Grid computing [2005]

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Raúl SotoRaúl SotoJoel MaysonetJoel Maysonet

Lucette SánchezLucette SánchezFernando GonzálezFernando González

What is Grid Computing?What is Grid Computing? A A Grid Computing systemGrid Computing system is a is a

collection of distributed collection of distributed computing resource available computing resource available over a local or wide area over a local or wide area network, that appears to an network, that appears to an end user or application as end user or application as one one large virtuallarge virtual computing system computing system

Is an approach to distributed Is an approach to distributed computing that spans not only computing that spans not only locations but also locations but also organizationsorganizations, , machine machine architecturesarchitectures, and , and software software boundariesboundaries

CharacteristicsCharacteristics Allows the integrated, collaborative use of computers, Allows the integrated, collaborative use of computers,

networks, databases, and scientific instruments owned networks, databases, and scientific instruments owned and managed by multiple organizationsand managed by multiple organizations

Facilitates the solution of Facilitates the solution of computational problemscomputational problems– large-scalelarge-scale– complexcomplex– multi-institutionalmulti-institutional– multidisciplinarymultidisciplinary – Large data storage and/or computational requirementsLarge data storage and/or computational requirements

Grid computing started out as the simultaneous Grid computing started out as the simultaneous application of the resources of many networked application of the resources of many networked computers to a computers to a singlesingle (usually scientific) problem. (usually scientific) problem.– E.G. : E.G. : SETI @ Home, Human Proteome project, Anthrax SETI @ Home, Human Proteome project, Anthrax

research, Smallpox project, Cancer research project, etc.research, Smallpox project, Cancer research project, etc.

CharacteristicsCharacteristics For many years, computational grids have been used to For many years, computational grids have been used to

solve large-scale problems in solve large-scale problems in sciencescience and and engineeringengineering

CurrentlyCurrently used in the following fields : used in the following fields :– Medical research : protein folding, cancer drug Medical research : protein folding, cancer drug

developmentdevelopment– Astronomy : SETI data analysisAstronomy : SETI data analysis– Mathematical / Statistical problemsMathematical / Statistical problems– Climate modelsClimate models

Grid computing is beginning to enter the Grid computing is beginning to enter the commercialcommercial worldworld– Financial analysisFinancial analysis– ForecastingForecasting– Enterprise GridsEnterprise Grids

CharacteristicsCharacteristics Involves sharing of heterogeneous resources:Involves sharing of heterogeneous resources:

– Hardware platformsHardware platforms– Hardware / software architecturesHardware / software architectures– Computer languagesComputer languages– Different placesDifferent places– Different administrative domainsDifferent administrative domains

Main ClassificationsMain Classifications Grid Types:Grid Types:

– Computational GridsComputational Grids : computers set aside resources allocated to : computers set aside resources allocated to number-crunch data or provide coveratge for CPU-intensive number-crunch data or provide coveratge for CPU-intensive workloadsworkloads

– Data GridsData Grids : share data resources and storage capacity, unified : share data resources and storage capacity, unified interface for all data repositories in an organization, through interface for all data repositories in an organization, through which data can be queried, managed, and securedwhich data can be queried, managed, and secured

– Scavenging GridsScavenging Grids : used to locate and exploit machine cycles on : used to locate and exploit machine cycles on idle servers and desktops for use in resource-intensive tasksidle servers and desktops for use in resource-intensive tasks

Internal vs External GridsInternal vs External Grids– External gridsExternal grids : usually geographically-distributed, non-profit : usually geographically-distributed, non-profit

research effortsresearch efforts– Internal gridsInternal grids : large commercial enterprise with complex : large commercial enterprise with complex

problems who aim to fully exploit their unused internal computing problems who aim to fully exploit their unused internal computing powerpower

How does it How does it work?work?System users

Scientists and engineersUsing computation toAccomplish Lab missions

Intelligent InterfaceA knowledge-based environment that offers users guidance on complex computing tasks

MiddlewareSoftware tools that enable interaction among users, applications, and system resources

Grid Operating SystemThe software which coordinates the interplay of computers, networks, and storage

HardwareHeterogeneous collection of high-performance computer hardware and software resources

NetworkingThe hardware and software that permits communication among distributed users and computer resources

Mass StorageA collection of devices and software that allows temporary and long-term archival storage of information

SoftwareSoftware applications and components for computational problems

Grid Computing vs the Grid Computing vs the InternetInternet

The Internet is about getting computers to The Internet is about getting computers to talktalk togethertogether

Grid computing is about getting computers to Grid computing is about getting computers to workwork together together

• The Internet is a network ofThe Internet is a network of communicationcommunication

• Grid computing is a network ofGrid computing is a network of computationcomputation: provides tools : provides tools andand protocols for resource sharing protocols for resource sharing of aof a variety of IT resources variety of IT resources

Grid Computing vs.Grid Computing vs.Clusters / Distributed Clusters / Distributed ComputingComputing

Clusters and Distributed computing systems Clusters and Distributed computing systems requirerequire– physical proximityphysical proximity– Operational homogeneityOperational homogeneity

Grids are geographically distributed, Grids are geographically distributed, heterogeneousheterogeneous

Clusters and Distributed computing systems Clusters and Distributed computing systems are based on the Data Center / Computer are based on the Data Center / Computer Center computersCenter computers

Grids include end-user computers as wellGrids include end-user computers as well

Analogy: Electric Power GridAnalogy: Electric Power Grid Electric Power:Electric Power:

– Household electrical devices simply plug to an electric outletHousehold electrical devices simply plug to an electric outlet– Use Use onlyonly the electric power you need the electric power you need– Pay Pay onlyonly for the electric power you used for the electric power you used

Computers – typical :Computers – typical :– You pay for a computer with certain computing power (CPU You pay for a computer with certain computing power (CPU

flops)flops)– If you use less computing power than what your computer If you use less computing power than what your computer

provides, provides, you still pay for allyou still pay for all of it of it– If you use more computing power than what your computer If you use more computing power than what your computer

provides, provides, you have to buy a better computeryou have to buy a better computer

Computers – Grid :Computers – Grid :– Multiple computers (Multiple computers (including yoursincluding yours) share computing ) share computing

resources and make up a virtual computerresources and make up a virtual computer– You only use the computing power you needYou only use the computing power you need

Grid ComputingGrid Computing Computing power costComputing power cost

– 1980: $100,000 per megaflop1980: $100,000 per megaflop– 2000: $1 per megaflop2000: $1 per megaflop

Computing power evolutionComputing power evolution– 1986: US National Science Foundation resources 1986: US National Science Foundation resources

were five (5) were five (5) Cray XM-P supercomputersCray XM-P supercomputers– 2000: that’s the equivalent computing power of ONE 2000: that’s the equivalent computing power of ONE

(1) (1) Nintendo 64Nintendo 64 console console

ApplicationsApplications Distributed supercomputing / Distributed supercomputing /

computational sciencecomputational science

High – capacity / throughput High – capacity / throughput computing: large-scale computing: large-scale simulation, chip design, and simulation, chip design, and parameter studiesparameter studies

Content sharing: for example, Content sharing: for example, sharing digital content among sharing digital content among peerspeers

Remote software access / Remote software access / rentingrenting

ApplicationsApplications Data-intensive computing: Data-intensive computing:

drug design, particle physics, drug design, particle physics, stock predictionstock prediction

On-demand, real-time On-demand, real-time computing: medical computing: medical instrumentation, mission instrumentation, mission critical initiativescritical initiatives

Collaborative computing (e-Collaborative computing (e-science, e-engineering), science, e-engineering), collaborative design, data collaborative design, data explorationexploration

BenefitsBenefits

Permits sharing of resources throughout an Permits sharing of resources throughout an organization, or among organizationsorganization, or among organizations

Make effective use of Make effective use of underused underused computing resourcescomputing resources

Provide access to remote databases and softwareProvide access to remote databases and software

Reduce significantly the number of servers needed (25-Reduce significantly the number of servers needed (25-75%)75%)

Allow Allow on-demand aggregation of resourceson-demand aggregation of resources at multiple at multiple sitessites

Reduce execution time for large-scale data processing Reduce execution time for large-scale data processing applicationsapplications

BenefitsBenefits Provide load sharing across a Provide load sharing across a

set of platformsset of platforms

Provide Provide fault tolerancefault tolerance

Take advantage of time-zone and random diversity (in Take advantage of time-zone and random diversity (in peak hours, users can access resources in off-peak peak hours, users can access resources in off-peak zones)zones)

Provide flexibility to meet unforseen emergency Provide flexibility to meet unforseen emergency demands: can rent external resources for a required demands: can rent external resources for a required period instead of buying additional capacityperiod instead of buying additional capacity

Virtual data centersVirtual data centers

DisadvantagesDisadvantages Proprietary approachesProprietary approaches

– Leading vendors (HP, Sun, IBM, MS, Oracle, etc.) Leading vendors (HP, Sun, IBM, MS, Oracle, etc.) have proprietary, have proprietary, incompatibleincompatible approaches, approaches,

– which which defeats the purpose defeats the purpose of Grid computingof Grid computing

Business case not always easy to sell to upper managementBusiness case not always easy to sell to upper management– Need to present a business case based on economics, efficiency, Need to present a business case based on economics, efficiency,

not technical detailsnot technical details

Vendors need to show how their software effectively manages Vendors need to show how their software effectively manages a grid environmenta grid environment

SecuritySecurity– Confidentiality, Integrity, Access to resources, dataConfidentiality, Integrity, Access to resources, data

Performance monitoringPerformance monitoring– Zoning mechanisms to ensure applications competing for Zoning mechanisms to ensure applications competing for

resources do not affect each otherresources do not affect each other

Evolution of GridsEvolution of Grids

Early StageEarly Stage1990s1990s

Second StageSecond StageEarly MidEarly Mid2000s 2000s2000s 2000s

Third StageThird StageLate 2000sLate 2000s

PerformancePerformanceand QoSand QoS

PersonalPersonalDevicesDevices

SMPs orSMPs orSuperSupercomputerscomputers

Local ClusterLocal ClusterComputingComputing

LocalLocalData Data GridsGrids

EnterpriseEnterpriseCluster / GridCluster / Grid

Partner GridsPartner Grids

Global GridGlobal Grid

[source: Minoli, Daniel,[source: Minoli, Daniel, A Networking Approach to Grid Computing, A Networking Approach to Grid Computing, 2005]2005]

Enterprise Grids Example : Enterprise Grids Example : AAstrastraZZeneca PLCeneca PLC Grids Grids Data GridData Grid

– Connects R&D databases from sites in UK, Sweden, and USAConnects R&D databases from sites in UK, Sweden, and USA– Significant savings in finding informationSignificant savings in finding information– Efficiency gains due to shortening the time R&D or design Efficiency gains due to shortening the time R&D or design

staff needs to find informationstaff needs to find information– Large investment in broadband links to connect data centers Large investment in broadband links to connect data centers

in different countriesin different countries

Enterprise GridEnterprise Grid– Processing power shared between R&D sites in UK, Sweden, Processing power shared between R&D sites in UK, Sweden,

and USAand USA– Efficiency due to processing power sharing, plus access to Efficiency due to processing power sharing, plus access to

datadata– Savings on R&D time, time to marketSavings on R&D time, time to market– Permits more efficient collaboration between sitesPermits more efficient collaboration between sites– Significant investment in security, and in high-performance Significant investment in security, and in high-performance

broadband linksbroadband links

Some Examples of GridsSome Examples of GridsGrid NameGrid Name SponsorSponsor PurposePurposeBlueGridBlueGrid IBMIBM IBM computation R&DIBM computation R&DDISCOMDISCOM Sandia National LabsSandia National Labs Defense researchDefense researchDOE Science GridDOE Science Grid DOE Office of ScienceDOE Office of Science Scientific researchScientific researchEuropean Union DataGridEuropean Union DataGrid European UnionEuropean Union Scientific researchScientific researchEuroGrid GRIPEuroGrid GRIP European UnionEuropean Union Computation R&DComputation R&DGlobus ProjectGlobus Project DARPA, NASA, Msoft, DARPA, NASA, Msoft,

othersothersGrid tech researchGrid tech research

GridLabGridLab European UnionEuropean Union Grid tech researchGrid tech researchGrid Research IntegrationGrid Research Integration National Science National Science

FoundationFoundationGrid middleware Grid middleware developmtdevelopmt

Intern. Data Grid LabIntern. Data Grid Lab National Science National Science FoundationFoundation

International large International large scale grid tech scale grid tech researchresearch

Information Power GridInformation Power Grid NASANASA Aerospace researchAerospace researchEarthquake Eng. Earthquake Eng. SimulationsSimulations

National Science National Science FoundationFoundation

Earthquake engineeringEarthquake engineering

Particle Physics Data GridParticle Physics Data Grid DOE ScienceDOE Science High-energy physics High-energy physics researchresearch

TeraGridTeraGrid National Science National Science FoundationFoundation

Link major US Link major US universitiesuniversities

UK Grid Support CenterUK Grid Support Center UK eScienceUK eScience Grid projects in UKGrid projects in UK

TeraGridTeraGrid

(www.teragrid.com)(www.teragrid.com) Completed in September 2004Completed in September 2004 Massively parallel supercomputer clustersMassively parallel supercomputer clusters 40 teraflops40 teraflops of computing power of computing power 2 petabytes2 petabytes of rotating storage of rotating storage Connected network of US supercomputing Connected network of US supercomputing

centers (currently 8, and growing)centers (currently 8, and growing) Each of the four original sites operates a Linux Each of the four original sites operates a Linux

cluster, interconnected by means of a 10-30 cluster, interconnected by means of a 10-30 Gigabit/sec dedicated optical networkGigabit/sec dedicated optical network

TeraGridTeraGrid

TeraGrid connectionsTeraGrid connections

Other Grid ProjectsOther Grid Projects iVDGLiVDGL

Other Grid ProjectsOther Grid Projects

Other Grid ProjectsOther Grid Projects

Pauá Grid Pauá Grid Project - Project - BrasilBrasil Partnership with HPPartnership with HP Links various academic sites Links various academic sites

across the nationacross the nation 7 sites, 200 nodes, 1900 7 sites, 200 nodes, 1900

milesmiles Bioinformatics, data mining, Bioinformatics, data mining,

security applicationssecurity applications Attracts projects from other Attracts projects from other

knowledge areas that need knowledge areas that need high performance computinghigh performance computing

Other Grid ProjectsOther Grid Projects

Grid Academic ProjectsGrid Academic Projects

Grid Academic ProjectsGrid Academic Projects

Grid Computing Grid Computing ApplicationsApplications

SETI@homeSETI@home

Human Proteome Human Proteome projectproject

Anthrax research projectAnthrax research project

Smallpox projectSmallpox project

Cancer research projectCancer research project

SciRun environmentSciRun environment

SETI@homeSETI@home LARGEST GRID COMPUTING LARGEST GRID COMPUTING

PROJECT IN HISTORYPROJECT IN HISTORY Runs on over 50,000 PCsRuns on over 50,000 PCs Generates approximatelyGenerates approximately

1,000 CPU years / day1,000 CPU years / day Approx 500,000 CPU years so farApprox 500,000 CPU years so far Averages 40 Tflops/secondAverages 40 Tflops/second Distributes data sets from the Arecibo Radiotelescope Distributes data sets from the Arecibo Radiotelescope Performs sophisticated data and signal processing Performs sophisticated data and signal processing

analysis analysis Can run as a Can run as a screen saverscreen saver or as a or as a

low priority processlow priority process

http://setiathome.ssl.berkeley.edu

Human Proteome Folding Human Proteome Folding ProjectProject

Find functions for all the proteins Find functions for all the proteins encoded in the Human Genomeencoded in the Human Genome

When human protein structures are When human protein structures are known, scientists can use them to known, scientists can use them to research disease treatments and research disease treatments and curescures

Only a fraction of 30,000 human Only a fraction of 30,000 human proteins have known structures and proteins have known structures and functionsfunctions– Examining the entire human Examining the entire human

genome could require up to 1 genome could require up to 1 million years of computational million years of computational time on a Pentium IV.time on a Pentium IV.

– Using a commercial 1000-node Using a commercial 1000-node cluster would require 50 years cluster would require 50 years and, while faster, would still be and, while faster, would still be impractical. impractical.

– Can run as a Can run as a screen saverscreen saver or as a or as alow priority processlow priority process

http://www.grid.org/projects/hpf/http://www.grid.org/projects/hpf/

Anthrax Research ProjectAnthrax Research Project As of February 14, 2002, the As of February 14, 2002, the screeningscreening phase of the phase of the

Anthrax Research Project has been completed. In Anthrax Research Project has been completed. In 4 weeks4 weeks it achieved what previously took it achieved what previously took yearsyears..

This project's goal was to accelerate what is usually a time-This project's goal was to accelerate what is usually a time-consuming step in the lengthy drug discovery process. consuming step in the lengthy drug discovery process.

The project entailed presenting a key protein component of The project entailed presenting a key protein component of anthrax into the general rotation of the United Devices anthrax into the general rotation of the United Devices Member Community's current virtual screening project, Member Community's current virtual screening project, which works with the Grid MP platform over the Internet. which works with the Grid MP platform over the Internet.

This allowed UD Members to lend their computers in the This allowed UD Members to lend their computers in the screening of screening of 3.57 billion molecules3.57 billion molecules for suitability as a for suitability as a treatment for advanced-stage Anthrax.treatment for advanced-stage Anthrax.

Anthrax Research ProjectAnthrax Research Project Screening is Screening is only one steponly one step in a long drug discovery in a long drug discovery

process that ultimately must move from the process that ultimately must move from the computational realm into the actual laboratory. computational realm into the actual laboratory.

The project used a The project used a 5-time redundancy5-time redundancy rate for each rate for each molecule to ensure a high level of accuracy and quality. molecule to ensure a high level of accuracy and quality.

Preliminary indications are that we have narrowed the Preliminary indications are that we have narrowed the original pool of 3.57 billion molecules down original pool of 3.57 billion molecules down considerably, having identified over considerably, having identified over 300,000 crude 300,000 crude unique hitsunique hits in the course of the project. in the course of the project.

This significantly reduces the next phase of the This significantly reduces the next phase of the discovery process, in which the ranked hits will be discovery process, in which the ranked hits will be further refined and analyzedfurther refined and analyzed, accelerating the overall , accelerating the overall time to availability of a treatment.time to availability of a treatment.

http://www.grid.org/projects/anthrax/http://www.grid.org/projects/anthrax/

Cancer Research ProjectCancer Research Project Processes molecular research being conducted by the Processes molecular research being conducted by the

Department of Chemistry at the University of Oxford in Department of Chemistry at the University of Oxford in England and the National Foundation for Cancer Research. England and the National Foundation for Cancer Research.

To participate, users download a very small, no cost, non-To participate, users download a very small, no cost, non-invasive software program that works like a screensaver: it invasive software program that works like a screensaver: it runs when your computer isn't being used, and processes runs when your computer isn't being used, and processes research until you need your machine. Your computer research until you need your machine. Your computer never leaves your desk, and the project never interrupts never leaves your desk, and the project never interrupts your usual PC use.your usual PC use.

The research centers on proteins that have been The research centers on proteins that have been determined to be a possible target for cancer therapy. determined to be a possible target for cancer therapy. Through a process called "virtual screening", special Through a process called "virtual screening", special analysis software will identify molecules that interact with analysis software will identify molecules that interact with these proteins, and will determine which of the molecular these proteins, and will determine which of the molecular candidates has a high likelihood of being developed into a candidates has a high likelihood of being developed into a drug. drug.

Cancer Research ProjectCancer Research Project The process is similar to finding the right key to open a The process is similar to finding the right key to open a

special lock — by looking at millions upon millions of special lock — by looking at millions upon millions of molecular keys.molecular keys.

It allows computers to screen molecules that may be It allows computers to screen molecules that may be developed into drugs to fight cancer. Each individual developed into drugs to fight cancer. Each individual computer analyzes a few molecules and then sends the computer analyzes a few molecules and then sends the results back over the Internet for further research. results back over the Internet for further research.

This project is anticipated to be This project is anticipated to be the largestthe largest computational chemistry project ever undertaken and computational chemistry project ever undertaken and represents a genuine hope to find a better way to fight represents a genuine hope to find a better way to fight cancer.cancer.

The computational power to perform research of this The computational power to perform research of this scale is only available through the generosity of scale is only available through the generosity of participants.participants.http://www.grid.org/projects/cancer/

Smallpox Research ProjectSmallpox Research Project Smallpox was eliminated from the world in 1977Smallpox was eliminated from the world in 1977 Stocks of the variola virus still exist, potential terrorist useStocks of the variola virus still exist, potential terrorist use Vaccination ended in 1972, so an outbreak would kill Vaccination ended in 1972, so an outbreak would kill

millionsmillions There is a possible molecular target whose blockade would There is a possible molecular target whose blockade would

prevent the ravages of an infection. prevent the ravages of an infection. The Smallpox Research Grid Project involves screening The Smallpox Research Grid Project involves screening 35 35

millionmillion potential drug molecules against several protein potential drug molecules against several protein targets — one of the largest computational chemistry targets — one of the largest computational chemistry project ever undertaken. project ever undertaken.

This will involve the use of the United Devices Grid MP This will involve the use of the United Devices Grid MP Global, which we have successfully used in the past Global, which we have successfully used in the past towards cancer and anthrax research. towards cancer and anthrax research.

The project can harness millions of computers belonging to The project can harness millions of computers belonging to people in over two hundred countries, all of whom will people in over two hundred countries, all of whom will benefit from protection against smallpox. benefit from protection against smallpox.

Can run as a Can run as a screen saverscreen saver or as a low priority process or as a low priority processhttp://www.grid.org/projects/smallpox/about.htm

SCIRunSCIRun Interactive Scientific ProgrammingInteractive Scientific Programming Interactively composes large-scale scientific Interactively composes large-scale scientific

computations through visual dataflow programmingcomputations through visual dataflow programming Integrated with visualization packagesIntegrated with visualization packages Supports interactive steering during the design, Supports interactive steering during the design,

computation, and visualization phases of a simulationcomputation, and visualization phases of a simulation

http://www.cs.utah.edu/sci/scirun

Key VendorsKey Vendors

Parabon Computation Parabon Computation www.parabon.comwww.parabon.com DataSynapse DataSynapse www.datasynapse.comwww.datasynapse.com IBM Grid Computing IBM Grid Computing www.ibm.com/gridwww.ibm.com/grid Sun Microsystems Grid Computing Sun Microsystems Grid Computing

www.sun.com/gridwww.sun.com/grid Oracle Corp. Oracle Corp. www.oracle.com/gridwww.oracle.com/grid HP Grid Computing HP Grid Computing

www.hp.com/techservers/grid/index.htmlwww.hp.com/techservers/grid/index.html United Devices United Devices www.ud.comwww.ud.com 11stst Port for Grid Computing Port for Grid Computing www.1stport.co.ukwww.1stport.co.uk

ReferencesReferences Computational Intermediation and the Evolution of Computation as a Computational Intermediation and the Evolution of Computation as a

CommodityCommodity, Applied Economics, June 2004, Applied Economics, June 2004www.business/duq.edu/faculty/davies/research/economicsofcomputation.pdfwww.business/duq.edu/faculty/davies/research/economicsofcomputation.pdf

The Grid: Blueprint for a New Computing InfrastructureThe Grid: Blueprint for a New Computing Infrastructurewww.mkp.comwww.mkp.com/grids/grids

Grid Computing: Making the Global Infrastructure a RealityGrid Computing: Making the Global Infrastructure a Realitywww.grid2002.orgwww.grid2002.org

The Grid : Core TechnologiesThe Grid : Core Technologieshttp://coregridtechnologies.orghttp://coregridtechnologies.org

CERN: The Grid Café – What is a Grid?CERN: The Grid Café – What is a Grid?http://gridcafe.web.cern.ch/gridcafe/whatisagrid/whatis.htmlhttp://gridcafe.web.cern.ch/gridcafe/whatisagrid/whatis.html

Grid Computing: A Brief Technology AnalysisGrid Computing: A Brief Technology Analysiswww.ctonet.org/documents/gridcomputing_analysis.pdfwww.ctonet.org/documents/gridcomputing_analysis.pdf

IBM: What is Grid ComputingIBM: What is Grid Computinghttp://www-1.ibm.com/grid/about_grid/what_is.shtml

ReferencesReferences IBM Grid Computing BenefitsIBM Grid Computing Benefits

http://www-1.ibm.com/grid/about_grid/benefits.shtml

Sun Microsystems: What is Grid?Sun Microsystems: What is Grid?http://www.sun.com/executives/iforce/integratedsolutions/gridsolutions/http://www.sun.com/executives/iforce/integratedsolutions/gridsolutions/index.htmlindex.html

HP Grid ComputingHP Grid Computinghttp://www.hp.com/techservers/grid/index.htmlhttp://www.hp.com/techservers/grid/index.html

Oracle Grid Index ReportOracle Grid Index Reporthttp://www.oracle.com/global/eu/pressroom/nagridreport.pdf

Juhasz, Zoltan, et al, Juhasz, Zoltan, et al, Distributed and Parallel Systems, Cluster and Grid Distributed and Parallel Systems, Cluster and Grid Computing , Computing , Springer Science and Business Media, 2005 [ISBN 0-387-Springer Science and Business Media, 2005 [ISBN 0-387-23094-7]23094-7]

Minoli, Daniel,Minoli, Daniel, A Networking Approach to Grid Computing A Networking Approach to Grid Computing, John Wiley , John Wiley and Sons, 2005 [ISBN and Sons, 2005 [ISBN 0-471-68756-1]

Wikipedia: Grid ComputingWikipedia: Grid Computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_computing

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