Top Banner
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels 12/2/2013 An investigation into the fatigue phenomenon of austenitic (face-centered cubic) stainless steels
21

Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

Feb 18, 2020

Download

Documents

dariahiddleston
Welcome message from author
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
Page 1: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels

12/2/2013

An investigation into the fatigue phenomenon of austenitic (face-centered cubic) stainless steels

Page 2: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

Table of Contents List of Figures ................................................................................................................................................ 3

List of Tables ................................................................................................................................................. 3

1.0 - Background ........................................................................................................................................... 4

2.0 - Fatigue Characteristics of Single Crystal Face-Centered Cubic Stainless Steels ................................... 5

3.0 - Fatigue Characteristics of Polycrystal Face-Centered Cubic Stainless Steels ....................................... 7

3.1 - Crack Initiation .................................................................................................................................... 12

3.2 - Short Crack Growth ............................................................................................................................. 15

3.3 - Long crack growth ............................................................................................................................... 18

4.0 - Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 20

References .................................................................................................................................................. 21

Page 3: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

List of Figures Figure 1 - Cyclic Stress-Strain Curve for Monocrystalline 316L Stainless Steel (Li & Laird, 1994) ................ 5

Figure 2 - Cyclic Stress-Strain Curve for Monocrystalline Copper (Christ, 1996) .......................................... 5

Figure 3 - Flow Stress, Friction Stress and Back Stress For: (a) Specimen Cycled in Air; (b) Specimens

Deformed by Single Slip; (c) Specimens Deformed by Multi Slip (Li & Laird, 1994) ..................................... 7

Figure 4 - Cyclic Hardening and Softening Curves for 316L Stainless Steel (Polák, 4.20 – Fatigue of Steels,

2007) ............................................................................................................................................................. 8

Figure 5 - Dislocation Arrangement for Polycrystalline 316L Stainless Steel With Thin Bands Parallel to

Primary Slip Plane (Polák, 4.20 – Fatigue of Steels, 2007) ............................................................................ 8

Figure 6 - Dislocation Arrangement for Polycrystalline 316L Stainless Steel With Ladder-Like Structure of

Persistant Slip Bands (Polák, 4.20 – Fatigue of Steels, 2007) ....................................................................... 9

Figure 7 -- Dislocation Arrangement for Polycrystalline 316L Stainless Steel With Ladder & Wall Structure

Orientation Along Primary Slip Plane (Polák, 4.20 – Fatigue of Steels, 2007) ............................................ 10

Figure 8 - Tangle Structure Observed in 316L Stainless Steel Cycled at Strain Amplitude of 5×10-3

(Gerland, Mendez, Violan, & Saadi, 1989) .................................................................................................. 11

Figure 9 - Wall Structure Observed in 316L Stainless Steel Cycled at Strain Amplitude of 5×10-3 (Gerland,

Mendez, Violan, & Saadi, 1989) .................................................................................................................. 11

Figure 10 - Cell Structure Forming in 316L Stainless Steel Cycled at Strain Amplitude of 5×10-3 (Gerland,

Mendez, Violan, & Saadi, 1989) .................................................................................................................. 12

Figure 11 - Progressive Evolution of Surface with Increasing Cycles of Polycrystalling 316L Steel (Polák,

2007) ........................................................................................................................................................... 13

Figure 12 - Surface of Polycrystalline 316L Stainless Steel Showing Persistant Slip Markings (Polák, 2007)

.................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Figure 13 - Depth of Extrusion and Intrusions vs Number of Cycles for 316L Stainless Steel εap=1×10-3

(Man, Obrtlík, Blochwitz, & Polák, 2002) .................................................................................................... 14

Figure 14 - Surface Relief With Cracks Initiated Along PSBs ....................................................................... 16

Figure 15 - Crack Length a vs Number of Cycles N for 316L Stainless Steel For Different Strain Amplitudes

(Polák, 2007) ............................................................................................................................................... 17

Figure 16 - Crack Length a vs Number of Cycles N for 316L Stainless Steel With εap=3×10-5 brtl k, Polák,

Hájek, & Vašek, 1997) ................................................................................................................................. 17

Figure 17 - Crack Length a vs Number of Cycles N for 316L Stainless Steel With εap=1×10-4 brtl k, Polák,

Hájek, & Vašek, 1997) ................................................................................................................................. 17

Figure 18 - Crack Growth Rate In Crack Generation Regime of Equivalent Crack vs Plastic Strain

Amplitude brtl k, Polák, Hájek, & Vašek, 1997) ...................................................................................... 18

Figure 19 - Crack Growth Rate vs Stress Intensity Factor for 316L Stainless Steel (Pickard, Ritchie, &

Knott, 1975) ................................................................................................................................................ 19

List of Tables Table 1 - Proportions and Dimensions of Different Dislocation Structures Observed in 316L Stainless

Steel Cycled in Air (Gerland, Mendez, Violan, & Saadi, 1989) .................................................................... 10

Page 4: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

1.0 - Background In metallurgy practice, steel alloys with chromium content by mass greater than 10.5% are

considered to be stainless steels. The alloy content of these steels may vary from grade to grade

and they typically offer superior corrosion resistance properties in comparison to carbon steels.

Depending on composition, stainless steels can fall under the following categories: ferritic,

austenitic, duplex, martensitic and precipitation harded. Stainless steels may be found in the

aircraft industry, automobile industry, construction industry and many other industries. Thus, the

study fatigue and fatigue mechanisms of stainless steels is very important because the failure of

components containing these steels will result in significant impact on the lives of many.

Steels are often subject to loads which cause an accumulation of damage, rather than loads that

cause immediate failure of a component. The pile up of damage is not always noticeable to the

naked eye. By the time macroscopic damage is observed, severe damage has already occurred.

The fatigue life of a material varies for different circumstances. Examples of factors affecting

fatigue life include the amount of material defects present, surface finish, surface treatments,

loading types, size of component, and environmental factors.

The process of fatigue can be broken down into three main stages: fatigue crack initiation,

fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack

growth rates during cycling, as that will allow parts to be replaced before failure occurs.

This report will take a closer look at some of the fatigue characteristics of single crystal and

polycrystal austenitic (fcc) stainless steel (mainly 316 and 316L).

Page 5: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

2.0 - Fatigue Characteristics of Single Crystal Face-Centered Cubic Stainless Steels A large portion of the stainless steel group consists of austenitic stainless steels. These alloys

have a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure. In a study done by Li and Laird (1994), the fatigue

response of single crystal of 316L stainless steel fatigued at room temperature was analyzed.

Figure 1 below shows a step ascending cyclic stress-strain curve (CSSC) for the samples used. It

can be noted that a plateau region that similar to that of a CSSC for copper single crystal was

observed.

Figure 1 - Cyclic Stress-Strain Curve for Monocrystalline 316L Stainless Steel (Li & Laird, 1994)

Figure 2 - Cyclic Stress-Strain Curve for Monocrystalline Copper (Christ, 1996)

Page 6: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

Li and Laird (1994) also observed that some of the samples exhibited cyclic softening at

intermediate plastic strain amplitudes, which occurred in both constant plastic strain and step

ascending tests (see Figure 3). This phenomenon can be seen to happen with some other alloys

with low stacking fault energy (SFE). For this case, a stress level high enough to generate

enough dislocations to carry strain was required. The difficulty in generating these initial

dislocations is called "dislocation starvation" (Li & Laird, 1994), and is thought to be an effect of

solute atoms. Softening is also due to interaction between interstitial atoms and dislocations. The

solute atoms, mainly carbon and nitrogen, cause dislocations to be pinned. Once the dislocation

becomes unpinned, the material will experience "softening" since the dislocations are free to

move around in the crystal. In addition, some of the solute atoms that lie in its path may be

carried in the progress of dislocations travelling. As the number of cycles increase, the solute

content along this path is reduced, and explains the softening behavior observed after initial

yielding. Li & Laird (1994) also observed that there is a sign of change in dislocation structures.

The reduction of interband distance and formation of dislocation tangles due to arranged

dislocations being cut into short of loops by cross slip also contributed to cyclic softening. The

above three factors may have had significant influence on the softening behavior depending on

applied strain amplitude.

Page 7: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

Figure 3 - Flow Stress, Friction Stress and Back Stress For: (a) Specimen Cycled in Air; (b) Specimens Deformed by Single Slip; (c) Specimens Deformed by Multi Slip (Li & Laird, 1994)

3.0 - Fatigue Characteristics of Polycrystal Face-Centered Cubic Stainless Steels The cyclic stress-strain responses for austenitic polycrystal stainless steels were investigated by

Gerland et al. (1989), Li and Liard (1994) and Polák et al. (1994). The type of steel chosen for

their analysis was 316L-type stainless steel. Upon further investigation, it appears that the level

of stress amplitude plays a part in determining the behavior of the cyclic hardening and cyclic

softening curves.

Page 8: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

Figure 4 - Cyclic Hardening and Softening Curves for 316L Stainless Steel (Polák, 4.20 – Fatigue of Steels, 2007)

Referring to Figure 4 above, it can be seen that there is no saturation stage for low plastic strain

amplitudes. Instead, the fatigue softening continues on until the fracture point. At intermediate

plastic strain amplitudes however, saturation stage can be observed. Finally, for high stress

amplitudes, secondary hardening can be seen.

In specimens cycled at low plastic strain amplitudes, planar structures were commonly seen to be

arranged in band like structures parallel to active slip plane. In addition, it was common to see

them separated by dislocation-free bands (Polák, 2007). Figure 5 below shows an example where

the planar structures may be observed.

Figure 5 - Dislocation Arrangement for Polycrystalline 316L Stainless Steel With Thin Bands Parallel to Primary Slip Plane (Polák, 4.20 – Fatigue of Steels, 2007)

Page 9: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

The density of the aforementioned parallel bands becomes more frequent and apparent as strain

amplitude is increased. In addition, the frequency at which dislocations from neighbor bands

interact is also increased. Consequently, tangle structures fill up the whole volume and a vein

like structure often appears. When plastic strain amplitude is increased to an intermediate level,

the dislocations in bands parallel to active slip rearrange themselves into a structure similar to

persistent slip band (PSB) ladder structure(Polák, 2007). The ladder structure or persistent slip

bands (PSB) is not as defined as ones that may be observed in copper crystal fatigued at room

temperature, but is still prevalent. Tangles and veins are still prevalent, and surround the PSBs.

The phenomenon is observed in Figure 6 below.

Figure 6 - Dislocation Arrangement for Polycrystalline 316L Stainless Steel With Ladder-Like Structure of Persistant Slip Bands (Polák, 4.20 – Fatigue of Steels, 2007)

At highest plastic strain amplitudes, cell and labyrinth structures are most common (see Figure 7

below) . The cell structures are banded, and appear to be ladder-like also. Most of the dislocation

walls are perpendicular to the primary Burgers vector. At this point, the majority of the grain is

filled with these cells and bands oriented in the primary slip plane. Cells oriented in the trace of

the primary slip plane highlight areas where cyclic strain is localized.

Page 10: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

Figure 7 -- Dislocation Arrangement for Polycrystalline 316L Stainless Steel With Ladder & Wall Structure Orientation Along Primary Slip Plane (Polák, 4.20 – Fatigue of Steels, 2007)

In another study done by Gerland et al. (1989), the proportions and dimensions of different

structures of dislocations observed in a 316L steel cycled in air was recorded. The results are

summarized in Table 1 below.

Table 1 - Proportions and Dimensions of Different Dislocation Structures Observed in 316L Stainless Steel Cycled in Air (Gerland, Mendez, Violan, & Saadi, 1989)

The data from the table is consistent from what was previously observed. At lower amplitudes

(7×10-4

) of plastic strain, 50% of the structures seen were tangles. Planar slip bands, walls-

Page 11: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

channels and cells were also present at much smaller fractions than that of tangles. As stress

amplitudes increased, presence of tangles decreased and we see more walls-channels and cell

structures.

Figure 8 - Tangle Structure Observed in 316L Stainless Steel Cycled at Strain Amplitude of 5×10-3

(Gerland, Mendez, Violan, & Saadi, 1989)

Figure 9 - Wall Structure Observed in 316L Stainless Steel Cycled at Strain Amplitude of 5×10-3

(Gerland, Mendez, Violan, & Saadi, 1989)

Page 12: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

Figure 10 - Cell Structure Forming in 316L Stainless Steel Cycled at Strain Amplitude of 5×10-3

(Gerland, Mendez, Violan, & Saadi, 1989)

3.1 - Crack Initiation We can learn more about the crack initiation of austenitic steels by looking at the surface relief

resulting from cyclic loading. Most fatigue cracks for austenitic steel will initiate from slip bands

(Polák, 4.20 – Fatigue of Steels, 2007). When the localization of cyclic plastic strain begin to

group up and form localized slip, the resulting bands are called "persistent slip bands" (Polák,

2003). The surface features observed when persistent slip bands arise on the surface of material

are known as persistent slip markings (PSM). From Figure 11, it can be seen that PSMs become

increasingly obvious as the number of cycles increase.

Page 13: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

Figure 11 - Progressive Evolution of Surface with Increasing Cycles of Polycrystalling 316L Steel (Polák, 2007)

Man et al. (2002) used atomic force microscopy (AFM) to study the PSB resulting from constant

strain cycling for several samples of polycrystalline 316L steel. Three factors were found to be

directly responsible for the height of these extrusions: the thickness of PSB, the size of the grain

below the surface, and the direction of the active Burgers vector (Man, Obrtlík, Blochwitz, &

Polák, 2002).

Initial findings from showed that majority of PSMs are formed within 20% of total fatigue life

(Polak, Vasek, & Obrtlik, 1996). These extrusions are noticeable very early on. For loading with

εap=2×10-3

, the extrusions grew at a rate of 2.5×10-11

m/cycle for the majority of the fatigue life.

In 60% of fatigue life, visible PSM could be seen in the majority of grains. While, material

extruded from grain parallel to active slip plane forms a band, an intrusion also grows into

material parallel to the slip plane.

Page 14: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

Figure 12 - Surface of Polycrystalline 316L Stainless Steel Showing Persistant Slip Markings (Polák, 2007)

Figure 13 - Depth of Extrusion and Intrusions vs Number of Cycles for 316L Stainless Steel εap=1×10-3

(Man, Obrtlík, Blochwitz, & Polák, 2002)

The study of intrusions were more difficult, since a plastic replica had to be used for the study.

Since the replica does not completely model their behavior for deep intrusions, it was difficult to

perform in-depth study of intrusions. In addition, resulting sharp inclusions served as locations

for crack initiation. Although intrusion growth is delayed by about 350 cycles, the rate of growth

is higher than that of extrusion growth rate (see Figure 13). These intrusion growth rates were

further affected by whether one or two parallel intrusions grew simultaneously (Polák, 2007).

The intrusions serve as locations for crack growth and development under further cyclic loading.

Page 15: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

3.2 - Short Crack Growth The early crack growth of fatigue cracks can be mainly seen to initialize along strain localized

areas. A number of cracks are generated initially and may behave differently. The behavior and

accumulation of these cracks strongly affects resulting fatigue damage. In a study done by

Obrtlı´k et al. (1997), the interaction of short cracks and the kinetics of an equivalent crack were

studied for 316L stainless steel. The equivalent crack is the length of the largest crack that is

currently present in the specified area ( l k k tı & Va ek 1992).

Fatigue crack initiation was either along PSB or at grain boundaries and typically followed

surface relief evolution. During the initial stages of cycling, PSBs appearing on the surface

already contain some cracks. Both the PSB and cracks only continue on in grains nearby if the

grains have almost identical orientations. In most cases, developing cracks will stop at grain

boundaries instead of passing onto neighboring grains. However, a well developed crack will

appear if the cracks are able to link together with other cracks from different parallel PSB in the

grain. Figure 14 below shows an example of where a well developed crack was formed in the

circled area, and was able to cross over to other grain boundaries. This notion suggests that the

linking of cracks is a important mechanism in the process of short crack growth.

Page 16: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

Figure 14 - Surface Relief With Cracks Initiated Along PSBs

The idea of the equivalent crack helps describe the process of the assembly of interacting cracks.

Depending on the interaction of the cracks, the equivalent crack is approximated differently. If

the linkage of cracks is not important and the density of cracks is rather small, then the

equivalent crack is equal to the largest crack. If a number of cracks interact and the different

cracks can become largest crack within fatigue life due to linkage, the equivalent crack is then

approximated as "the largest crack in the area subjected to applied stress, strain , or plastic strain

amplitude" (Obrtlı k l k H jek & Va ek 1997).

The equivalent crack length was then plotted against the number of cycles for different plastic

strain amplitudes (see Figure 15). Though the inital crack growth can be approximated by a

Page 17: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

linear dependence which is easier to see in Figure 16 and Figure 17, most of the fatigue life for

different plastic strain amplitudes may be approximated by using exponential growth law

.

Figure 15 - Crack Length a vs Number of Cycles N for 316L Stainless Steel For Different Strain Amplitudes (Polák, 2007)

Figure 16 - Crack Length a vs Number of Cycles N for 316L Stainless Steel With εap=3×10-5

, Po á , Háje , & Vaše , 1997)

Figure 17 - Crack Length a vs Number of Cycles N for 316L Stainless Steel Wi h εap=1×10-4 , Po á , Háje , & Vaše ,

1997)

Page 18: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

From the experimental data, the dependence of crack growth rate, , on the applied plastic

strain amplitude can also be fitted by power law . The results are shown in Figure 18

below.

Figure 18 - Crack Growth Rate In Crack Generation Regime of Equivalent Crack vs Plastic Strain Amplitude , Polák, Háje , & Vaše , 1997)

In general, short crack growth rate may be described by two regions. At the very beginning, the

crack growth rate is independent of crack length until a certain "transitional crack length" is

reached. This is the linear region as seen in Figure 16 and Figure 17. After the transitional crack

length has been reached, exponential growth of crack length can be seen with increasing number

of cycles. Later on, these crack growth rates approach that of long cracks (Obrtlı k, Polák, Hájek,

& Va ek 1997).

3.3 - Long crack growth Since the 1970's the behavior of long cracks has been studied by several researchers. Crack

gr wth rates were meas red f r 316 steel a d pl tted aga st stress te s ty fact r ∆K. F r 316

steel, the graph is shown in Figure 19 below.

Page 19: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

Figure 19 - Crack Growth Rate vs Stress Intensity Factor for 316L Stainless Steel (Pickard, Ritchie, & Knott, 1975)

Note that three main regions can be identified from the figure above: slow crack growth, power

law behavior and rapid unstable crack growth. The first region is on the very left of the graph

(Figure 19) shows the thresh ld stress te s ty ra ge ∆Kth below which there is no crack

growth. As long as the material stays in a stress intensity range that is less than 6, it can be seen

that there will be almost no crack growth per cycle. The second region is one shown by the linear

line marked on the graph above. In this region, the behavior of the material follows a linear

relat sh p f r l g da/dN vs l g ∆K. The eq at s ggested by ar s et al. (1961) is as follows:

where C and n are material constants. In this region, we can expect to observe stable

macroscopic crack growth. Lastly, as we move further right we will enter region three. In this

region we see an exponential increase in crack growth rate before final fracture.

I rder t f d t the ∆Kth value of materials, we will have to actually carry out tests. Some

fact rs wh ch affect the ∆Kth include stress ratio (R), grain size and influence from 2nd

phase

particles.

Page 20: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

4.0 - Conclusion As one of the highly popular material used in industries, the fatigue of stainless steels has been a

topic of study for many scholars. This report briefly touched on some of the fatigue phenomenon

observed for single crystal and polycrystalline austenitic steel.

Cyclic softening phenomenon was observed at intermediate plastic strain amplitudes for single

crystal. The phenomenon is thought to be attributed to three main factors: Cottrell atmospheres,

interaction between interstitial atoms and dislocations, and reduction of interband and formation

of tangles due to cross slip.

Different plastic strain amplitudes were investigated for polycrystalline 316L stainless steel. The

microstructures at several plastic strain were looked at, it it appears in low plastic strain

amplitudes tangles dislocation structures were dominant. Although less prevalent, some traces of

other dislocations such as cells, walls, and labyrinths were also present at this state. As plastic

strain amplitudes increased, a general shift from tangles structure to cells and wall-channel

structures were observed.

The initial crack growth stages, short crack growth, and long crack growth were also briefly

covered in this report. In the initial crack growth stage, surface relief resulting from cycling was

looked at. PSB which lead to PSM on the surface were seen, and the resulting extrusion and

intrusions were observed. Following after surface relief, one may observe early growth of fatigue

cracks in samples. The generation and behavior of these cracks has an effect on whether or not

the cracks will traverse across grain boundaries. Two main regions, one linear and the other

exponential, were observed for short crack growth. Lastly, long crack growth was looked at and

it could be seen that for a typical 316L stainless steel sample that the crack growth rate followed

a similar trend of general linear elastic fracture mechanics. Three regions describing crack

growth rate per cycle versus stress intensity factor were noted: slow crack growth, power law

behavior and rapid unstable crack growth.

The topic of stainless steels is quite broad, and there is no doubt that further studies for different

compositions of steels would serve as interesting topics to study. As previously mentioned, there

are many other different types of steels available, and each would yield individual results. In

addition, the different temperature variations in different environments (e.g. air, vacuum,

nitrogen abundant, etc.) would also serve as good areas for future study.

Page 21: Fatigue and Fracture of Austenitic Stainless Steels...fatigue crack growth, and final fracture. It is crucial for engineers to be able to predict crack growth rates during cycling,

References Christ, H.-J. (1996). Cyclic Stress-Strain Response and Microstructure. In A. H. Commitee, ASM

Handbook, Volume 19: Fatigue and Fracture (pp. 73-95). ASM International.

Gerland, M., Mendez, J., Violan, P., & Saadi, B. A. (1989, October). Evolution of dislocation structures

and cyclic behaviour of 316L-type austenitic stainless steel cycled in vacuo at room temperature.

Materials Science and Engineering, 83-95.

Lampman, S. (1996). Fatigue and Fracture Properties of Stainless Steels. ASM International, 712-732.

Li, Y., & Laird, C. (1994, October 15). Cyclic response and dislocation structures of AISI 316L stainless

steel. Part 1: single crystals fatigued at intermediate strain amplitude. Materials Science and

Engineering, 186(1-2), 65-86.

Li, Y., & Laird, C. (1994, October 15). Cyclic response and dislocation structures of AISI 316L stainless

steel. Part 2: polycrystals fatigued at intermediate strain amplitude. Materials Science and

Engineering, 186(1-2), 87-103.

Man, J., Obrtlík, K., Blochwitz, C., & Polák, J. (2002). Atomic force microscopy of surface relief in

individual grains of fatigued 316L austenitic stainless steel. Acta Materialia, 50(15), 3767–3780.

McEvily, A. (1996). ASM Handbook, Volume 19 - Fatigue and Fracture. In A. H. Committee, ASM

Handbook, Volume 19 - Fatigue and Fracture (pp. 143-152). ASM International.

Mughrabi, H. (1978, May 2). The cyclic hardening and saturation behaviour of copper single crystals.

Materials Science and Engineering, 33(2), 207-223.

brtl k, K., Polák, J., Hájek, M., & Vašek, A. 1997). Short fatigue crack behaviour in 316L stainless steel.

International Journal of Fatigue, 19(6), 471-475.

Paris, P., Gomez, M., & Anderson, W. (1961). A rational analytic theory of fatigue. The Trend in

Engineering, 9-14.

Pickard, A., Ritchie, R., & Knott, J. (1975). FATIGUE CRACK PROPAGATION IN A TYPE 316 STAINLESS STEEL

WELDMENT. Met Technol, 2, 253-263.

Polák, J. (2003). 4.01 - Cyclic Deformation, Crack Initiation, and Low-cycle Fatigue. Comprehensive

Structural Integrity, 1-39.

Polák, J. (2007). 4.20 – Fatigue of Steels. Comprehensive Structural Integrity, 504-537.

Polák, J., Lišku n, P., & Vašek, A. 1992). Low Cycle Fatigue and Elasto-Plastic Behaviour of Materials.

London: Elsevier Applied Science.

Polak, J., Vasek, A., & Obrtlik, K. (1996). Fatigue damage in two step loading of 316L steel I. Evolution of

persistent slip bands. Fatigue and Fracture of Engineering Materials and Structures, 19(2), 147-

155.