to be a test vehicle, it was held to a track, preventing it from rising frommore than a couple of feet.

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The Maxim Biplane Test-Rig, Track and Building - ca. 1894

The Maxim Pentaplane Test-Rig With All Lifting And Control Surfaces Attached - ca. 1894

Overall lifting surface area = 300 mOverall lifting surface area = 300 m22

Samuel Langley (1896)Samuel Langley (1896)

Langley built his "aerodromenumber 5" and achieved somesuccess. On May 6th 1896, hisapparatus flew (without a pilot)for over a minute, and came backto earth without damages. Thisexperiment was repeated onseveral occasions, under the

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several occasions, under thewatchful eyes of Graham Bell,who invented the telephone.Graham bell was extremelyimpressed with Langley'smachine. The "aérodrome 5" hada wingspan of 4.10 meters,weighing about 145 kilograms,tandem wing configuration, and aone horsepower steam enginedriving two propellers locatedbetween the wings.

Samuel P. Langley (1903)Samuel P. Langley (1903)

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• A 5-cylinder 52-hp radial engine equipped the Langley`s flying machine

In 1914 the machine regained flight status under a contract of the Smithsonian-Instituts with the aviation pioneer Glenn Curtiss

First Hops First Hops -- Karl Jatho Karl Jatho -- 19031903

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Between August and November of 1903, Karl Jatho tested his large flying machine near Hannover, Germany.Reportedly, at first the machine had three lifting surfaces, which were soon reduced to two. He had patterned theunusual wing design of his aeroplane after the Zanonia seed, which was known for its ability to glide in a stablefashion. Jatho managed to make a few short hops into the air, the best of which was just under 200 feet at an altitudeof about 10 feet. However, he was not satisfied with the results as he tried to extend his hops, for the single-cylinder10-hp Buchet engine driving a two-bladed pusher propeller was simply inadequate. In addition, the wings of Jatho'smachine were essentially flat, apparently having no curve in section, so lift was limited. The control system alsoappears to have been very limited in its effectiveness. Even so, it is generally conceded that Karl Jatho did manage togo aloft in a powered heavier-than-air machine. Within another six years Jatho had designed, built and flown a morerobust aeroplane.

First Hops First Hops --Traian Vuia Traian Vuia -- 19061906

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In February 1903, the work of the Romanian Traian Vuia (1872-1950), Projet d'Aeroplane-automobile, waspublished. On this original aircraft, designed and built by Vuia and containing only the third aircraft enginemade to that date, Vuia performed the first flight of a heavier-than-air aircraft (according to the Rumanian)in the history of aviation. It took off at Montesson, near Paris, on 18 March 1906, flying by the power of itsengine with no auxiliary equipment. He accelerated and after about 50 meters, the plane left the soil andflew at about one meter in height for about 12 meters then the propeller stopped and the aircraft landed.

First Hops First Hops --Christian Ellehammer Christian Ellehammer -- 19061906

Born at Bakkebolle, Denmark, June 14, 1871, Jacob Christian Ellehammer wasapprenticed as a youth to a watchmaker. He developed his skills in miniaturedevices and later taught himself the principles of electricity and the internalcombustion engine.His early commercial success with a motorcycle design permitted him toindulge his pursuit of powered flight.

His studies of birds enabled him to calculate the horsepowerrequired to fly and to translate these calculations into his own

114Ellehammer’s “flight” on September 12, 1906.

required to fly and to translate these calculations into his owndesign of a radial engine.Incredibly, Ellehammer continued to experiment unaware of theWright's first flight in December of 1903, and, on September12, 1906 performed a hop with his 9-hp airplane. His feat wasaccomplished on the tiny Danish island of Lindholm andconsisted of a flight of 42 meters at an height of 50 centimeters.Between that date and 1908 he performed some 200 flights onhis monoplane, 18-hp tractor biplane and 36-hp triplane.The rapid aviation success of other Europeans led Ellehammerto shift his focus to vertical flight craft and in 1912 hesucceeded in making a helicopter rise from the ground.

5 5 -- Human FlightHuman FlightSantos DumontSantos Dumont

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Short BiographyShort Biography

Childhood in BrazilSantos-Dumont was born in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais, the youngest of 11 children. Hegrew up in a coffee plantation owned by his family in the state of São Paulo. His father was anengineer, and made extensive use of the latest labor-saving inventions in his vast property. Sosuccessful were these innovations that Santos-Dumont's father gathered a large fortune andbecame known as the "Coffee King of Brazil."Santos-Dumont was fascinated by machinery, and while still a young child he learned to drivethe steam tractors and locomotive used on his family's plantation. He was also a fan of JulesVerne and had read all his books before his tenth birthday. He wrote in his autobiography that thedream of flying came to him while contemplating the magnificent skies of Brazil in the long,

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dream of flying came to him while contemplating the magnificent skies of Brazil in the long,sunny afternoons at the plantation.

Move to FranceIn 1891, Alberto's father had an accident while inspecting some machinery. He fell from his horse and became a paraplegic. He decided then to sell the plantation and move to Europe with his wife and his youngest son. At seventeen, Santos-Dumont left the prestigious School of Mines in Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais, for the city Paris in France. The first thing he did there was to buy an automobile. Later, he pursued studies in physics, chemistry, mechanics, and electricity, with the help of a private tutor.

Return to BrazilSantos Dumont continued to build and fly airplanes until he fell ill and subsequently returned to Brazil. He lived first in Petrópolis, in the mountains near Rio de Janeiro, in a house he designed, called A Encantada, then in Guarujá in São Paulo state until his death, by suicide, in July 23, 1932. He was thought to be in despair over the use of airplanes as weapons of war.

Dumont’s AircraftDumont’s Aircraft

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Santos-Dumont hired an experienced balloon pilot and took his first balloon rides as a passenger. Eventually he piloted themhimself, and soon was designing his own balloons. In 1898, Santos-Dumont went up in his first balloon design, the Brésil.After numerous balloon flights, he turned to the design of steerable balloons or dirigible type balloons that could be propelledthrough the air rather than drifting along with the breeze. Between 1898 and 1905 he built and flew 11 dirigibles. He was thefirst person in the history to perform a controlled flight. He achieved this milestone with his no.3 airship in 1899. Anothergreat achievement of his lighter-than-air career came on October 19, 1901 when he won the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize of100,000 francs for flying his dirigible Number 6 from the Parc Saint Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back under thirty minutes.In a charitable gesture, he donated half of the prize money to the poor of Paris. The other half was given to his workmen as abonus. Santos Dumont also made the first fully public flight of an airplane, in Paris in October of 1906 (In comparison, thesecretive Wright brothers did not make any public flights until 1908.) That aircraft, designated 14 Bis or Oiseau de proie(French for "bird of prey"), is considered by many to be the first to take off, fly, and land without the use of catapults, highwinds, or other external assistance. Thus, Brazilians, as well as many other admirers of Santos-Dumont, consider him to bethe "Father of Aviation" as well as the inventor of the airplane.

BrésilBrésil BalloonBalloon

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• Maiden flight on July 4, 1898 taking off from Jardin d’Acclimation

• Smaller than any previous balloons

BrésilBrésil BalloonBalloon

Brésil Balloon Brésil Balloon -- SpecificationsSpecifications

Ítem Specifications Weight (kg) Typical BalloonDimensions 113 m3, diameter of 6 m 500 m3 to 2000 m3

Invólucro Japanese Silk 3,5 Chinese silk

Varnish 10,5

Net Piano stringers 1,8 50 kg

Guide-rope 100 m 6,0Guide-rope 100 m 6,0

Anchor Arpéu de ferro 3,0

Instrumentation 4,7

Barquinha de Vime 6,0 30 kg

Total 35,5

Ballast 30

Pilot 50

Santos Dumont # 1Santos Dumont # 1

O N.º 1 tinha forma cilíndrica, com a proa e a popa em forma decone, 25 metros de comprimento e três e meio de diâmetro. Uminvólucro de seda japonesa continha seus 80 metros cúbicos dehidrogênio. Uma grande distância separava a barquinha doinvólucro, para minimizar os riscos decorrentes da introdução, nanavegação aérea, de uma importante inovação: o motor a vapor.Convencido de que o fracasso das experiências de Giffard, em1852 e dos irmãos Tissandier em 1883 e de Renard e Krebs em

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1852 e dos irmãos Tissandier em 1883 e de Renard e Krebs em1884, devia-se ao peso excessivo dos propulsores em relação aoempuxo, máquina a vapor no primeiro caso e motor elétrico nosegundo e terceiro, Dumont resolveu experimentar o novo motora explosão, que apresentava uma relação peso/empuxo muitosuperior à dos outros propulsores. O N.º 1 dispunha de um motorde três e meio cavalos de força, que pesava cerca de 30 quilos.Para cada cavalo de força, um peso de cerca de 11 quilos.

Santos Dumont First AirshipsSantos Dumont First Airships

No. 1No. 2

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No. 3

No. 4

No. 5 No. 6

Deutsche de Le Merthe ContestDeutsche de Le Merthe Contest

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Go around of the Eiffel Tower with the dirigible No. 6

on October, 19 1901

“After all inventions are the result of persistent work with no place for discouragement. Finally I was successful in constructing the No. 9 airship.”

No 9 Balladeuse (Aerial Carriage)No 9 Balladeuse (Aerial Carriage)

Technical Specs for No 9

125

Length: 15 m Gas capacity: 230 m³ (three times smaller than the n° 6 airship)Engine: 3 hp Clément weighting 12 kg (4 kg/hp)Top speed: 15 mph

Configuration Details of Baladeuse

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No.9 at Champs-Élisees

Stop for a coffee break on June 23,1903

"Levantei-me às duas horas... Pude erguer o vôo, franquear o muro e transpor o rio antes que o dia clareasse...”

“... A isto eu chamo de navegação prática...”

A parada para o cafezinho

“Quando encontrava árvores, 'saltava' sobre elas...

“Não estou fazendo nada de mais. Respeitei todas as regras de trânsito, vim pela mão certa, fiz o balão contornar o Arco de Triunfo e entrei na Rua Washington, onde moro.”

“... A isto eu chamo de navegação prática...”

Para as comemorações do dia da Queda da Bastilha, Santos Dumont desfila com seu balão sobre as tropas e ao fim da

solenidade o aviador felicita o presidente da França com uma salva de 21 tiros de festim.

O convite ao desfile

Santos Dumont assina o acordo mas declara não aceitar a utilização contra qualquer dos países das duas américas,

já que era americano, e que em um confronto entre França e Brasil, este teria que servir a patria que lhe viu

nascer.

“Pus à disposição do Governo da República, em caso de hostilidade com um país qualquer que não

fosse das duas Américas”

Military Applications for AircraftMilitary Applications for Aircraft

“Foi na França que encontrei todos os encorajamentos; foi na França, e com material francês,

que realizei todas as minhas experiências, e a maior parte dos meus amigos são franceses.”

“Ajuntei que, no caso impossível duma guerra entre a França e o Brasil, eu me julgava obrigado a oferecer os meus serviços ao país que me viu

nascer e do qual sou cidadão”.

131

Santos Dumont # 9 AirshipSantos Dumont # 9 Airship

132

Santos Dumont # 10 OmnibusSantos Dumont # 10 Omnibus

133

Above. The November 7, 1903 issue of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN magazine performed an wide coverage of the Santos-Dumont # 10 airship.

No. 11 (1905)No. 11 (1905)

134

Source: Lins de Barros

Source: Alberto Santos-Dumont, The Father of Aviation

No. 12 (1905)No. 12 (1905)

135

Picture of a model for a coaxial double rotor helicopter taken in 1905. The aircraft should be powered by a 24-hp Levavasseur engine weighting 77 kg.

Voisin’s GliderVoisin’s Glider

136

Archadeacon-Voisin glider ca. 1904

Voisin’s Voisin’s GliderGlider

Archdeacon-Voisin glider at Berck Beach ca. 1904. They were not able to get the Wright’s glider configuration airborne.

Voisin’s GliderVoisin’s Glider

138SantosSantos--DumontDumont

Voisin “Syndicat d’Aviation” Voisin “Syndicat d’Aviation”

Blériot II

139

This machine was built by Gabriel Voison for Louis Blériot from Blériot's designs in 1906. It began as aglider and was later fitted with an engine and propellers. When Voison test flew it, it sank in the SeineRiver. Contrary to Voisin’s conceptual ideas, who favoured the use of rectangular wing configuration,Blériot believed in the superiority of elliptical wings for better flight performance.

MaterialsMaterials

• Covering: Japanese silk

• Primary structure: • Primary structure: pines, bamboo

• Structural joints and propeller: aluminum

• Control cables: steel

14Bis Biplane Testing before Flight14Bis Biplane Testing before Flight

141

14Bis 14Bis -- September, 13September, 13rdrd 19061906

142

Le premier vol de l'aéroplane de M. Santos-Dumont interrompu par une avarie le 13 septembre 1906.

14Bis 14Bis -- October, 23October, 23thth 19061906

143

14Bis 14Bis -- October, 23October, 23thth 19061906

144

“My flight did not lasted longer because I lost directional control. It was not due to any engine failure,” Declared Santos-Dumont in 1918.

Dumont performed a 60-m long successful flight at a height of 2 to 3 m.

November, 12November, 12thth 19061906

Competition at that day: Bleriot’s craft

145

Competition at that day: Bleriot’s craft

Improved 14Bis

Ailerons

November, 12November, 12thth 19061906

Wing bumper to protect against hitting the groundWing bumper to protect against hitting the ground

The Last Flight with 14BisThe Last Flight with 14Bis

• Took place on April 4, 1907.

• After a 50-m long • After a 50-m long flight path the aircraft hit the ground and was heavily damaged.

14Bis Reloaded14Bis ReloadedOn October, 23 2006 a replica built by Alan Calassa successfully flew in Brasilia

Santos Dumont Santos Dumont –– EngineEngine--Start DeviceStart Device

149

No. 15 (never got airborne)

No. 16Santos Dumont’s Later DesignsSantos Dumont’s Later Designs

150

Demoiselle (Nos. 19 to 22)Demoiselle (Nos. 19 to 22)

The Demoiselle was a small high-wing monoplane had a wingspan of 5.10 m and an overall length of 8 m. Its weight was littlemore than 110 kg with Santos Dumont at the controls. The pilot was seated below the fuselage-wing junction, just behind thewheels, and commanded the tail surfaces using a steering wheel. The cables of sustentation of the wing were made of piano ropes.Initially, Santos Dumont employed a liquid-cooled Dutheil & Chalmers engine with 20 hp. Later, the great inventor repositionedthe engine to a lower location, placing it in front of the pilot. Santos Dumont also replaced the former 20-hp engine by a 24-hpAntoniette and carried out some wing reinforcements. This version received the designation no. 20. Due to structural problems andcontinuing lack of power Santos Dumont introduced additional modifications in Demoiselle’s design: a triangular and shortenedfuselage made of bamboo; the engine was moved back to its original position, in front of the wing; and increased wingspan. Thus,the no. 21 was born. The design of no. 22 was basically similar to no. 21. Santos Dumont tested opposed-cylinder (his patent) andcooled-water engines, with power settings ranging from 20 to 40 hp, in the two variants. The Demoiselle airplane could beconstructed in only fifteen days. With excellent performance, easily covering 200 m of ground during the initial flights and flying

151

constructed in only fifteen days. With excellent performance, easily covering 200 m of ground during the initial flights and flyingat speeds of more than 100 km/h, the Demoiselle was the last aircraft built by Santos Dumont. He used to perform flights with theairplane in Paris and some small trips to nearby places. Flights were continued at various times through 1909, including the firstcross-country flight with steps of about 8 km, from St. Cyr to Buc on September 13, returning the following day, and another onthe 17th, of 18 km in 16 min.The Demoiselle, fitted with two-cylinder engine, became rather popular. Roland Garros flew it at the Belmont Park, New York, in1910. American companies sold drawings and parts of Demoiselle for several years thereafter. Santos Dumont was so enthusiasticabout the aviation that he released the drawings of Demoiselle for free, thinking that the aviation would be the mainstream of anew prosperous era for mankind. Clément Bayard, an automotive maker, constructed several units of Demoiselle, which was soldfor 50,000 Francs.The design of Demoiselle clearly influenced that of the Blériot XI airplane, which was used for the British Channel crossing in1909.

Santos Dumont Demoiselle (Nos. 19 to 22)Santos Dumont Demoiselle (Nos. 19 to 22)

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Santos Dumont Demoiselle (Nos. 19 to 22)Santos Dumont Demoiselle (Nos. 19 to 22)

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Demoiselle and Blériots Demoiselle and Blériots –– Airshow in Texas in January 1911Airshow in Texas in January 1911

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5 5 -- Human FlightHuman FlightThe Wright BrothersThe Wright Brothers

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The Flyer Machine The Flyer Machine

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•1903 Flyer-1 was driven a home-made 12-hp engine, which had a weight of 80 kg•1904 A 21-hp engine equipped the Flyer-2 flying machine

•1909 Flyer-B was powered by a 36-hp engine

The Wright Brothers The Wright Brothers –– Flights in Europe in 1908Flights in Europe in 1908

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The Wright Brothers The Wright Brothers –– Flight with PassengersFlight with Passengers

In late 1908, Madame Hart O. Berg became the first woman to fly when she flew with Wilbur Wright in Le Mans, France.

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On May 14, 1908 the Wright Brothers made what is accepted to be the first two-person aircraft flight with Charlie Furnas as a passenger.

Life After SantosLife After Santos--DumontDumont

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5 5 -- Human FlightHuman FlightLife After Santos DumontLife After Santos Dumont

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Marquis d'Ecquevilly Marquis d'Ecquevilly -- 19081908

Hardly Dumont had flown in Europe, it began to spread the fever of aviation, innumerable peoplestarted to design apparatuses to get airborne. But it is in France in where many designers inventmachines heavier than the air, most of these they would never fly already were more product of theimagination that of the practice. If a wing or two is sufficient to make fly it airplane, with many wingsit will fly far better. Perhaps this went the theory that moved to Marquis d'Ecquevilly, a rich patronpawned on constructing a multiplane. It is not possible never to be denied the originality andinventiveness of this designer, but not even that was sufficient so that its apparatus flew.

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inventiveness of this designer, but not even that was sufficient so that its apparatus flew.

Henry Farman in 1908Henry Farman in 1908

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This photograph shows of Henri Farman winning the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize for the first closedcircuit kilometre flight in Europe, 13th January 1908.

“The competing aircraft, carrying its pilot and engine, was required to leave the ground under its ownpower, then pass in flight two pylons 82ft (25 meters) apart, to turn around a third pylon situated at1,640ft (500 meters) from the starting pylons, to pass once again in flight between these two pylons”and,finally, to land without accident." Gabriel Voisin

Some Dumont’s FriendsSome Dumont’s Friends

19281928

Bellow. On the 20th Anniversary of the first one-kilometer circuit flown by Henry Farman in a Voisin Biplane, Jan.13, 1908.

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Henri Farman Gabriel VoisinSantos Dumont

Henry Farman Henry Farman -- May 29, 1908May 29, 1908

On May 29, 1908 Henry Farman carried aviation supporter Ernest Archdeacon aloft

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aviation supporter Ernest Archdeacon aloft for more than one kilometer in the first airplane passenger flight in Europe.

The HelicopterThe Helicopter

Since around 400 BC the Chinese had a flying top that was used as a children's toy. This toy eventually made its way toEurope via trade and has been depicted in a 1463 European painting. Incidentally, the Wright brothers as children were given arubber-band-powered version of this toy invented by Alphonse Penaud and were very much fascinated by it and built theirown copies. "Pao Phu Tau" was a 4th century book in China that described some of the ideas in a rotary wing aircraft.The first somewhat practical idea of a human carrying helicopter was first conceived by Leonardo da Vinci around 1490, but itwas not until after the invention of the powered aeroplane in the 20th century that actual models were produced. Developers

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was not until after the invention of the powered aeroplane in the 20th century that actual models were produced. Developerssuch as Jan Bahyl, Oszkár Asbóth, Louis Breguet, Paul Cornu, Emile Berliner, Ogneslav Kostovic Stepanovic and IgorSikorsky pioneered this type of aircraft, with Juan de la Cierva introducing the first practical autogiro in 1923 that was to bethe basis for the modern helicopter. A flight of the first fully controllable helicopter was demonstrated by Raúl Pateras dePescara 1916 in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The German Focke-Wulf Fw 61 was the first practical helicopter. It first flew in1934. The Bell 47 designed by Arthur Young was the first helicopter to be licensed (in March 1946) for use in the UnitedStates.Reliable helicopters capable of stable hover flight were developed decades after fixed wing aircraft. This is largely due tohigher engine power density requirements when compared with fixed wing aircraft. Igor Sikorsky is reported to have delayedhis own helicopter research until suitable engines were commercially available. Improvements in fuels and engines during thefirst half of the 20th century were a critical factor in helicopter development. The availability of lightweight turboshaft enginesin the second half of the 20th century led to the development of larger, faster, and higher performance helicopters. Turboshaftengines are the preferred powerplant for all but the smallest and least expensive helicopters today.

BreguetBreguet--Richet Helicopter Richet Helicopter -- 19071907

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When it rose vertically from the ground with its pilot in the late summer of 1907, the Gyroplane No.1 built by Louis andJacques Breguet in association with Professor Charles Richet had to be steadied by a man stationed at the extremity of each ofthe four arms supporting the rotors. It cannot, therefore, take the credit for being the first helicopter to make a free flight, eventhough the ground helpers contributed nothing towards the lifting power of the rotors; but it was the first machine to raiseitself, with a pilot, vertically off the ground by means of a rotating-wing system of lift. Basically, the Breguet machineconsisted of a rectangular central chassis of steel tubing supporting the powerplant and the pilot; from each corner of thischassis there radiated an arm, also of steel tube construction, at the extremity of which was mounted a fabric-covered 4-bladebiplane rotor, making a total of 32 small lifting surfaces. One pair of diagonally opposed rotors rotated in a clockwisedirection, the other pair moving anti-clockwise.

Paul Cornu Paul Cornu -- 19071907

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The Breguets were not alone, however, in that their record was challenged by Paul Cornu, a bicycle maker fromLisieux, whose machine, powered by a small 24 hp engine, could only have been called the "flying bicycle,"consisting as it did of two large, spoked wheels on to which short, paddle-shaped wings were splined to formtwin two-blade rotors about 6m in diameter. The rotors were belt-driven and contra-rotating. The central framesupported the engine, pilot seat and fuel tank, and the whole contraption weighed just over 250kg. Various flightswere made, including the notable occasion when Cornu succeeded in remaining airborne for about 20 seconds ata height of 30cm on 13 November 1907. Thus it was he who was officially recognised as having made the firstfree flight.

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Glenn Curtiss Glenn Curtiss -- USAUSA

Above. January 28, 1904: In hisimproved two-cylinder motorcycle, heset a 7-year world record of 67.36 mphfor the ten miles at Ormond Beach,Florida.

Left. October, 1904: The first aeronautical use of Curtiss motors was with Tom Baldwin's "California Arrow,"shown above, at St. Louis' Lousiana Purchase Exposition ("Take Me Out To The Fair..."), where it was the only "Air Ship" to successfully fly.

Left. The first "publicly-announced flight in theWestern Hemisphere;" it also won the first leg of TheScientific American Trophy: Curtiss flying June Bugin July 4, 1908. In the eighth time Curtiss had been inthe air in an airplane, a distance of 3,420 feet (1 km)was covered in a slightly-curved course in exactly oneminute. This is a rate of speed of 38.86 miles anhour.

Louis Blériot Louis Blériot -- 19091909

BleriotBleriot XIXI SpecificationsSpecifications:: span 25 ft. 7 in.; length 26ft. 3 in.; takeoff weight 663 lb; engine 25 hp. Anzanithree-cylinder air-cooled fan-type (original);

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Louis Bleriot's Type XI incorporated many innovations including the monoplane wing, tractor engine, rearrudder, enclosed cockpit, horizontal stabilizer and swiveling landing gear to permit crosswind takeoffs. In 1909Bleriot, in a Type XI, became the first to fly across the English Channel, flying from Calais, France to Dover,England on July 25th. Both a designer and a pilot, pioneer French aviator Bleriot was still on crutches from aprevious crash when he made this flight of 21 miles in 38 minutes- through fog and mist, without a compass. Thisairplane was powered by an Anzani engine, similar to that on the Bellanca. Anzanis were known to have problemswith overheating, and had Bleriot not flown through a passing rain shower, thus cooling his engine, he might nothave completed his historic flight. Like almost all planes of this early era, bank was controlled by warping thewings. In 1913 a Bleriot piloted by Adolphe Pegoud was the first aircraft to be flown in sustained inverted flight.Landing gear consists of simple bicycle wheels and rubber bungee cord shocks.

three-cylinder air-cooled fan-type (original);Salmson nine-cylinder air-cooled radial(representation); speed 47 mph.

Some Dumont’s FriendsSome Dumont’s Friends

“I“I don'tdon't dodo anythinganything butbutfollowfollow andand imitateimitate you,you,YourYour namename isis likelike aa flagflagtoto usus.. YouYou areare ourour

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toto usus.. YouYou areare ourourcommandercommander..””BlériotBlériot toto SantosSantosDumont,Dumont, closeclose afterafter thetheChannelChannel CrossingCrossing..

Louis BlériotLouis Blériot

Louis Blériot Louis Blériot –– Blériot XIBlériot XI

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First SeaplaneFirst Seaplane

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After the futile experiments of Voisin and Bleriot on the river Seine in 1905 and 1906, French aviation developedliterally from the ground up, instead of from the water. Henri Fabre, however, an inventive marine engineer andnavigator, persisted in his original research on the problem of achieving powered flight from a water base. On March28, 1910, Fabre succeeded with his dreams when he took-off from water at Martinque, France. A fifty-horsepowerrotary engine powered the first flight, a 1650-foot distance over water. The Fabre’s plane flew was nicknamed "LeCanard", meaning the duck.On Jan. 26, 1911, Glenn H. Curtiss made the first successful seaplane flight in America. Curtiss fitted floats to abiplane, then took off and landed from water. Curtiss' contributions to seaplane innovation included: flying boats andairplanes, which could take-off and land on a carrier ship.On March 27, 1919, a U.S. Navy seaplane completed the first transatlantic flight.

First Seaplane circa 1910

Etrich Rumpler Taube Etrich Rumpler Taube -- 19101910

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The plane was developed by Igo Etrich from Austriain 1909, with the first flight in 1910, and was calledthe Etrich Taube. The design was licensed for serialproduction by Lohner in Austria and Rumpler inGermany, and called the Etrich-Rumpler-Taube.However, Rumpler soon changed the name toRumpler-Taube, and stopped paying royalties toEtrich. Etrich subsequently abandoned his patent.

First Flight from a ShipFirst Flight from a Ship

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Eugene Ely flies the Curtiss's Hudson Flyer taking off from the light cruiser USS Birmingham, Hampton Roads, VA, onNov 14, 1910.

Wright 1909 Military FlyerWright 1909 Military FlyerThe 1909 Wright Military Flyer is the world's first military airplane. In 1908, the U.S. Army Signal Corps advertised for bids for a two-seat observation aircraft. The generalrequirements were as follows: that it be designed to be easily assembled and disassembled so that an army wagon could transport it; that it would be able to carry two people with acombined weight of 160 kg (350 lb), and sufficient fuel for 200 km (125 mi); that it would be able to reach a speed of at least 64 kph (40 mph) in still air. This speed performancewould be calculated during a two-lap test flight over a five-mile course, with and against the wind. It must demonstrate the ability to remain in the air for at least one hour withoutlanding, and then land without causing any damage that would prevent it from immediately starting another flight. It should be able to ascend in any sort of country in which the SignalCorps might need it in field service and be able to land without requiring a specially prepared spot; be able to land safely in case of accident to the propelling machinery; and be simpleenough to permit someone to become proficient in its operation within a reasonable amount of time.The purchase price was set at $25,000 with ten percent added for each full mile per hour of speed over the required 40 mph and ten percent deducted for each full mile per hour under40 mph.The Wright brothers constructed a two-place, wire-braced biplane with a 30-40 horsepower Wright vertical four-cylinder engine driving two wooden propellers, similar to the aircraftWilbur had been demonstrating in Europe in 1908. This airplane made its first flight at Fort Myer, Virginia, on September 3, 1908. Several days of very successful and increasinglyambitious flights followed. Orville set new duration records day after day, including a 70-minute flight on September 11. He also made two flights with a passenger.On September 17, however, tragedy occurred. At 5:14 p.m., Orville took off with Lt. Thomas 0. Selfridge, the Army's observer, as his passenger. The airplane had circled the fieldfour and a half times when a propeller blade split. The aircraft, then at 46 m (150 ft), safely glided to 23 m (75 ft), when it then plunged to earth. Orville was severely injured,including a broken hip, but Lieutenant Selfridge was killed and the aircraft was destroyed. Selfridge was the first person to die in a powered airplane accident.

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including a broken hip, but Lieutenant Selfridge was killed and the aircraft was destroyed. Selfridge was the first person to die in a powered airplane accident.On June 3, 1909, the Wrights returned to Fort Myer with a new machine to complete the trials begun in 1908. (Wilbur had been flying in Europe the previous year and had thus beenabsent from Fort Myer in 1908.) The engine was the same as in the earlier aircraft, but the 1909 model had a smaller wing area and modifications to the rudder and the wire bracing.Lt. Frank P. Lahm and Lt. Benjamin D. Foulois, future Army pilots, were the Wrights' passengers. On July 27, with Lahm, Orville made a record flight of 1 hour, 12 minutes, and 40seconds, covering approximately 64 km (40 mi). This satisfied the Army's endurance and passenger carrying requirements. To establish the speed of the airplane, a course was set upfrom Fort Myer to Shooter's Hill in Alexandria, Virginia, a distance of 8 km (5 mi). After waiting several days for optimum wind conditions, Orville and Foulois made the ten-mileround trip on July 30. The out lap speed was 37.7 mph and the return lap was 47.4 mph, giving an average speed of 42.5 mph. For the 2 mph over the required 40, the Wrights earnedan additional $5,000, making the final sale price of the airplane $30,000.Upon taking possession of the Military Flyer, referred to as the Signal Corps No. 1 by the War Department, the Army conducted flight training at nearby College Park, Maryland, andat Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas, in 1910. Various modifications were made to the Military Flyer during this period. The most significant was the addition of wheels to thelanding gear.Early in 1911, the Signal Corps placed an order with the Wrights for two of their new Wright Model B airplanes. In addition, the War Department proposed shipment of the original1909 Army airplane to the Wright Company factory in Dayton, Ohio, to have it rebuilt with Model B controls and other improvements. The Wright Company quoted a price of $2,000for the upgrade, but advised against it because of the many design improvements that had been made during the intervening two years. The manager of the Wright Company, FrankRussell, learned that the Smithsonian Institution was interested in the first Army airplane and would welcome its donation to the national museum. The War Department agreed andapproved the transfer on May 4, 1911. The aircraft was restored close to its original 1909 configuration, but a few non-original braces added for the wheeled landing gear in 1910remained on the airplane when it was turned over to the Smithsonian. Apart from a few minor repairs over the years, the airplane has not been restored since its acquisition in 1911. Ofthe three Wright airplanes in the NASM collection, the 1909 Military Flyer retains the largest percentage of its original material and components.

Wright 1909 Military FlyerWright 1909 Military Flyer

177The Wright Military Flyer above Fort Myers, Virginia. The Wright Military Flyer above Fort Myers, Virginia.

Wright Brothers Wright Brothers –– Flight with PassengersFlight with Passengers

Lieutenant Thomas E. Selfridge was the world's first aircraft fatality. He was twenty six years old when he died in 1908. Selfridge Air Base is a memorial to him.

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Orville was preparing to demonstrate at Fort Myer. Once again, Lt. Selfridge was a member of the official test board. By September 9, the presswas reporting that Orville was making solo flights exceeding one-hour duration. He was then asked to take passengers. Thomas Selfridge was tobe the passenger on September 17.Selfridge planned on traveling to Missouri the next day for further airship demonstrations with Tom Baldwin. He was eager to experience flightin the mysterious Wright Flyer before leaving. Orville was uncomfortable. Selfridge was a member of the Bell and Curtiss competition and nowwas a judge. Selfridge was also asking questions and trying to get information that Orville considered proprietary.The extra weight would require additional load on the remarkably efficient propellers. They were long and slender, crafted of laminated wood.Two new and slightly longer 9-foot-diameter propellers were installed. Orville made four graceful circles around the parade grounds at 150 feet,while Selfridge smiled and waved to the gathered crowd of 2,500 people. Suddenly. the left propeller split. There was a thump followed byvibration, loss of control, and a dive to the ground. Orville suffered broken bones and an injured back. Selfridge died at age 26 of a fracturedskull. The Army's aviation expert and only pilot was also first to die in a powered flying machine. He was buried with honors at ArlingtonCemetery in a plot near the accident site.

United States: Zerbe’s Machine (1910)United States: Zerbe’s Machine (1910)

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First Passenger AirplanesFirst Passenger Airplanes

Blériot Aérobus (1911)Blériot Aérobus (1911)

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Avro Type F (1912)Avro Type F (1912)

Etrich Luftlimousine (1912)Etrich Luftlimousine (1912)

Wright brothers’ FlyerWright brothers’ Flyer

First Passenger AirplanesFirst Passenger Airplanes

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The Avro Enclosed Cockpit Monoplane was designed by Roy Chadwick in April 1912. This was the world's world's first enclosed cabin machine, It had a 35 hp engine and flew to 1,000 ft on 17 May 1912. Roy Chadwick stayed with Avro, becoming a world famous designer. His designs included both the WW2 Avro Lancaster, and Avro Vulcan bombers.

DELAG: the first airlineDELAG: the first airlineDeutsche Zeppelin Reederei - DD..ZZ..RR. - was officially formed as aGerman national airline by the German Air Minister - HermannGoering - in March 1935. DZR would use two Zeppelin airships acrossthe North and South Atlantic. The airship airline was formed with theintention of flying the German Nazi flag - the Swastika logo - aroundthe world in a propaganda excercise. Deutsche Luft Hansa was alreadyflying mail and passenger seaplane flights across the South Atlanticusing mid-Atlantic catapult ships that re-supplied the seaplanes on theirjourney. The new airships were to give DLH competition.DZRDZR had a precedent airline called DELAGDELAG - Deutsche LuftschiffahrtAktien Gesellschaft - which was formed by Count Zeppelin (inventor

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Aktien Gesellschaft - which was formed by Count Zeppelin (inventorof the rigid airship) and the Hamburg-Amerika shipping line (HAPAG)on 16 October 1909 with four rigid Zeppelin airships flying passengersfrom Germany. DELAG carried 19,000 passengers on almost 900flights until the start of the first world war.DELAGDELAG has been credited as the world's first sustained and scheduledpassenger airline although much of its business was reputed to havemore to do with airship joyride flights. However, DELAG was CountZeppelin's first attempt at an airship airline operation and as it flewpoint to point scheduled routes it probably does not matter whatpurpose it's passengers had in flying them. It can be thought of as thefirst airline.

Caproni Failed Attempt to Build a CruiserCaproni Failed Attempt to Build a Cruiser

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World War IWorld War I

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Technology Evolution in WWITechnology Evolution in WWI• Dirigibles

- Fighters against airships- Strategic bombing

• Airplane– Bombs and machine guns– Reconnaissance– Metal structure– Cantilever monoplane– Liquid-cooled engine– Thick airfoil

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– Thick airfoil– Strategic bombing– Air to Air combat– Bombers against Fighters

• Led to night attacks, poor accuracy• Machine gun/prop problem

– Sea Planes– Anti-aircraft guns, machine guns on high angle platforms

WWI FightersWWI Fighters

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Morane Saulnier N “Bullet” (1914)

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Due to the shape of its nose, the Morane-Saulnier Type N was aptly nicknamed the "Bullet." Built insmall numbers, it was the first French aircraft specifically developed as a fighter. Famed Frenchaviator, Roland Garros shot down four German aircraft with this system (which he helped to design),before an engine failure brought him down behind enemy lines. He was captured and his aircraft wassecured by German authorities before he had a chance to burn it. It was then turned over to AnthonyFokker for evaluation, and within 24 hours, Fokker devised a far more practical method ofsynchronization for the gun to fire with the rotation of the propeller. Armed with a fixed, forward firingmachine gun, its propeller was protected by the metal deflector plates pioneered by Roland Garros onthe Morane-Saulnier Type L. Although it was faster and more maneuverable than previous aircraft, theBullet was extremely difficult to fly and unpopular with pilots.

Fighters in 1918Fighters in 1918

Sopwith Camel

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Four fighter aircraft that served with distinction in frontline combat operations untilthe termination of hostilities in November 1918. Three of these aircraft, the FrenchSPAD XIII and the British Sopwith Camel and Dolphin, were strut−and−wire−bracedbiplanes that had a conventional wood−frame structure covered with fabric. Thefourth, the German Fokker D−VII biplane, had internally braced cantilever wings likethe Fokker triplane, together with a typical Fokker welded steel tube fuselage.

Sopwith DolphinSPAD XIII

Sopwith CamelSopwith Camel

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Sopwith DophinSopwith Dophin

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Unlike the SPAD XIII and the Fokker D−VII, the Sopwith Dolphin cannot be regarded as one of the great fighter aircraft of World War I, but it is one of the many unusual designs developed during that turbulent era. At first glance, the Dolphin appears to be a conventional double−bay biplane equipped with an inline engine. A closer look, however, discloses that the wings are configured in an unorthodox fashion, with the lower wing located ahead of the upper wing. An aircraft with this wing arrangement is described as having negative stagger. The earlier DeHavilland DH−5 (a limited success) had this wing arrangement, as did the well-known Beech model 17 which appeared about 15 years after the Dolphin.

Fokker D.VIIFokker D.VII

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The Fokker D.VII was arguably the best aircraft of the First World War ... it has been said it made a mediocre pilotgood, and a good pilot great. While this may be an exaggeration, the D.VII was the only German aircraftspecifically mentioned in the terms of the armistice ending WWI, with all examples to be turned over to the Allies.The D.VII was built by three different factories - Fokker itself, Albatros and the Albatros subsidiary of OAW. Eachhad its own style of cowl and engine cooling louvres. These louvres were installed after a series of inflight fires inwhich aircraft spontaneously caught fire with disastrous results. This was thought to be due to the temperature ofthe engine compartment setting off the phosphorous ammunition. Once these tribulations were worked out, theD.VII went on to equip most German Jastas.

SPAD XIIISPAD XIII

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SPAD was the acronym of the French aircraft company Societé pour Aviation et les Derieves, headed by famed aviationpioneer Louis Bleriot, which produced a line of highly successful fighter aircraft in World War I. The SPAD model XIII C.1 is the subject of the following discussion. The SPAD XIII descended from the earlier model VII which first enteredcombat in the fall of 1916. In contrast to the earlier aircraft, the model XIII was somewhat larger, had a more powerfulengine, and was equipped with two synchronized machine guns rather than one. It entered combat in the fall of 1917 andserved with the air forces of most of the Allied Nations, including the United States. Many famous aces flew the SPAD,but to Americans the best known was Captain Edward V. Rickenbacker, the top scoring U.S. ace of the First World War.

Junkers AllJunkers All--metal Aircraftmetal Aircraft

Following the experiences of the J1 and J2 aircraft, Hugo Junkersrealized that the iron structure employed in those designs was to heavyto fulfill the demand for satisfying climb performance as well asmaneuvering. Therefore he advised Otto Mader to think about theutilization of Duralumin, which reduces the weight for about 60%compared to iron structures. While his assistants Mader, Reuter andBrandenburg were engaged in the construction of the new aircraftdesign, named J3, Steudel was responsible for the research of newproduction technologies for the utilization of Duralumin. Thedevelopment of the J3 were privately financed by Junkers and ICOwithout any support by IDFLIEG (Inspectorate of Aviation Troops) or

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without any support by IDFLIEG (Inspectorate of Aviation Troops) orthe German government. Two versions of the J3 were designed, a singleseated fighter aircraft and double seated battle aircraft. In late summer1916 the production of the single seated J3 prototype was started atDessau. The fuselage tube construction and the complete wing withcorrugated Duralumin panels were already finished, when Junkers raninto financial difficulties for this project and in October 1916 the furtherproject was stopped. Even if the J3 did not become the world's firstaircraft, which was built from light metals, all calculations proofed, thatthe utilization of Duralumin was heading towards lighter metal aircraft,which offer convenient performances compared to the conventionalwooden and textile covered aircraft.

AIRFOIL THICKNESS: WWI AIRPLANESAIRFOIL THICKNESS: WWI AIRPLANES

English Sopwith Camel

Thin wing, lower maximum CLBracing wires required – high drag

German Fokker Dr-1

Higher maximum CLInternal wing structureHigher rates of climbImproved maneuverability

Wing SectionsWing Sections

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Wing PlanformsWing Planforms

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Fighters: Time to ClimbFighters: Time to Climb

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WWI Heavy Bombers: EnglandWWI Heavy Bombers: England

DeHavilland D.H.4DeHavilland D.H.4Bombload: 298 kgEngines: one 375-hp Rolls-Royce EagleSpeed: 230 km/h Entry mission: March 1917Number built: 4,346 (USA)

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DeHavilland D.H.9ADeHavilland D.H.9A

Bombload: 300 kgEngines: one 400-hp 12-cylinder LibertySpeed: 193 km/h First mission: December 1917Number built: 2,100

High-speed bombers. Fighters could not intercept them!

Bombload: 750-2000 kg according to combat radiusEngines: four 245-hp Mayabach or 260-hp Mercedes D IVMax. speed: 135 km/h Wingspan: 42.2 mEntry into service: 1917

WWI Heavy Bombers: GermanyWWI Heavy Bombers: Germany

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Gotha G IV Gotha G IV Bombload: 600 kgEngines: two 260-hp Mercedes D VIaMax. speed: 140 km/hWingspan: 23.7 mFirst bombing mission: 1917Number built: 232

ZeppelinZeppelin--Staaken R VIStaaken R VIEntry into service: 1917Number built: 18

Heaviest bombload was the design target

ZeppelinZeppelin--Staaken R VIStaaken R VIWWI Heavy Bombers: GermanyWWI Heavy Bombers: Germany

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SiemensSiemens--Schukert R VISchukert R VIWWI Heavy Bombers: GermanyWWI Heavy Bombers: Germany

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WWI BombingWWI Bombing

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Largest bomb of Largest bomb of WWI WWI –– 1650 lb 1650 lb

German observer dropping German observer dropping handhand--held bomb held bomb

WWI Aerial CamerasWWI Aerial Cameras

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World War I

WWI FiguresWWI Figures

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World War I

The Golden Era of Airships

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Early ZeppelinsEarly Zeppelins

LZ-1 (1900)LZ-4 over Munich

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LZ-4 over Munich

Hugo Eckner

Graf Zeppelin(1838-1917)

Dirigibles: Zeppelins over London in WWI

207Zeppelin bomb damage at Yarmouth, England, 1915.

Zeppelins L 13, L 12, and L 10 on a bombing mission.

Balloons and Airships Balloons and Airships 19121912--19151915

208Zeppelin bomb damage at Yarmouth, England, 1915.

19121912--19151915

Balloons and Airships Balloons and Airships 19171917--19181918

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19171917--19181918

British Airships: RBritish Airships: R--100100

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Capitalist airship was fasterDespite the handicaps, the R.100 performed well. It was at leastten miles an hour faster than the R.101. During the finalacceptance flight, although the weather was atrocious, the shiphandled like a dream. One man, taking a stroll on top of the ship,lost his wristwatch one night. It was found the next day by one ofthe riggers. The flight to and from Canada was successful, and thegovernment took delivery of the capitalist ship without a hitch.


The R.101 was built under no economic strictures. Any amount of experimentation and research was funded. But while the Air Ministry officials made the rules and kept the score, they were, as Shute put it, "hemmed in behind a palisade of their own public statements." The design of the ship was unbelievably complex, and once committed to a design innovation, the Air Ministry staff were unable to change their minds. The ship's diesel engines and unnecessary servo motors added

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diesel engines and unnecessary servo motors added weight, and while the R.100 had two engines that could run forward or reverse, the R.101 carried an extra three-ton reverse engine that rode as a passenger. The gas valves of the R.101 were oversensitive. The outer cover was friable, and had to be replaced. The R.101's payload lift was only 35 tons, as opposed to 54 tons for the R.100. To gain more lift, the gas-bag anchors were loosened , and the ship was sliced in half and a new bay inserted.


.Midnight 26th SeptemberDepart Cardington

.Times (approx. due to local conditions)Outward

Original HMA R101 Schedule to Karachi:

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(refuel) before Sunrise 1st OctoberArrive Karachi

.after Sunset 29th SeptemberDepart Ismalia

(refuel)after Sunset 28th SeptemberArrive Ismalia

.Midnight 26th SeptemberDepart Cardington

(refuel)After Sunset 11th OctoberArrive Cardington

.Before Sunrise 9th OctoberDepart Ismalia

(refuel)After Sunset 8th OctoberArrive Ismalia

.After Sunset 5th OctoberDepart Karachi

.Times (approx. due to local conditions)Return

Gas Bags ManufacturingGas Bags Manufacturing

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<< Similar idea that came much laterSimilar idea that came much later

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USS Los Angeles (LZ 126)

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Graf Zeppelin (LZ 127)

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Graf Zeppelin Spec’sGraf Zeppelin Spec’s

• Volume: 110,000 m3

• Dimensions: 237m x 30m

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• Dimensions: 237m x 30m• Speed: 110 km/h • Payload: 40 crew, 20 passengers• Propulsion: Maybach props; 5 x 550 hp• Range: 10,000 km

Graf Zeppelin FactsGraf Zeppelin Facts

• Launched: 1928• Round the world in 12 days: 1929• No. flights: 590• Distance traveled: 1,700,000 miles

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• Distance traveled: 1,700,000 miles• Atlantic Crossings: 50• De-commissioned: 1940• Fuelled by: ‘Blaugas’

Airships: Hindenburg (LZ 129)

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The Hindenburg was a huge gamble in a long line of gambles for the Zeppelin Company. She still holds the record as the largest aircraft ever tofly but, as majestic and awe-inspiring as she was, the Hindenburg was meant to be only the first of a fleet. History dictated that she was to be thefirst of only two. The Hindenburg was a marvel of zeppelin design. Her sheer size was truly an engineering masterpiece. For years builders ofdirigibles, including the Zeppelin Company, had simply stretched the hulls of their airships to accommodate more lifting gas. The British builtR101 was actually cut in half and had a whole extra section added to accommodate an additional gas bag to increase its poor lift and the famousGraf Zeppelin was in fact, little more than a stretched version of the LZ126, the Los Angeles. The Zeppelin Company decided that with this newzeppelin, they would increase gas volume by not only making her the longest they could, but also by radically increasing her girth. Where the GrafZeppelin was an impressive 100 feet in diameter, the Hindenburg would measured in at 135 feet and 1 inch. Even though an increase of a littleover 35 feet doesn't sound like so much, remember that these monstrous ships needed hangers to protect them from the elements and when theHindenburg was being built in her new construction shed, she was wedged in as tight as possible! With her massive diameter and her impressivelength, the Hindenburg would carry a gas volume of 7,062,000 cubic feet. This volume, when filled with hydrogen, would produce an astounding242.2 tons of gross lift. The useful lift (the lift left after you subtract the weight of the structure from the gross lift) was still 112.1 tons. Anastounding weight even by today's standards but mind-blowing in the 1930's. At this point in world aviation, airplanes could fly only shortdistances with constant refueling and as little weight as possible.

Airships: Hindenburg (LZ 129)Airships: Hindenburg (LZ 129)

220

LZ 129 HindenburgLZ 129 Hindenburg

221

Partial view of Restaurant.Crew rest area.

Transatlantic Flights to BrazilTransatlantic Flights to Brazil

Em 1933, os alemães da Companhia Zeppelin Luftschiffbau vieram ao Brasil escolher a área apropriada para pouso e abrigo dosZeppelins. Após meticulosos estudos climáticos, direção dos ventos, velocidade e também possibilidade de meios de transporte,foi escolhida a área próxima à Baía de Sepetiba no estado do Rio de Janeiro. Essas terras foram doadas pelo Ministério daAgricultura e totalizavam 80.000 m2. No ano seguinte, o Hangar concebido por engenheiros alemães, começou a ser construídopela Companhia Brasileira "Construtora Nacional Condor" que seguia as instruções do gigantesco Kit fornecido pelos alemães.Um acordo entre o governo brasileiro e a Companhia Alemã previa a construção de um aeródromo no local, que mais tarde foidenominado Bartolomeu de Gusmão. Além da construção do Hangar, foi instalada também uma fábrica de hidrogênio paraabastecer os dirigíveis e uma linha ferroviária ligando o aeroporto à estação de D. Pedro II. Finalmente, em 26 de dezembro de1936, o Hangar foi inaugurado com a ativação de uma linha regular de transportes aéreos que ligava Frankfurt ao Rio de Janeirocom escala em Recife e contou com a presença do então presidente Getúlio Vargas. Os Zeppelins já chamavam a atenção do povobrasileiro desde 1930. Em Recife, no dia 22 de maio de 1930, a cidade parou para ver de perto o Graf Zeppelin, no bairro doJiquiá, (onde até hoje existe a única torre de atracamento de dirigível que restou no mundo). A mesma cidade também foi visitadapelo dirigível Hindemburg, causando a mesma comoção. Logo que começaram a chegar os primeiros dirigíveis, era preciso 200homens que ficavam na pista para ajudar a atracá-los, segurando seus cabos, apelidados de "aranhas". Havia uma torre onde a proaficava atracada, enquanto a popa era engatada a um carro gôndola, feito para receber o cone e que entrava no Hangar paradesembarque dos passageiros e manutenção, feita pela própria tripulação. No Hangar, tudo tem proporções imensas. Com 270 mde comprimento, 50 m de altura e 50 m de largura, o Hangar do Zeppelin está orientado no sentido Norte/Sul. O portão Norte, com28 m de largura e 26 m de altura só servia para ventilação e saída da torre de atracação e só abre manualmente. O portão Sul, oprincipal, abre-se em toda a altura do Hangar e possui duas folhas de 80 toneladas cada uma. Estas portas podem até hoje serabertas elétrica ou manualmente, utilizando o sistema original. O uso do Hangar foi efêmero e em 1937 o último Zeppelindecolava do aeródromo após nove viagens ligando o Brasil à Europa. Dentre essas viagens, quatro foram realizadas peloHindenburg e cinco pelo Graf Zeppelin. Quando o aeroporto Bartolomeu de Gusmão foi transformado em Base Aérea de SantaCruz em 1941, o Hangar passou a abrigar as diversas Unidades Aéreas que ali se instalariam ao longo dos anos.

Zeppelin Flights to BrazilZeppelin Flights to Brazil

Rio de JaneiroSanta Cruz Air Force Base, Rio de Janeiro

223Recife, Pernambuco

Hindenburg Airship in Brazil (1936)Hindenburg Airship in Brazil (1936)

224

Graf Zeppelin II

The LZ-130 was the last of the great fleet to be built. Originally there were to be several like her built, but as the second world war quickly approached, the golden era of the passenger airship drew to a close. Outwardly, the LZ-130 didn't differ from her ill-fated sister, the Hindenburg, much at all. The most obvious difference is that orientation of the propeller blades. Up to this point, most large airships has pusher type propellers (facing backwards), but the Graf

225

pusher type propellers (facing backwards), but the Graf Zeppelin II was fitted with new forward facing engines. This would have made the Hindenburg and the Graf Zeppelin II easily distinguishable, but the two would never be able to share the sky. While the LZ-130 was still in the middle of construction, the news reached the Zeppelin Company of the Hindenburg's fiery death. A great wave of sorrow swept over the workers of the Zeppelin Company. In the new era of Nazi governed Germany, the company was finding it hard enough to simply survive, but with the loss of their flagship, and so publicly, the company seemed to be nearing its end.

Hindenburg Last FlightHindenburg Last Flight

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Vulnerability to Weather Vulnerability to Weather

• Huge surface area, near neutral buoyancy• Power proportional to square of velocity • No journey for winds > 60% cruise speed

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• No journey for winds > 60% cruise speed• Reliance on weather forecasting systems• Fatal threat: wind, turbulence, precipitation• Must run away from fatal weather threat

History of Aeronautics Goodyear

After manufacturing some airships,Goodyear no longer produces them.In the United States, it operates threewell-recognized blimps: the Spirit ofGoodyear, the Eagle, and the Stars

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Goodyear, the Eagle, and the Starsand Stripes. It also operates twoSpirit of Europe blimps on theEuropean continent and the Spirit ofthe Americas in South America.

Zeppelin NT

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• Volume: 8,225 m3

• Dimensions: 75m x 19m x 17m• Speed: 60 km/h cruise/135 km/h max• Payload: 12 passengers (2 t)• Propulsion: Propeller; 3 x 200 kW• Range: 900 km• Pressure Level: 2,600 m

Air Transportation Between Wars - Europe

230

Air Transportation in Europe between WarsAir Transportation in Europe between WarsIn contrast to the slow development of airline aviation in the United States, European air transport began almostimmediately after the cessation of hostilities in 1918. The major capitals of Europe were soon connected byprimitive passenger-carrying airlines. The aircraft types utilized for carrying passengers were at first hastilyconverted military bomber and observation types. Later, new aircraft were constructed for the infant airlines;however, these aircraft usually followed the standard biplane formula developed during World War I. Typical ofthese transport aircraft is the Handley Page trimotor. The aircraft was a multibay biplane, similar in configurationto the bomber types of the war, but employed an enclosed cabin capable of carrying 10 passengers. The two pilotswere accommodated in an open cockpit just forward of the leading edge of the upper wing. The engines droveeach a four-blade propellers and the landing gear was characterized by multiple wheels. The use of the four-wheel gear was no doubt a concession to the relatively soft sod or mud landing fields of the period. The Handley

231

wheel gear was no doubt a concession to the relatively soft sod or mud landing fields of the period. The HandleyPage trimotor was a relatively heavy machine of 13 000-pound gross weight, but with only 840 horsepower as thecombined output of the three engines. The wing loading was a very low 8.9 pounds per square foot in order thatthe aircraft could operate out of the small fields that existed at the time. The cruising speed was a modest 85 milesper hour; the drag coefficient at zero lift was 0.0549, which was larger than that of the DH-4. Although the use ofmultiple engines is usually thought to increase safety and reliability, that was not the case with the Handley....Page trimotor. The aircraft could not maintain level flight following the loss of one engine according to theinformation from some sources. The Handley Page trimotor was Put into operation by the British ImperialAirways and the Belgium Sabena Airways Systems in about 1924 and continued in operation, at least to somelimited extent, until about 1931. In fact, very large multiengine biplanes were utilized on some European airlinesright up to the beginning of World War II.

Airliners after WWI: Early airlinersAirliners after WWI: Early airliners

O AEG II was derived from the AEG J.I fighter.

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O AEG II was derived from the AEG J.I fighter.The AEG J.I fighter

Breguet 14T (1919)Bleriot SPAD 46 (1921), which accommodated four Bleriot SPAD 46 (1921), which accommodated four

passengers.passengers.

Derivatives of military airplanes

Airliners after WWI: Early AirlinersAirliners after WWI: Early Airliners

Junkers F.13

233

The F.13 was designed in 1918 especially for passenger transport andit is considered by many the first true airliner. Indeed, it was a cleveradaptation of the wartime J 10 and only carried a crew of two andfour passengers (under the terms of the Versailles Treaty, Germanywas severely restricted in the type and size of aircraft it was permittedto construct). It was in use throughout the world, as passenger andfreight airliners, for post flying and for various expeditions. Morethan 350 have been built. The F.13 was build in various subtypes, withdifferent engines, open or closed cockpit, sea- or landplane, etc.

Civilian airplanes of the 1920sCivilian airplanes of the 1920s

234

Successful airliners of the 20sSuccessful airliners of the 20s

235

Farman Goliath

The HandleyHandley PagePage HH..PP.. 4242 (in airline service from 1931 to 1941), wasa massive four-engine biplane. Two versions were built; the Hannibalwhich carried 24 passengers and the Hercules which carried 38. TheH.P. 42 had a fuselage nearly as long and wide as a railroad Pullmancar and fully as comfortable, with wall-to-wall carpeting andstewards who served seven-course meals at tables that were set upbetween facing seats. Large windows provided an ample view, andthe cabin was partially soundproofed-a welcome innovation. The H.P.42 was slow, but it was very safe, with a landing speed of only 50miles per hour.

Junkers J 1000Junkers J 1000

236

Another futuristic design was the J1000 developed in 1924. This design was developed specially for Hugo Junkers' travel to the United States.Junkers and Zindel presented the J1000 design as a probable future transport aircraft, which was also usable as a transatlantic aircraft forpassengers. Routings over Iceland, Greenland and Canada were already discussed by Junkers. The design was a wing only canard solution.Accommodation for up to 80 people were fully integrated in the wing. Individual sleeping cabins were also available for long range flights of 8to 10 hours. The design was highly futuristic for its time and it is uncommon until today. For his commercial presentations of the J.1000 design,Junkers had prepared a model aircraft, as well as a lot of technical and art drawings. Also a mockup of the passenger areas in the wing werealready built at Dessau. It is unknown, if Junkers and Zindel believed to present a realistic design for the mid twenties or if they just like toshow, what will be possible in the future of air transport. However, their U.S. discussion partners did not show highly interest in the J.1000design and no further developments of this project are known. Nevertheless, a lot of concepts of the Junkerssime and the J.1000 were later usedby Junkers in the G38 development, which became the largest landbased aircraft of its time.

Junkers G 38Junkers G 38

237

The Junkers G. 38 is a very large all-metal commercial monoplane fitted with four 750-hp Junkers Jumo 204 Diesel engines and having the unusual feature of accommodation for passengers in the wings. It carried a total of thirty-four passengers, six being seated in two compartments in the leading-edge of the wing. Two passengers are seated in the nose of the fuselage and the remainder in cabins arranged on two decks. There is a smoking saloon aft. The G. 38, which was used by Deutsche Lufthansaon certain European services, had a MTOW of 52,900 lb and a cruising speed of 129 mph.

Lignes Aériennes LatécoèreLignes Aériennes Latécoère

238

1925

239Lignes Aériennes Latécoère

Lignes Aériennes Latécoère

240

Latécoère

Crossing The SeasCrossing The Seas

241

Air Transportation in Europe before The WarAir Transportation in Europe before The War

242

Budapest - 1939

Fw 58 WeiheSM-73

Ju 52M

Crossing The SeasCrossing The Seas

Lady being served breakfast in her

Breakfast in bed on a Short Empire Flying Boat 'Canopus', c 1940s.

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Lady being served breakfast in her compartment, positioned just behind the wing. The spacious and elegant Empire flying boats, powered by four Bristol Pegasus engines, provided luxury travel across the Empire though conceived to deliver the mail. They operated from 1936 to 1947, many ending their lives in Australasia.

Crossing the SeasCrossing the Seas

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The Fw 200 Condor, in many ways, fulfilled and exceeded the promise of a plane like the D.H.-91. The Fw 200 was the brainchild ofFocke-Wulf designer and test pilot Kurt Tank (1898-1983). This four-engine, long-range transport for twenty-six passengers flew at acruising speed of more than 200 miles per hour. In 1938 it flew record-breaking flights from Berlin to Tokyo and Berlin to New York,and back. The latter, for instance, took twenty-four hours, thirty-six minutes and twelve seconds at an average speed of 159 miles perhour going westbound and the return was made in nineteen hours and fifty-five minutes at a speed of 199 miles per hour. The Condorflew for Lufthansa and attracted export orders from customers in Brazil, Denmark, Finland and Japan before World War II, with atotal of twenty constructed for civil purposes. During the war, more than 260 were built to serve as transports and, particularly, aslong range naval reconnaissance and convoy attack aircraft, being the eyes and aerial arms of Germany's U-boat wolfpacks andearning Winston Churchill's curse as "the scourge of the Atlantic." Yet, it is indisputable that the long distance reach of this largeairliner prefigured the shift from commercial seaplanes to landplanes after World War II.

Planning The FutureTransatlantic Transportation

Focke-Wulf Fw 300

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Air Transportation Between Wars - USA

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American Civil Aviation before WWIIAmerican Civil Aviation before WWII

William Boeing and Eddie Hubbard deliver the first shipment of international airmail on March 3, 1919.

On March 3, 1919, Willam E. Boeing (1881-1956) and EddieHubbard (1889-1928) deliver the first bag of international U.S.Air Mail. The men flew a Boeing-built C-700 seaplane for thedemonstration trip from Vancouver, B.C., to Seattle’s LakeUnion, and Hubbard later won the contract for regular service.

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Union, and Hubbard later won the contract for regular service.Like Boeing, Eddie Hubbard had taken his first flight withdaredevil Terah Maroney and earned his license from Boeing’sPacific Aero Club. William Boeing was not initially interestedin air mail, but he changed his mind as his company’s militaryorders dwindled after the end of World War I. Following thisfirst successful flight, Hubbard purchased a Boeing-built B-Iseaplane for routine air mail service between Victoria, B.C.,and Seattle. He later prevailed on Boeing to compete for theChicago-San Francisco route, and thereby planted the seed forBoeing’s future dominance in air transport.

Above - Eddie Hubbard and William Boeing (right) arrive at Lake Union with first bag of international airmail, March 3, 1919

American AirlinersAmerican Airliners

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US Post Office Airmail Routes, 1921US Post Office Airmail Routes, 1921

Elko

Omaha

Peoria

Chicago

Cheyenne

La Crosse

Clevela

nd

Iowa City

Des Moines

Minneapolis

Rock Springs

North Platt

e

Salt Lake City

New YorkPhiladelphiaReno

Sacramento Bryan

Rawlins

Bellefonte

Omaha

PeoriaCheyenne

Clevela

nd

St. Louis

Iowa City

Des Moines

Rock Springs

North Platt

e

Salt Lake City

WashingtonSacramento

San Francisco

Bryan

Rawlins

Bellefonte

Source: adapted from Davies (1964).

Douglas MDouglas M--3 (1926)3 (1926)

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Douglas aircraft joined the United fleet in 1926 with National Air Transport. TheM-3 was chosen to replace the war-surplus DeHavillands that were flying the mailroutes and brought greater speed, a greater load capacity, and more reliabilityand safety. Power was derived from a 400 hp Liberty engine. Cruise speed was115 mph.

Ford 2Ford 2--AT “Pullman”AT “Pullman”

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For all intents, the Stout designed Pullman" was the first all-metal commercialaircraft to be built in the U.S. An aluminum alloy frame was covered with acorrugated skin clad with aluminum to prevent rust and corrosion. Stout MetalAirplane Company engineers, probably prompted by "Tony" Fokker Triplanesuccess of 1925, redesigned the "Pullman" and added three 200 hp Wright"Whirlwinds" in place of the single 400 hp Liberty 12. The 3-AT was the first ofthe many Ford Tri-Motors.

Ford TrimotorFord TrimotorHenry Ford could see that aviation had a bright future.The Tri-Motor was developed from several earlier designsand became America’s first successful airliner. The FordTri-Motor came out at the end of the barnstorming era.Public distrust of aviation was at an all time high becauseaccidents were very common in those days. Thegovernment just began to regulate aircraft. Most of thesurplus World War I aircraft that were part of the problemcould not meet the new standards. Starting in 1925, Fordsponsored “Air Safety” tours in an attempt to show thepublic that aviation could be safe and reliable.

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The Ford Tri-Motor was involved in another interestingattempt to get the public to fly. The plan was to takepeople “Coast to Coast” in 48 hours. Starting in theevening in New York, passengers would board a trainwhere they were treated to a nice meal and went to bed.Waking up in Port Columbus, Ohio they disembarked andwere whisked to an airport where they would fly all dayin a Ford Tri-Motor. Arriving late afternoon in Waynoka,Kansas they then boarded another train for an all night runto Clovis, New Mexico. The final leg of the journey wason a Ford Tri-Motor, which would arrive in Los Angelesby nightfall and in less than 48 hours.

Crossing the SeasCrossing the Seas

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As airplane travel became popular during the mid-1930s, passengers wanted to fly across the ocean, so Pan American Airlines asked for a long-range, four-engine flying boat. In response, Boeing developed the Model 314, nicknamed the "Clipper" after the great ocean sailing ships. The Model 314 had a 3,500-mile range and made the first scheduled trans-Atlantic flight June 28, 1939. By the year’s end, Clippers were routinely flying across the Pacific. Clipper passengers looked down at the sea from large windows and enjoyed the comforts of dressing rooms, a dining salon that could be turned into a lounge and a bridal suite. The Clipper's 74 seats converted into 40 bunks for overnight travellers. Four-star hotels catered gourmet meals served from its galley.

The Sikorsky S-42 seaplane was the world’s first big luxury airliner.

Crossing The Seas Sikorsky S-42

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For many years, the Sikorsky S-42 flying boats were the most extensively used throughout the world. Used by both Pan American and BOAC for commercial uses, they werethe only flying boats in service capable of long-range flights during the 1920s and early 1930s.The first variation of the Sikorsky S-42 was constructed in 1931 when Russianexile Igor Sikorsky designed a new airplane for Pan Am. Juan Trippe, president of Pan Am, wanted a plane that would perform more efficiently for long distance travel. Whenthe first one was flown to the Anacostia Naval Station in Florida, Trippe called it the "flagship" of the Pan American fleet. In its very outline the S-42 represents simplicity.Diverting sharply from the past Sikorsky designs, external bracing's have been reduced to a minimum. The tail, instead of being supported by outriggers, is attached directly tothe hull. The one-piece wing with tapering tips is attached to the hull by means of a superstructure. The necessary large external struts brace from the hull to the outer portion ofthe wing. These struts are the largest streamlined duralumin sections ever extruded. With a span of II4ft. 2in., the wing has an area of 1,330 square ft. Spars and compressionmembers, of modified Warren Truss design, are constructed of extruded duralumin shapes. Stressed metal skin covers the major portion of the wing surface. Flush type rivetsare used throughout the external surface. Extending along the full straight portion of the rear spar is the hydraulically controlled flap. The flap is mechanically operated bymeans of a substantial hydraulic piston. The piston is actuated by an electrical pump that is controlled from the pilot's compartment. For emergency use a manually operatedpump is provided. The angular position of the flap can be altered in accordance with the attitude of flight, thus changing the performance of the whole wing. Ailerons ofconventional design, tapering in conformity with the wing plan, are hinged to the rear spar outboard of the flaps. The power plant units, consisting of four Pratt and Whitney700 h.p. geared Hornet engines, together with the necessary accessories, are attached to the front spar by means of welded steel tubular nacelles. Completing these units are thethree-bladed variable pitch propellers, the largest of this type ever produced by the Hamilton Standard Propeller Company.

Crossing The Seas Boeing 314 ClipperCrossing The Seas Boeing 314 Clipper

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The Yankee Clipper project dated back to 1935, with the start of a series of negotiations between Pan American WorldAirways and Boeing for the production of a flying-boat capable of guaranteeing transatlantic passenger flights with a highdegree of safety, comfort, and speed.1 On July 21,1936 Pan American signed a contract for six aircraft, the first of which(designation Model 314) made initial see runs on Puget Sound on May 31,1938, and took to the air on June 7, 1938. 2When it made its appearance this flying-boat was the largest civil aircraft in service. It outstripped all rivals in size, withtwice the size of the Sikorsky S-42 and outweighed the Martin M-130 China Clipper by 15 tons.3 The 14-cylinderdouble-row Wright Cyclones were the first to use 100-octane fuel. The Boeing 314, the finest flying boat to go into regularcommercial service, weighed 40 tons, and the first batch cost $550,000 per aircraft.

Boeing Model 40Boeing Model 40

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Not until early 1927, when the Post Office began turning airmail service over to private industry, did a modified Model 40,called the 40A, win another competition. This plane was redesigned for a lighter, air-cooled Pratt & Whitney Wasp radialengine; used a steel tube and fabric-covered structure; and had a redesigned fuselage that could carry two passengers. It wasthe first Boeing plane to carry passengers. Although an initial investment of $750,000 would be needed for the 25 newaircraft, Boeing was able to submit a low bid for the San Francisco-Chicago airmail route partly because it could takeadvantage of the income that two passengers would provide. Boeing Air Transport (BAT) was formed as a subsidiary toBoeing Airplane Company to handle the route. The decision was right—it proved to be a profitable venture. In its first year,BAT carried 837,211 pounds (379,753 kilograms) of mail, 148,068 pounds (67,163 kilograms) of express packages, and1,863 passengers.

Boeing Model 80Boeing Model 80Comfort graced "The FriendlySkies" with the introduction ofBoeings model 80A. This grey,green and orange tri-motor, oneof 16 built between 1928 and 19,flew with United until replacedby the Boeing 247 in the early1930's. The model 80A providednew comfort and luxury toairline passengers, who were

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airline passengers, who wereaccompanied by a registerednurse, the first Unitedstewardess.

Boeing 247Boeing 247• First commercial aircraft with deicing boots• First commercial aircraft to use an autopilot

258

The first modern airliner, the Boeing 247 marked the beginning of a new era. Three key men - President Phillip G.Johnson, Vice President Claire Egtvedt, and Chief Engineer C. N. Monteith - chose to develop the transportpotential of their successful Boeing B-9 twin-engine bomber rather than stick to the orthodox trimotor and biplanedesign of the day. Versatile, easy to manoeuvre, and economical to operate, the 247 quickly outshone othertransports of the period. United Airlines, which had a monopoly on the production of 247s, was soon outdistancingits competition. This forced TWA to go to Douglas Aircraft to request a new plane which could compete - evenoutperform - the 247. The result of this challenge was the development of one of the most significant planes inaviation history—the Douglas DC-3.

Same wings of the B-8 bomber

Douglas DCDouglas DC--33

The Douglas DC-3 was one of the most noteworthy aircraft ever built. It probably did more than any other plane to introduce a whole new

259

The Douglas DC-3 was one of the most noteworthy aircraft ever built. It probably did more than any other plane to introduce a whole newsegment of the population to air travel and establish air transportation as a normal way of traveling. More than five times as many passengermiles were flown in 1941 than in 1935 in the United States, and much of that can be attributed to the popularity of the DC-3. Douglas alsoproduced a number of military versions that played a vital role around the world, especially in World War II.The DC-3 was the first airliner to make a profit by carrying just passengers without the support of mail contracts or other forms of governmentsubsidies. Its production, along with continued production of the DC-2 that lasted until September 1939 for the military version, ensured theprosperity and financial soundness of Douglas Aircraft for many years.The DC-3 was an outgrowth of the DC-2, which first flew in 1934 for Transcontinental and Western Airlines (TWA). American Airlines , acompetitor of TWA, had longer routes and needed a plane where passengers could stretch out and sleep. It had been using the Curtiss Condorbecause it was large enough for sleeping berths, but it was slow. The DC-2 was faster but it was too narrow for berths.During the summer of 1934, American decided that it needed a plane that could fly non-stop between New York and Chicago with both theroominess of the Condor and also the DC-2's performance. It approached Douglas about providing a plane to meet these requirements.Douglas was a little hesitant about accepting the project at first since he anticipated a limited production run and because American was lowon cash. However, American's president, Cyrus R. Smith, promised an initial order of 20 aircraft, and Douglas decided to proceed. Americanalso received a $4.5-million loan from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, so Douglas was confident that American could pay for theplanes.

Douglas DCDouglas DC--33

260TWA outlined the DC-1 specifications to Douglas The Russian Lisunov Li-2

Douglas DCDouglas DC--4E (1938)4E (1938)

261

The original DC-4 was built in 1938 as a requirement for both United and American Airlines. It began test flying in 1938,but when the U.S. entered into World War II, the production line was commandeered by the military authorities and thus thefirst 24 C-54's were produced. The C-54 and its variants have since seen service with many different Air Forces around theworld. The production line closed in 1947, but many of the military variants found use in civil service. A total of 1.245 wereproduced (This number does not include the Canadian built version, as this is not an original Douglas design). Even whilethe DC-3 still had to make its first flight, the President of United Airlines, William Patterson, foresaw a need of a largertransport than the DC-3. He convinced his counterparts with American, Eastern, Pan American and TWA to support thisproject. The original DC-4 was designated DC-4E, E for experimental. This shows how far fetched this dream for a four-engined transport must have seemed in those days.

Douglas DCDouglas DC--4 (1942)4 (1942)

The DC-4E was sold and shipped to Japan in 1939. Its fate unclear, faded away in the advent of W.W. II. Later it became clear that itwas bought to support Japanese studies into a long-range bomber The DC-4 was revised, smaller than the DC-4E, lighter andsimpler. The wing was altered, the cabin unpressurized, Pratt & Whitney R-2000 Twin Wasps (1.450 hp) were assigned to the case.Eastern, American and United were enthusiastic and Douglas accepted the first commercial orders. Military orders by the USAAF

262

Eastern, American and United were enthusiastic and Douglas accepted the first commercial orders. Military orders by the USAAFfollowed (9 C54s and 62 C-54As with reinforced cabin flooring, special cargo doors and built-in loading hoists). Then came theJapanese attack on Pearl Harbor and all production facilities were needed for the war effort. The civilian produced Skymasters wereimpressed in the service, as a stop gap until the actual C-54s were delivered. There was no prototype DC-4, the first productionaircraft cn3050 was completed in Feb. 1942 and was assigned USAAF serial 42-20137. It was first flown March 26th, 1942 at SantaMonica.The DC-4 had a notable innovation in that its nose-wheel landing gear allowed it to introduce a fuselage of constant cross-section.This lent itself to easy stretching into the later DC-6 and DC-7. 1,163 C-54/R5Ds were built for the United States military servicesbetween 1942 and January 1946. Douglas continued to develop the type during the war in preparation for a return to airline serviceswhen peace returned. However, the type's sales prospects were hit by the offloading of 500 wartime C-54s and R5Ds onto the civilmarket. DC-4's were a favorite of "start up" airlines (aka-non-scheduled or supplemental carriers) such as Great Lakes Airlines,North American Airlines, Universal Airlines, Transocean Airlines, etc. In the 1950s, Transocean Airlines (Oakland, California) wasthe largest operator of the DC-4.Douglas produced just 79 new-build DC-4s before production ceased on August 9, 1947. Pressurization was available as an option,but all civilian DC-4s (and C-54s) were built unpressurised.

Boeing 307Boeing 307

Boeing Model 307 Stratoliner was the first fully pressurized airliner to enter service anywhere in the world, Boeing's 33-seat Model 307 Stratoliner of 1938 employed the wings and tail surfaces of the B-17C Flying Fortress. Boeing's Model 299, prototype for the military bomber aircraft which duly became the B-17 Flying Fortress, was developed in parallel with a civil version of the same aircraft which had the company designation Boeing Model 300. The Model 307, or Stratoliner, was a straightforward conversion from the supremely successful B-17 Flying Fortress bomber. The Boeing 307 was

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successful B-17 Flying Fortress bomber. The Boeing 307 was developed to start another era, that of pressurized comfort at higher altitudes than had been previously contemplated.

The Boeing 307 first flew on December 31, 1938 and TWA put it into service on the transcontinental route on 8 July 1940. Boeing had suffered setbacks as a result of the popularity of the Douglas DC-2 and DC-3's and was looking to re-establish itself as a market leader with the unveiling of this plane. The Stratoliner's ability to fly at high altitudes in pressurized comfort was marketed as a technologically advanced alternative on trans-oceanic flights. The Stratoliner commenced its inaugural transcontinental voyage easily beating the DC-3's average flying time by 2 hours, completing the trip in 13 hours and 40 minutes.

Selected Transcontinental DC-3 Routes, Late 1930s

TWA Sky Chief

American Airl

ines Merc

ury

New York

PittsburghTWA DC-3 circa 1940

Departs at8:48 AM

Arrives at10:40 AM

Arrives at11:20 AM

TWA Sky Chief

American Airl

ines Merc

ury

DallasTucson

MemphisAlbuquerque

Kansas City

Los Angeles

Source: Based on historic timetables available at www.airchive.com.

Both departat 4:30 PM

Departs at8:22 PM

Departs at9:38 PM

Departs at2:16 AM

Departs at3:05 AM

Arrives at4:42 AM

http://www.airchive.com

Early Intercontinental Air Routes, 1930s

MarseillesLisbonAzoresNew York

Botwood

Eyeries London

Paris

Wadi Halfa

KhartoumJuba

CairoAlexandria Gaza

Amsterdam

Toulouse

Juba

NairobiMbeya

Harare

Johannesburg

Cape TownImperial Airways African Route (c1933)Imperial Airways/Quantas Australian Route (c1934)Aeropostale (1930)

Pan American Transatlantic Route (1939)KLM Amsterdam – Jakarta (1935)

Military Aviation Between Wars

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Tupolev ANTTupolev ANT--44First World’s low-wing cantilever Bomber

267

The first World's all-metal cantilever twin-engined bomber. Layout of the ANT-4 was copied all over the World since 1930, after thefirst international appearance. All following multi-engine bombers added no radical layout changes to this aircraft of 1925, exceptaerodynamic and structural refinement, number of engines and guns, different levels of equipment sophistication. It is interestingthat this (mostly) land-based aircraft has a naval pre-history. In 1923-1929 the Special Technical of military inventions (Ostekhburoat Leningrad, headed by V.I.Bekauri) badly needed a heavy bomber aircraft for their research (naval torpedoes). Plans to buy somein the Great Britain did not materialize. As a result, A.N.Tupolev at the TsAGI started to work on this project (November 11, 1924).Timeline was only 9 months. Aircraft was assembled on the second floor in non-industrial building! In addition to this A.N.Tupolevhad not enough skilled workers. Despite all odds, ANT-4 was ready in time. It was 'extracted' from the second floor, throughremoved building wall on August 11, 1925. In October 1925 assembly was finished on the Moscow Central Airfield. On 26November, 1925 first flight was performed by pilot A.I.Tomashevskij. It took 7min to carry out preliminary evaluation.

Vakhmistrov Parasite Fighters

268

Doolittle Doolittle -- IFR Flight in 1929IFR Flight in 1929The career of Jimmy Doolittle—from his service in World War I to his racing career to his leading the first bombing raid on Tokyo just weeks after Pearl Harbor, for which he was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor—was a remarkable one.

Doolittle was an accomplished pilot, he held a doctoral degree in engineering from MIT, and he retired a major general of the U.S. Armed Forces. From the point of view of aviation, Jimmy Doolittle’s greatest contribution to the history of flight may well be his flight of September 24, 1929. What was remarkable about the fifteen-minute flight in the Consolidated NY-2 test plane was that he could not see out of the cockpit because of a hood that covered the windows. It was the first “blind flight” in which a pilot took off, flew a given course, and landed using only instruments.

269

The test was conducted at Mitchell Field on Long Island, New York, and the plane had dual controls. The other set was available to pilot Lieutenant Ben Kelsey in case anything went wrong. Kelsey did not have to touch the controls as Doolittle used his instruments to guide his flight. The three instruments most important for this test were the device designed by Doolittle himself, most important for this test were the Sperry Horizon, a device designed by Doolittle himself, which instantly told the pilot the orientation of the plane with respect to the three axes of rotation (pitch, yaw, and roll); the Kollsman Precision Altimeter, a hypersensitive gauge that was designed by engineer Paul Kollsman and has been standard on virtually all aircraft since it was first introduced; and the Sperry Directional Gyro, which was used to measure turns and the direction of flight. With these tools, a pilot can fly in any weather or at night.

First Fighter with Cantilever Wings and Retractable Landing Gear - 1933

270In ten years, 20,000 were built.

I Got Lost: I Got Lost: StipaStipa CaproniCaproni -- 19331933

Caproni was an Italian engineer and aircraft manufacturer. His background in hydraulic engineeringconvinced him of the possibility of successfully using hydrodynamic principles for aeronautical applicationsand, after 5 years of development, Stipa submitted to the Technical Division of the Air Ministry a design fora twin engine land/sea plane fighter. The Regia Aeronautica examined the proposal and funded theconstruction of a single engine two seater ducted fan prototype. Caproni built the Aircraft, as per the RegiaAeronautica requirements, at their plant near Milan in 1932. The unusual design caused a number ofskeptical comments about the original design intention of increasing the efficiency of the propeller byreducing the losses.

271

I Got Lost: I Got Lost: CampiniCampini--CaproniCaproni of 1933of 1933

In 1931 Italian engineer Secondo Campini submitted a report on the potential of jet propulsion to the Italian Air Ministry, and the following year, demonstrated a jet-powered boat in Venice. In 1934, the Air Ministry granted approval for the development of a jet aircraft to demonstrate the principle.

As designed by Campini, the aircraft did not have a jet engine in the sense that we know them today. Rather, a conventional piston engine 500 kW (750 hp) Isotta Fraschini L. 121/R.C. 40) was used to drive a compressor, which forced compressed air into a combustion chamber where it was mixed with fuel and ignited. The exhaust

272

which forced compressed air into a combustion chamber where it was mixed with fuel and ignited. The exhaust produced by this combustion was to drive the aircraft forward. Campini called this configuration a "thermojet" but the term motorjet is in common usage today since thermojet refers to a particular type of pulsejet (an unrelated form of jet engine).

Campini turned to the Caproni aircraft factory to help build the prototypes, and two aircraft and a non-flying ground testbed were eventually constructed. The first flight was on August 27, 1940 with test pilot Mario De Bernardi at the controls.

Great propaganda use was made of the aircraft by Mussolini and the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale recognised this at the time as the first successful flight by a jet aeroplane.

Following World War II, one of the prototypes was shipped to the UK for study at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough.

BB--9 and B9 and B--10 Bombers10 Bombers

Boeing B-9, the first all-metallic bomber. It was able to reach a top speed of 300 km/h.

273

The Martin B-10, a monoplane bomber with retractable landing gear, enclosed cockpits and good streamlining, outpaced the contemporary biplane fighters and revolutionized bomber design. It did away with the ugly box-like designs that were common in the 20's. The B-10 was powered by the R-1820 and reached a top speed of 330 km/h; aircraft powered by the R-1690 were known as B-12s. Its period of superiority was brief, because it was soon overtaken by even more advanced designs. Some exported aircraft saw combat in WWII, mostly in the Dutch East Indies.

History of Aeronautics Part1

Documents

lignes ariennes

sir george

foi na frana

leonardo da

rio de janeiro

retractable

bladed pusher

wheeled landing