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Erosion and Soil & Water Conservation Group ENP Environmental Policy Group Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: a Case study in Tulla District, Ethiopia MSc Thesis by Eleni Tesfaye Aberha August 2008
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Erosion and Soil & Water Conservation Group ENP Environmental Policy Group

Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: a

Case study in Tulla District, Ethiopia

MSc Thesis by Eleni Tesfaye Aberha

August 2008

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Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: a

Case study in Tulla District, Ethiopia

By

Eleni Tesfaye Aberha

Master thesis Erosion and Soil & Water Conservation Group and Environmental Policy Group

submitted in partial fulfillment of the degree of Master of Science in Environmental

Sciences at Wageningen University, The Netherlands

Study program: Environmental Science (MES) Student registration number: 650424004-100 Thesis Enviromental Policy Group ENP 80436 Supervisors: Dr Jan de Graaff Dr Wander van der Vaart Examinators: Dr. Jan de Graaff Dr. Wander van der Vaart

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Dedicated to

My late father Tesfaye Aberha who has still a fresh memory in me and is exemplary to

my current achievement

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Abstract

Soil degradation is one of the major environmental problems challenging agricultural

production in many parts of Ethiopia. Even though a number of soil and water

conservation methods were introduced and practiced, the continued use of these measures

is far below expectations and soil degradation continues to be a serious problem. This

research was conducted with the aim of finding out the type of indigenous and introduced

soil and water conservation (SWC) measures, and to determine the personal, economic,

institutional, and biophysical factors that influence the continued use these measures in

Tulla District, Ethiopia. Formal and informal surveys were undertaken as means of data

gathering for the study. A total of 40 households were interviewed and several fields

were visited during transect walks. Data were analyzed with the use of descriptive

statistics, cross tabulation and correlation methods. The results show that family size,

gender, annual income, fertilizer cost, farm size, market distance, slope and type of

erosion are among the major factors that positively and significantly influence the

continued use of soil and water conservation measures. Education, age, off-farm

activities, access to credit, visits by extension agent, land tenure and technical support

show no significant influence on the continued use of soil and water conservation. Most

of the institutional factors didn’t show a significant relationship with the continued use of

SWC practices. The institutional analysis shows that the Agricultural Office of the

district should integrate its operations and give due emphasis to ensure the continued

application of SWC practices.

Key words: soil degradation, continued use, soil and water conservation, Ethiopia

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Acknowledgments First of all, I would like to thank The Netherlands Organization for International

Cooperation in Higher Education (NUFFIC) for sponsoring my MSc study here in

Wageningen University. I would also like to thank my organization, Agriculture and

Rural Development Office of Awassa district, for providing me to take study leave

required to complete my MSc. Next, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my

supervisors, Dr. ir. Jan de Graaff and Dr. Wander van der Vaart, for their guidance and

continuous follow up in the entire process of the thesis work without which this thesis

could not have been possible.

During my field work, I also got much assistance from Tulla district officers and

extension agents. I would like to use this opportunity to thank them all. Especially, I am

gratefull to Mekael, Amarech and farmers of the study area who participated in this

research.

Special thanks go to my friend Deberu Kebede and Mullo Allo for their unreserved

support and encouragements in the study period. My sincere thanks go to Dr. Yosef

Tekele Gyorigis and Dr. Tesfaye Semela for their advice on analysis methods and for

their helpful encouragements. My gratitude also goes to Fassil Menjo for his

encouragement and support to me and my family at all times. Also many thanks to my

friends here in Wageningen to Addisu Abebe and Francis Nkoka for their sustained

support and encouragement in the whole study period. I would also like to express my

profound gratefulness to my mother Bayoush Haddis for helping me strive towards the

realization of my potentials.

Last but not least, my deepest gratefulness to my dear husband Gashaw Metike and our

children Selam and Bruce for all the inconveniences you have encountered during my

absence and your wonderful support and patience during my stay away from home.

Gashaw thank you so much for your endurance in shouldering family responsibilities.

Finally, may the Almighty God be blessed for providing me this opportunity, and for

giving me the strength to start and go through with my studies!

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Table of Contents

Content Page No.

List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... iii

List of Figures .................................................................................................................... iv

Abbreviations.......................................................................................................................v

Glossary ............................................................................................................................. vi

1. Introduction......................................................................................................................1

1.1 Background............................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem statement..................................................................................................... 5

1.3 Objectives ................................................................................................................. 7

1.4 Research questions.................................................................................................... 7

2. Materials and Methods.....................................................................................................8

2.1 Theoretical framework.............................................................................................. 8

2.2 Description of the study area .................................................................................. 10

2.3 Methods of data collection...................................................................................... 12

2.4 Data analysis ........................................................................................................... 15

3. Results and Discussions.................................................................................................16

3.1 Soil and water conservation practices in the area ................................................... 16

3.1.1 Indigenous method of soil and water conservation practices .......................... 16

3.1.2 Newly introduced soil and water conservation practices................................. 21

3.2 Household Characteristics ...................................................................................... 24

3.3 Farmland Characteristics ........................................................................................ 27

3.4 Factors affecting the continued use of SWC practices ........................................... 30

3.4.1 Personal factors in relation to continued use of SWC ..................................... 30

3.4.2 Economic factors in relation to continued use of SWC................................... 33

3.4.3 Institutional factors in relation to the continued use........................................ 36

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3.4.4 Biophysical factors in relation to the continued use ........................................ 39

4. Conclusions and Recommendations ..............................................................................43

5. References.....................................................................................................................47

6. Appendices.....................................................................................................................53

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List of Tables

Table 1: Indigenous soil and water conservation measures implemented by households 17

Table 2: Introduced soil and water conservation measures implemented by households 22

Table 3: Educational status of household heads ............................................................... 25

Table 4: Age distribution of household heads .................................................................. 26

Table 5: Involvement in off-farm activities and income generated.................................. 27

Table 6: Characteristics of farmland in the study area ..................................................... 29

Table 7: Relationship between “personal factors” and “continued use of SWC”: cross

tabulation and correlation ................................................................................................ 32

Table 8: Relationship between “economic factors” and “continued use of SWC”: cross

tabulation and correlation ................................................................................................ 34

Table 9: Relationship between economic and personal variables: Correlation ............... 36

Table 10: Relationship between “institutional factors” and “continued use of SWC”:

cross tabulation and correlation ....................................................................................... 37

Table 11: Farmers being visited by local extension agents in the study area ................... 38

Table 12: Relationship between “biophysical factors” and “continued use of SWC”:

cross tabulation and correlation ....................................................................................... 41

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Classification of continued use of SWC determinants and their relationships . 10

Figure 2: Location of Tulla District .................................................................................. 11

Figure 3: One of the informal meeting sessions with key informants .............................. 13

Figure 4: Big gullies developed due to wrong lay-out of cut-off -drains ......................... 18

Figure 5: Plantation of Sisal and Euphorbia along the contour ........................................ 20

Figure 6: Soil bunds are common in cultivated fields ...................................................... 23

Figure 7: Fanyajuu terraces which do not require frequent maintenance......................... 24

Figure 8: The relationship between fertility status of the investigated plots and slope of

the plots............................................................................................................................. 39

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Abbreviations

DA: Development Agent

EHRS: Ethiopian Highland Reclamation Study

ENP: Environmental Policy Group

ESW: Erosion and Soil Water Conservation group

FAO: Food and Agricultural Organization

FFW: Food For Work

GDP: Gross Domestic Product

GNP: Gross National Product

HH: Household Head

MOARD: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development

PA: Peasant Association

PSNP: Productive Safety Net Program

SCRR: Soil Conservation Research Project

SNNPRS: Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples Regional State

SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Science

SWC: Soil and Water Conservation

WFP: World Food Program

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Glossary

Birr: Ethiopian currency. (One Euro =15 Birr)

Booi: An indigenous physical structure constructed in the steep slopes to protect

the soil from eroding.

Bonna: The dry season of Ethiopia covering from October – February. Enset: A banana like plant (also called ‘false banana’) used as a staple food in most

of the southern parts of Ethiopia.

Kebele: A peasant association; it is also the lowest administrative unit in rural

Ethiopia; it has an area of about 800 ha.

Kiremet: The main rainy season of Ethiopia covering from June-August/September.

Mareshsa: A traditional implement used for cultivation of the farm by oxen

Teff: A main cereal staple grown and used in Ethiopia.

Woreda: An administrative unit somewhat equivalent to a district. A woreda consists

of several peasant associations (PAs). Yager shimagle: The elders of the community who command high respect by other

members

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1. Introduction

1.1 Background

Ethiopia is one of the largest countries in Africa both in terms of land area (1.1 million

km2) and population (77 million). With a per capita GNP of 100 dollars in 2001, the

country is one of the poorest in the world (World Bank, 2003). The economy is based

mainly on agriculture, which provides employment for over 80% of the labour force

which accounts for a little over 50% of the GDP. Some 88% of the total population is

settled in the highland areas of 1500 meters or higher above sea level, which makes up

only 45% of the country (FAO, 1986).

In fact, agriculture in Ethiopia is not only an economic activity but also a way of life for

which agricultural land is an indispensable resource upon which the welfare of the

society is built. The livelihood of the vast majority of the population depends directly or

indirectly on this sector. Needless to mention, such dependence obviously leads to

increased vulnerability of the economy to problems related to land degradation

(Wegayehu, 2003). Though land provides a means of livelihoods for the majority of the

population, land resources are facing increasing degradation mainly due to water erosion

in the form of sheet and rill erosion. Generally low productivity characterizes Ethiopian

agriculture which has made it difficult to attain food self sufficiency at a national level.

Soil degradation is one of the major environmental problems in Ethiopia, which

manifests itself mainly in the form of land on which the soil layer has been eroded away

and nutrients have been continuously extracted with little or no any replenishment. The

problem is particularly severe on cultivated marginal and sloping land because such areas

are generally susceptible to soil erosion (Tadesse and Belay, 2004; Greenland et al.,

1994).

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In the Ethiopian highlands soil degradation is caused by a combination of factors such as

high and uneven population pressure and many other physical and socio-economic

reasons (Bewket and Sterk, 2002). Continuous cultivation with little amendment for the

soil, and widespread use of dung and crop residues for household energy has substantially

contributed to the loss of organic matter (Amsalu, 2006). Because most farmers are poor

and operate at subsistence level, investment for intensification of agriculture is not well

developed in the country. This has created a vicious circle of low productivity, whereby

land degradation reduces the production potential of the land and this, in return, makes it

difficult for farmers to produce enough and invest in the land.

Soil erosion, which occurs in different forms throughout the year, is one of the major

manifestations of soil degradation in the country (Hurni, 1993 and Girma, 2001).

Estimates indicate that 25% of the highland is highly affected by soil erosion due to water

and 4% so seriously eroded that this will not be economically productive again in the

foreseeable future (Kruger et al., 1996). Soil erosion is greatest on cultivated land where

average annual soil loss was 42 t/ha/yr (Hurni,1990). The Soil Conservation Research

Project (SCRP) has estimated an annual soil loss of about 1.5 billion tons from the

highland. According to the Ethiopian Highlands Reclamation Study (EHRS) soil erosion

is estimated to cost the country 1.9 billion US$ between 1985 and 2010. This calls for

external interventions based on the local socio-economic and technical potential, if the

country is to continue as a nation.

Despite the severity of the problem however, it is only recently that land conservation has

received political attention in the country. Since the 1960s, various conservation

strategies have been introduced to enhance agricultural development and rural livelihoods

(Kelly and Scoones, 2000). Recognizing land degradation as a major environmental and

socio-economic problem, the government of Ethiopia has made several interventions. As

a result, large areas have been covered with terraces, soil bunds, area closures and

millions of trees have been planted. Nevertheless, the achievements still fell far below

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expectations and the country still loses a tremendous amount of fertile topsoil, and the

threat of land degradation is alarmingly broadening (Teklu and Gezahegn, 2003). Of the

various interventions, extensive conservation projects are carried out under the auspices

of the World Food Program (Shiferaw and Holden, 1998). One of these is the Productive

Safety Net Programme (PSNP). This program, also implemented in this study area,

provides farmers with grains and edible oil (Food For Work, FFW) or cash payment for

their participation in the funded conservation works. Such projects funded by the World

Food Program have, however, been criticized for achieving limited success in addressing

the problem. Although food aid has helped to fight hunger in famine-stricken areas, it has

not been successful in improving soil and water conservation in the long run (Amsalu and

de Graaff, 2004).

Besides, many of the projects sponsored both by the government and the WFP were also

criticized for putting emphasis only on mechanical conservation measures, most of which

were alien to the farmers. The farmers were virtually considered ignorant of soil and

water conservation practices and were excluded from the planning, commenting on and

implementation of these conservation measures (Azene, 2007). Decisions on which types

of conservation measures to use and where to place them were not made by the farmers

concerned (top down approach), and only rare attempts were made to include indigenous

experience and knowledge (Amsalu, 2006). Although the achievements were remarkable

in quantitative terms, the impacts of these efforts were far below the expectations and

land degradation continued to be a serious problem (Admassie, 2000).

Since the 1990s, implementation of soil and water conservation measures has been

undertaken as part of the agricultural extension package of the present government.

Conservation measures were mostly undertaken in campaigns and without the

involvement of the land owner. Farmers were not allowed to remove the structures once

built but maintenance was often carried out through the Productive Safety Net Program

(FFW) incentive (Shiferaw and Holden, 1998). However, the practice has largely

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remained delivery oriented in which the farmers are forced to implement conservation

measures designed for them by technical experts (Bewket, 2003). The majority of the

farmers have been reported to have totally or partially removed conservation structures

constructed on their plots (Admassie, 1995).

The reason for low performance of SWC activities are the low adoption of SWC

technologies. Adoption of SWC measures does not automatically guarantee long-term

use. When for example, SWC measures have been established with considerable project

assistance, not all farmers may continue using the measures. Therefore, adoption of soil

and water conservation may not lead to sustained land rehabilitation unless the

technologies are utilized continuously.

Continued use (or final adoption) refers to farmers being intrinsically motivated to

maintain and replicate SWC measures; they are convinced by themselves (and not by

incentives) that a measure actually works. Kessler (2006) considers SWC measures fully

adopted only when its execution is sustained and fully integrated in the household’s

farming system.

In line with this, the particular study focuses on investigating factors responsible for

determining farmers' decision with continued use of soil and water conservation.

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1.2 Problem statement

There are diverse views about reasons for the low agricultural productivity in the

Ethiopian context. Among other things, it is attributed to drought, shortage of rainfall,

war, pests, insecurity of land tenure, population pressure, soil erosion, overgrazing,

deforestation, lack of efficient rural organizations and weak institutional support

(Beshah, 2003). Although the commonly mentioned drought and shortage of rainfall are

considered as the major causes for low agricultural productivity and food shortage, the

contribution of soil degradation (excessive nutrient exhaustion and removal of top soil by

water erosion) is by far greater (Sahlemedhin, 2000). Degradation resulting from soil

erosion and nutrient depletion is one of the most challenging environmental problems in

Ethiopia. The Ethiopian highlands have been experiencing declining soil fertility and

severe soil erosion due to intensive farming on steep and fragile land (Amsalu and de

Graaff, 2006).

To alleviate this problem, a number of policy measures have been undertaken by the

government, although their success is highly questioned. More recently, the Ministry of

Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) of Ethiopia has been engaged in a

Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP). Rural communities living in highly degraded and

drought prone highland areas such as Tulla district are involved in soil conservation and

afforestation activities in the form of Food- For-Work (FFW) under the Productive Safety

Net Program.

This problem also applies to soil and water conservation projects carried out in Tulla

District Sidama zone, Southern Nations and Nationalities Regional State of Ethiopia.

Farmers are initially compelled to participate in the construction of conservation

structures because the construction is undertaken through group labour. The adoption rate

is, however, very low because farmers prefer to remove the structures from their

farmland instead of maintaining and replicating them after they are constructed. Hence, it

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is very important to study the real factors that are detrimental to the widespread

continued use of soil and water conservation practices.

Previous studies show that various personal, economic, socio-institutional and bio-

physical attributes have influential roles in farmers’ decisions on the adoption of SWC

measures. Thus, appropriate understanding of these factors would assist in the

formulation and implementation of the policy interventions designed to induce voluntary

continued use of SWC measures. Because farmers have the ultimate say on the decision

of continued use, clear knowledge of the factors that determine farmer decisions is an

essential step in the effort of combating severe soil erosion. Whether these factors, widely

practiced throughout Ethiopia, have similar roles in areas where the PSNP is

implemented such as Tulla District, however, is unexplored. The purpose of this research

is, therefore, to contribute to the understanding of the factors that influence farmers’

decisions on the continued use of soil and water conservation in the study area.

Continued use means farmers intrinsically motivated to maintain and replicate SWC

measures in their farmland .

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1.3 Objectives

The main objectives of this thesis are:

• To identify the current soil and water conservation practices (indigenous and/or

improved) the farmer is using.

• To assess the major constraints of continued use of soil and water conservation

technologies in the Productive Safety Net Program in Tulla District, Ethiopia, by

analyzing the most important factors that affect farmers’ decisions.

1.4 Research questions

The main research questions set to meet the objective mentioned above are:

- What are the indigenous and new soil and water conservation techniques used by

farmers in the research area?

- What are the main personal, economic, institutional and biophysical factors

affecting farmers’ decisions on the continued use of soil and water conservation

technologies?

Information obtained from this research can be used by policy makers, the community in

the area, individual farmers, researchers and extension staff to enhance the continued use

different SWC measures in Sidama Zone Tulla District and other areas with similar

conditions in Ethiopia.

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2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Theoretical framework

The continued use of new soil and water conservation technologies in developing

countries has attracted much attention from scientists and policy makers alike mainly

because agriculture is an important sector in those countries (De Graaff et al., 2008).

There are several definitions for the adoption of soil and water conservation activities.

Rogers (1995) has defined the adoption process as “the mental process an individual

passes through, from first hearing about an innovation to final adoption.”

According to De Graaff et al. (2008), there are three phases in the adoption process: the

acceptance phase, the actual adoption phase and the continued use phase. The acceptance

phase generally includes the awareness, evaluation and the trial stages and eventually

leads to starting investing in certain measures. The actual adoption phase is the stage

whereby efforts or investments are made to implement SWC measures on more than trial

basis. The third phase of continued use or final adoption is the stage in which the existing

SWC measures are maintained over many years and new ones are replicated on other

fields. Kessler (2006) considers SWC totally adopted only when its implementation is

sustained and fully integrated in the household farming system.

There are different factors related to the continued use of soil and water conservation

measures. These factors are mainly personal and social, economic, institutional, and

biophysical factors. Farmers seldom sustain the technical solutions offered by external

interventions in the long term unless proper consideration is given to these factors (Mc

Donald and Brown, 2000). Guren (1999) distinguished problems in the transfer and

adoption processes, mainly the lack of testing and the limited responsibility of extension

agents, as important reasons for the non continued use of soil and water conservation

technologies.

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In a research concerning adoption, Tenge et al. (2004) identified household variables,

farming and economic variables and other external factors as the major determinants of

adoption. In the Ethiopian case, several household and economic factors that influence

the decision to accept SWC measures have been analyzed. Amsalu and de Graaff (2006)

found in their study area, age, farm size, and livestock numbers as the most important

factors with significant influence. Farmers’ decisions to conserve natural resources

generally and soil and water in particular are largely determined by their knowledge of

the problems and the perceived benefits of conservation. In their research on the adoption

of soil and water conservation practices, Amsalu and de Graaff (2006) made a distinction

between the initial adoption and the continued use of conservation measures. A

distinction was made between farm characteristics, including personal attributes and

socio-institutional factors and plot characteristics, including slope, soil fertility, etc.

However, it is not clear whether these same variables have similar roles of impacting

upon adoption decision in different areas and different types of projects.

In this study, we use a classification of continued use of soil and water conservation

determinants into four major groups: personal, economic, institutional and biophysical

factors. The main factors, which are considered in this study, are age, education, gender

and family size (personal); annual income, fertilizer expenditure, access to credit, off-

farm income and farm size (economic); visits by DA, technical support, training, land

tenure and market distance (institutional); slope, level of soil fertility and type of soil

erosion (biophysical).

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Figure 1: Classification of continued use of SWC determinants and their

relationships

2.2 Description of the study area The study was carried out in Tulla district. It is located in Sidama Administrative Zone of

the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS) of Ethiopia

which is situated at 275 km south west of the capital, Addis Ababa. The climatic

condition is generally semi-arid, the mean annual rainfall ranging between 801-1600 mm.

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The annual temperature varies within the range of 16ºc-25ºc. The elevation ranges

between 1500-3000 meter above sea level and the slopes ranges from nearly flat to very

steep. The rainfall pattern generally is uni-modal, with over 70 percent falling between

April and August. The main rainy season (“kiremt”) ranges from June – August. The dry

season (“bonna”) in the area is mostly from October to February. The dry season limits

the water availability in the study area.

Figure 2: Location of Tulla District

Based upon the Tulla Office of Agriculture, the total number of households in each of the

two villages Finchewa and Tullo are 1136 and 935 respectively. Agriculture is mainly

rain-fed, but drought and crop failure are common due to unreliable and intensive

rainfall. The rainfall is not consistent year to year and the area also experiences drought.

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Land is cultivated at the onset of the rainy season using a pair of oxen and traditional

implements such as Maresha. The farming system is a typical mixed crop-livestock

system that is carried out on a subsistence scale. The main crops grown include maize

and enset, where by maize is the dominant crop which is sometimes rotated with beans.

Around and near the homestead enset is grown which serves as a source of the staple

food for most farmers. Cattle, sheep, donkey, goat and poultry are among the common

types of livestock. However, due to low amount of rainfall, shortage of fodder and lack of

grazing area the livestock production is not as such an important economic activity.

In the northern and north western directions, the two villages are bordered by Lake

Awassa which serves as a source of food specially fish. Moreover, small number of

farmers uses the water to produce different kinds of irrigated vegetables and fruits. The

commonest land tenure systems in the study area include: inheritance, purchase,

borrowing, renting and public land. The majority of households possess (owned by state)

land under the inheritance system whereby the land belonging to a family is transferred

from one generation to another through the household head.

2.3 Methods of data collection

Field research on the continued use of SWC was carried out using both informal and

formal survey methods. All the necessary data required for the study were gathered

through a farm household survey conducted from February to July, 2008. At the

beginning stage of the survey, informal meetings were undertaken with a representative

sample of farmers in order to know the general agricultural, social and economic situation

of the population of the study area. Also informal meetings with key informants (farmers,

elder people, researchers, women, experts and development agents) were held to get in-

depth knowledge about the area and to pretest the questionnaire.

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Figure 3: One of the informal meeting sessions with key informants

In addition to the informal meeting, transect walks across the village were conducted in

order to obtain all the necessary physical information and determine the questions that

need to be included in the survey. A transect walk is a walk across the terrain of a valley

or watershed in order to capture the greatest diversity of the ecosystem. It is a useful

technique to characterize and understand biophysical and major terrain features such as:

topography, erosion status, types of both indigenous and improved SWC practices, land

uses, soil type, slope characteristics and soil depth of the area. Transect walks should

involve careful observation and semi structured interviewing with villagers met during

walks. These informal techniques helped to acquire useful and detailed information

which would have been difficult to collect through the questionnaire survey.

For the detailed personal interviews, a random sampling technique was used to select a

total of 40 households from among farmers participating in the Productive Safety Net

Program in the two villages. The sampling was done using a list of all households in the

villages which were obtained from the representative village administrations. A

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structured questionnaire was used for the field interview and the interview was conducted

in the homestead of each interviewed farmer. For the farmer to develop a strong trust in

the enumerator, each farmer was well informed about the purpose of the survey and why

he/she is chosen for the interview.

The survey questionnaire included both open and close ended questions which was pre–

tested by administering it to selected respondents. Subsequently, on the basis of the

results obtained from the pretest, necessary modifications were made on the questionnaire

which was ultimately translated from English into the local language, Amharic. The

interview was also conducted in the local language. Data generated from the

questionnaire include, among other things, types of SWC measures (indigenous and/or

introduced) and the extent to which farmers continuously use it.

The next task was the selection of enumerators based on their level of understanding of

the local language and their educational level. After one day of intensive training on how

to conduct the interview and fill information in the questionnaire properly, in each

interview enumerators and I were involved in the data collection through a formal survey.

At the end of the formal survey, discussions were held with key informants including

community leaders, elders, women farmers, development agents and representatives of

non-governmental organizations. This informal technique helped to acquire useful and

detailed information about biophysical factors, which would have been difficult to collect

through the questionnaire survey. The informal discussion with the farmer provided a

forum where they openly expressed their opinions and views with a feeling of being at an

equal standing with the interviewer. Moreover secondary data from literature (scientific

reports, proceedings and statistical abstracts) and Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) Zonal

Office, key informant interviews and the development agents at various levels were used

as additional sources of information (ex.rainfall, temperature). These qualitative data

obtained by the informal discussions were used to verify and supplement the quantitative

results from the structured questionnaires.

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2.4 Data analysis

Finally the data acquired were analyzed using descriptive statistics techniques, cross

tabulation and correlation with the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)

software. In addition, MS-Excel was used to generate tables and graphs whereas for the

interviews and field observation notes, a qualitative analysis was used.

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3. Results and Discussions

3.1 Soil and water conservation practices in the area

Various soil and water conservation practices (Indigenous and improved) have been

identified in the study area. Before the intervention through the Productive Safety Net

Program, farmers in the area were exclusively practicing traditional methods and the use

of improved methods of soil and water conservation measures are recent developments.

Collaborating partners including the agricultural office from Tulla District, and World

Vision, along with farmers implemented the program.

3.1.1 Indigenous method of soil and water conservation practices

Indigenous soil and water conservation practices have very often been ignored or

underestimated by development agents, researchers, soil conservationists and government

staff (IFAD, 1992). Although the objectives of knowing indigenous soil and water

conservation practices give us an understanding of farmers' way of thinking about the

measures (Hudson, 1992).

In order to prevent the problem of soil erosion in the area, farmers in Tulla District used

a number of indigenous soil and water conservation technologies. Among these are cut-

of -drains, leaving crop residues in the field, distribution of manure, contour farming,

fallowing, and plantation of Sisal (Agave sisalana Perrine) and euphorbia (Euphorbia

classenii) on the farm.

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Table 1: Indigenous soil and water conservation measures implemented by

households

Villages

Types of indigenous SWC measures Fenchewa Tullo

Grand Total No % No % No % Application of manure 1 5 2 10 3 7.5 Contour plough and cut-off drain 3 15 3 15 6 15

Contour plough and plantation of Sisal and Euphorbia

7 35 4 20 11 27.5

Cut -off -drain 2 10 4 20 6 15 Fallowing 1 5 2 10 3 7.5 Leaving crop residues on the field 3 15 1 5 4 10

Did not practice indigenous SWC 3 15 4 20 7 17.5

Grand Total 20 100 20 100 40 100

Cut off drains, locally known as Booi, are one of the physical structures commonly

constructed by digging the soil deep in order to divert the run off before reaching the

farmland. The survey results show that 15% of the farmers upstream use cut-off-drains

whereas another 15% use a mix of cut-off-drains with contour ploughing (Table 1). The

farmers construct such structures in order to prevent loss of seeds, fertilizers, and soil due

to excessive run-off coming from uplands of the terrain and dispose the excess water

from the field. However, the farmer opinion that through time most of these structures

are causing serious problems and enhance soil erosion. I could witness the scene during

a transect walk with the key informants. Big gullies associated with the establishment of

the conservation structure, especially between the farms boundaries, were commonly

observed. Thus farmers in the study area are reluctant about this structure. However, it is

not due to failure of the structure but due to improper surveying work.

Similarly, studies from East Wellega Zone in Ethiopia, Azene (1997) showed that,

farmers developed cut-off-drains locally called “Boraatii’’. This structures are

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constructed mainly by oxen drawn plough, and reinforced by stones, wood blocks of soils

with grass. Here the difference is that the structures are maintained by local materials and

are not causing serious problem in the area.

Figure 4: Big gullies developed due to wrong lay-out of cut-off -drains

Another indigenous practice common in the area is leaving crop residues on the field

after harvest. Nevertheless, awareness of the farmers is very low about contribution of

crop residues to improve the fertility of soil. The survey result showed that 10% of the

respondents are purposely implementing this measure in order to prevent the soil from

water and wind erosion (Table 1). However during the transect walks with the farmers I

recognized no crop residues in most of the farmer field. During discussions with a key

informants I could found out that the farmers had a serious fuel wood and animal feed

shortage therefore no crop residue were left. Most of the farmers in the area especially

women collect crop residues from the field for the purpose of animal feed and use as fuel

wood. Another research conducted by Tilahun et al. (2001) explained that, farmers in

Areka is that all crop residues are removed from the field and used in the livestock pen

or home garden. Some of the residues from cereals (wheat, barely and Teff ) and

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legumes ( haricot beans, peas and faba beans ) are stored in the home compound and

sold as fodder or used to feed livestock during the dry season.

Contour Farming also is a practice of cultivating the land along the contour line in order

to reduce the runoff on a steep sloping area. It is used alone or in combination with other

conservation measures such as cut-of-drains and plantation of Sisal and Euphorbia. The

study shows that this type of conservation practices are most often used by the farmers.

From the sampled farmers 42.5 % applied the practice with the other measures including

cut of drain and plantation of Sisal and Euphorbia in the study area (Table 1). Although

the farmer is aware of the soil conservation function of contour farming, however it was

implemented during land preparation before the planting season. While the farmer

ploughs the land along the contour for preparation of an appropriate seedbed for

production, it serves the purpose of conserving the soil from erosion.

Fallowing is a traditional practice of leaving the land out of production for 3-5 years for

the purpose of restoring soil fertility and minimizing soil loss. But in the area most of the

land under this treatment is highly degraded to the extent of almost reaching a point of no

return or not easy to recover within a short period of time. Generally farmers leave the

land for fallowing after all the soil is removed from the land, the land is unable to

produce under normal condition, and only stones are found exposed on the land. Only

7.5% of the respondents apply fallowing as a soil conservation measure. During

discussions with the farmers it was learnt that through time traditional fallow periods

have become very short and rare in the area as a result of the high population pressure

and associated low agricultural productivity.

In the earlier days, application of manure was not a common practice in the study area.

Farmers were not used to apply manure on the soil, which was rather simply thrown near

the homestead. During focus group discussions with key informants, however, it was

found out that since the last 5-6 years the farmers used the manure in order to improve

the fertility of soil. The main reason farmers shifted to this practice was attributed to the

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sky rocketing price of inorganic fertilizers which are unaffordable by the farmer. But

currently only 7.5% of the respondents practice this measure, as there is a very critical

shortage of fuel wood and not much livestock in the area (Table 1).

It is also very common to observe plantation of Sisal and Euphorbia at the upstream

part of the farm planted along the contour. Such a measure is applied by it self and/or

together with other indigenous conservation practices (ex. contour farming) and practiced

by 27.5% of the respondents. During the transect walks with the farmers I commonly

recognized Sisal and Euphorbia planted along the contour in order to reduce the run off

and conserve the soil around the root of the plant. In general the plants are drought

tolerant and not easily edible and destroyed by animals in the area. Another advantage of

this plant is that farmers use it in order to separate the border between the two boundaries

of farm. In general the traditional soil and water conservation practices are efficient in

some cases, but should be modified and further developed.

Figure 5: Plantation of Sisal and Euphorbia along the contour

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3.1.2 Newly introduced soil and water conservation practices

In Tulla District, the soil and water conservation technologies under execution were

mainly physical structural measures, which include fanyajuu and soil bunds. Selection

of the appropriate technology however is not voluntary but recommended by experts

from the agricultural office of Tulla District under the department of Productive Safety

Net Program. The survey result showed that soil bunds are the dominant structure on

cultivated fields (Table 2).

Farmers who are recruited to participate in the Productive Safety Net Program must apply

either of the two that is fanyajuu and/or soil bund. They were constructing these

structures because of the cash they would earn per month but not because of the soil

erosion problems in the area. During focus group discussions with key informants, it was

learnt that farmers are well aware of erosion problem in the area. Moreover, they agree

that these measures are effective to protect the soil. The newly introduced SWC

measures, fanyajuu and soil bunds, were widely acknowledged as being effective

measures in arresting soil erosion and as having the potential to improve land

productivity. Nevertheless, due to the top-down approach, continued use of these new

soil and water conservation practices by the farmers appears less likely. During

discussions with key informants in each of the study villages, the farmers mentioned that

an ineffective design of the structure by the development agents are responsible for

causing several gullies. This is in line with a similar study conducted by Belay (1992) in

southern Ethiopia who concluded that farmers are willing to conserve their soil and land

but demand more appropriate technologies and the major cause of erosion in areas

treated with fanyajuu is poor construction of the bunds.

Farmers use also soil bunds, it consists of impermeable structures where the soil is

thrown downwards across the slope, unless provided with spillways, intended to maintain

all rainfall. These structures are suitable mostly in semi-arid and arid parts of the country.

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In the study area, 72.5% of the respondents have constructed soil bunds on there fields

(Table 2).

Table 2: Introduced soil and water conservation measures implemented by

households

Villages

Fenchewa

Tullo

Grand Total

Types of introduced SWC measures

No

%

No

%

No

%

Fanyajuu

6

30

5

25

11

27.5

Soil bunds

14

70

15

75

29

72.5

Grand Total

20

100

20

100

40

100

The farmers practicing this structure believed that the advantage is beyond protection of

soil from erosion. Apart from this, it contributes to moisture retention capacity of the soil

profile and thus water availability to plants, increases the efficiency of fertilizer

applications and it is less labor intensive. However, the disadvantage of this structure as

explained by the farmer, is that it requires a lot of maintenance in a short period due to

being filled with soil immediately after heavy rainfall and did not allow oxen plough. It

is mainly implemented on cultivated land with slopes in the range of 3% to 15%, but also

on grazing land with gentle slopes at wider intervals.

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are made by digging a trench and throwing the soil uphill to form an

bankment, which after some years, develops into outward sloping bench terraces. This

have constructed fanyajuu on their fields

). Farmers practicing this structure explained the advantage of the structure as

rrace, strengths the bund, does not need too

aintenance and decreases the speed of run-off more than the soil bund. The

es as pointed out by the farmers were that it is more labour

ive and requires space, in other words competes with the cultivable land. This is

ith the finding of earlier studies in southern Ethiopia, Tegne (1992) reported

ers considered the introduced soil and fanyajuu bunds as inappropriate

ies because they occupy cultivable area, harbor rats and other rodents.

Figure 6: Soil bunds are common in cultivated fields

Fanyajuu terraces

em

study has shown that 27.5% of the respondents

(Table 2

follows: it changes gradually into bench te

much m

disadvantages of these structur

intens

consistent w

that the farm

technolog

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Figure 7: Fanyajuu terraces which do not require frequent maintenance

3.2 Household Characteristics

n group

holds have

lim n SWC and to land and other resources, due to

ditional social barriers. Women are also more involved in regular household activities

The result indicates that 87.5% of the head of households are male. These me

include the most influential people who are village elders (Yager Shimagle), decision

makers (local administration), younger people, older people, poor and rich farmers.

During planning of SWC, it is important to consider the influential group but still care

needs to be taken so that other groups are not marginalized.

Out of the total sample of households in the two villages 12.5% of the household heads

are women, which are either widowed or divorced. From the total of 15 households

which we found that were participating in both maintaining and replicating structures,

none of the women headed households were involved (Table 7). During discussions with

women headed households the main reason why women headed households are not

involved in the continued use of SWC structure is that female-headed house

ited access to the information o

tra

than men. In the area, a woman takes most of the household responsibilities (child care,

food processing, weeding and harvesting and bringing water from long distance). Most

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constructed in the past under

e Productive Safety Net Program were neither maintained nor replicated to other plots.

physical structures that are constructed in the area are highly labour intensive and cannot

be undertaken by only women. During informal discussions with key informants,

including women, most of the physical measures that were

th

Three education level groups were identified, which include: “illiterate”, “grade 1-5” and

“above grade 5”. Not less than 47.5% of the household heads are “illiterate”, 25% are

between “grade 1 and 5” and 27.5% are “above grade 5” (Table 3). Most of the farmers

in the area are not educated and thus have little access to information about soil and water

conservation practice. Generally, better-educated households have a more realistic

perception about soil erosion problems, have more knowledge related to SWC and hence

can more easily be involved in conservation activities. With respect to educational status

of households in relation to location of villages, farmers in Tullo are better educated than

at Fenchewa, attributed to proximity to a big city, Awassa.

Table 3: Educational status of household heads

Education level

Illiterate Grade 1-5 Above grade 5

Total No

Villages No % No % No % HH heads

Fenchewa 11 55 5 25 4 20 20

Tullo 8 40 5 25 7 35 20

Overall 19 47.5 10 25 11 27.5 40

Three age groups are identified: young (20-40 years, 50%), middle (40-60 years, 37.5%),

and old people (> 60 years, 12.5%). Most of the farmers in the area (87.5%) belong to the

young and the middle-aged groups which is an indication that there is a sufficiently large

labour force (Table 4). These farmers have better understanding of problems of soil

rosion due to more access to information in the area, and as a result more interested in

ers are 12.5%,

e

soil and water conservation. As indicated above the proportion of old farm

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n age group in which labour sh typical hindrance to practice SWC

easures. Moreov farmers are servativ heir

rming

4: Age di ibution ouseho heads

Age range (years)

a ortage forms a

m er, these usually con e and stick to t traditional

way of fa .

Table str of h ld

20 - 40 40 - 60 > 60

illages Number % Number % Number %

Total No. investigated

V Fenchewa 10 50 7 35 3 15 20

Tullo 10 50 8 40 2 10 20

Overall total 20 50 15 37.5 5 12.5 40

ain source of labour for the households are found in their families, including wife

. 60% of the families of the households are between the age of 15-60 years

The m

and children

(See appendix 1 table 11). The results indicating that large labour force are available in the

study area. According to the survey result the average number of family members for the

study areas are 5.9 and 6.9 for Fenchewa and Tullo villages respectively. The total average

family size for the study area was 6.4

With respect to off the survey has y sh % the

involved in various forms of farm activities, which includes engagement in all

business, carpentry, local administration, agriculture and stone crushing. The overall duration

of ment is fou to be .5 day

(1U and annua erage earning Birr 3971. Farmers in the study area are

heavily engaged in off-farm activities (42 %) with the consequence that have not sufficient

tim able 5). One thing I

recognized is that, farm

m

farm activities, clearl own that 42 of farmers are

off sm

involve nd 25 s per month, the average daily earning Birr 13

SD=10 Birr) the l av

e and labour are allotted to continued use of SWC technologies (T

ers involved in off- farm activities are not working the whole day, but

aybe only in the morning, afternoon or at night. Generally, there are mixed views about the

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re

it

W bers are more involved in off-farm employment

activities, the time they spend on their farmland will be limited and hence the family is

arenthesis are standard deviations

found to be 0.63, 0.7 nd 0.69 ha for chewa, Tull d the

y areas respectively. It is found that distance between

not the mo ant factor rmine th

nd water conservation. Because in the study area the average distance of the

ad was 0.68 km ). The sca ields are

factors responsible for discouraging farmers not to continuously use the SWC measures.

lationship between off farm employment and continued use of SWC. Among other things,

may have a negative effect on the continued use of SWC due to reduced labour availability.

hen the farmer and his family mem

discouraged from being involved in construction and maintenance of SWC structures. On the

other hand, off-farm activities can be a source of income, and could encourage investment in

farming and SWC.

Table 5: Involvement in off-farm activities and income generated * Duration of involvement and earnings from off-farm activity refers to only those

farmers involved in off-farm activity

** Numbers in p

3.3 Farmland Characteristics

The average farm size is 6 a Fen o an

overall average farm size in the stud

the farmland and homestead is

use of soil a

st import to dete e continued

farmland from the homeste (Table 6 ttered f one of the

Villages Parameter Fenchewa Tullo

Overall total

Household interviewed (n) 20 20 40

Involvement in off-farm activity (%) 40 45 42

Average duration of involvement (days/month)*

25 (9)** 26 (5) 26 (7 )

Average daily earning (Birr) 16 (12 ) 11 (5) 13 (9 )

Average monthly earning (Birr) 391 (354 ) 280 (116) 332 (254)

Average annual earning (Birr) 4658 ( 4273 ) 3360 (1394 ) 3971 (3067 )

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ion where st, dep walk e,

lizer transpo ion ilarly Shiferaw

and Holden (1998) had also found that some farmers undertake SWC work as a part-time

Considering ownership the survey result showed that more than 50% of the plots are

herited from the land transferred from family, 23% of the plot possessed since the

e seriously affected by gully erosion.(Appendix 1 table 13)

Farmers have to make a decis to invest fir ending on ing distanc

labour requirements for ferti rt and product objectives. Sim

job during the evening, making it difficult to go to the fields that are located far from the

home.

in

distribution of land by village leaders and 21% purchased from different sources.

The major stable crops cultivated are maize (64% of the plots) followed by enset, a

widely cultivated root crop (33% of the plots). The farmers were involved in the

identification of different soil types and the following were summary of the findings.

Four types of soil were identified by the respondent in the area that is, 33% of the plots

are black soil, 29% of the plots are brownish soil, 28% of the plots are grayish and 10%

of the plots are reddish (Table 6).The type of soil indentified by the farmers’ in relation

to FAO soil classification are Vertisols (black soil), Cambisols (brownish soil), Arenosol

(grayish soil) and Plinthosol (reddish soil).With regard to the forms of erosion 45% of the

plots ar

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Table 6: Characteristics of farmland in the study area Parameter Value

F arm size (ha) Mean S.D Fenchewa (n = 45) 0.63 0.24

Tullo (n = 36) 0.76 0.46 A verage distance to farmland (km)

Fenchewa (n = 45) 0.57 0.48 Tullo (n = 36) 0.78 0.88

Land ownership Own farm (%) Inherited (%) Short term rent

(%) Long term rent

(%) Purchased

(%) Fenchewa (n = 45) 29 53 - - 18

Tullo (n = 36) 17 50 6 3 25

and use Annual crop (%) Perennial crop

(%) Fodder crop

(%) Others (%) LFenchewa (n = 45) 51 49 - -

Tullo (n = 36) 55 39 3 3

Type of crop grown Corn (%) Teff (%) Banana (%) Enset(%) Fenchewa (n = 45) 58 42

Tullo (n = 36) 69 3 6 22

Fertility status Low (%) Moderate (%) Very high (%) High (%) Fenchewa (n = 45) 33 13 13 41

Tullo (n = 36) 25 31 36 8

Slope Flat (%) Gentle (%) oderate (%) Steep (%) ery steep

(%) MV

Fenchewa (n = 45) 18 16 38 7 22 Tullo (n = 36) 31 14 31 8 16

Type of soil erosion No erosion (%) Sheet (%) Rill (%) Gully (%)

Fenchewa (n = 45) 9 31 18 42 Tullo (n = 36) - 36 19 45

Soil and water

on No practice

S Fanyconservati employed (%) Indigen s

(%) ou

oil bund (%) ajju (%) Fenchewa (n =45) 40 9 31 20

Tullo (n = 36) 33 6 44 17

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3.4 Factors affecting the continued use of SWC practices

.4.1 Personal factor tion to us

ctors side ation to continued use of SWC are

household characteristics such as age, education, family siz nd gender. influence

mers’ age on the continued use of soil and water conservation is negative, but it is

lly signific note th

aged %) farmers are involved in the continued use, or in

aintaining and replicating the structures. None of the farmers above the age of 60 years

aintaining and replicating the structures. Similar studies made

reviously arrived at contradictory results. Chomba (2004) found out that younger

ge has a significant positive

hat young farmers did

not continue the use of SWC practices due to the opportunity costs linked with small

size. Another previous research conducted by Sidba (2005) arrived at an opposite

3 s in rela continued e of SWC

The personal fa that are con red in rel

e a The

of far

not statistica ant. It can be d from the 5 column of table 7 that both young

(53%) and middle (47

m

are involved in both m

p

farmers are less likely to continue using SWC practices (i.e. a

correlation with continued use). A possible explanation given is t

farm

conclusion: that the younger the HH head, the higher the probability of using new soil

and water conservation technology (negative significant correlation between age and

continued use). Although the correlation in this case is not significant, the negative sign

indicates that younger farmers are more likely to continue the use of SWC practices,

which is more in line with the conclusions of Sidba (2005).

There is no significant correlation between the education level and the continued use of

soil and water conservation (Table 7). Although the correlation shows that comparatively

better educated farmers are not more involved than illiterate farmers, the conclusion is

not statistically significant. Hence, the effect of insufficient education is not the main

hindrance to the involvement in the continued use of SWC. Furthermore, it can be seen

that education has a positive and significant correlation with the off-farm activities at 5%

significance level (See appendix 1 Table 17). This is because better educated farmers

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ir sample farmers. Another

udy carried out by Krishna et al. (2008) found different results: education of the HH

ighlands of the country. They noted that in a family with a greater number of mouths to

involved in other kind of off-farm activities and those with a high level of education have

more access to other sources of income. The same study conducted by Gebremedehin

and Swinton (2003) did not found level of education as an important factor, possibly

because of the generally low level of education among the

st

head was found to have a positive and significant influence on the continued use of

improved soil and water conservation technology. This indicated that the higher educated

household head was increased their ability to find information. Besides, longer education

leads to a better understanding of the new technology by assessing the different extension

materials, which increased the continued use of soil and water conservation technology.

The family size of households plays an important role in the investment of soil and water

conservation practices. This can be seen in the positive and significant correlation (at 5%

level of significance) of the variable with the continued use of SWC structures. Among

the 15 households heads who implemented, maintained and replicated the structures, 10

household heads have a family size of more than 7 (Table 7). The households with a

large families are more involved in the continued use of SWC measures. This implies that

the presence of a sufficient work labour is an important requirement for the continued

application of SWC structures. Our results seem to contradict with the findings of

Amsalu (2006) who found out that, in the Beressa watershed in the highlands of Ethiopia,

farmers with a larger family size are less likely to continue using stone terraces. Another

study by Bekele and Drake (2003) also found different results from ours in the eastern

h

feed, competition arises for labour between food generating off-farm activities, like daily

labour, investment and in maintenance of SWC. The difference with our results is

possibly caused by some underlying differences between the localities in which the

research is conducted (such as availability of other off-farm sources of income).

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

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Table 7: Relationship between “personal factors” and “continued use of SWC”:

cross tabulation and correlation

Continued work on SWC

Variables

No

maintenance

Maintenance

without

replication

Maintenance

with

replication

Correlation

with

continued use

Count (%) Count (%) Count (%) N =40

20-40 3 (50) 9 (48) 8 (53)

40-60 3 (50) 5 (26) 7 (47)

Age

Above 60 0 (0) 5 (26) 0 (0)

-.129

(.428)

Illiterate 2 (33) 11 (58) 6 (40)

Grade 1-5 2 (33) 4 (21) 4 (27)

Education .083

(.609) Above

grade 5

2 (33) 4 (21) 5 (33)

Less than 4 1 (16) 1 (6) 2 (11)

4 - 6 4 (68) 8 (42) 4 (27)

Family size

Above 6 1 (16) 10 (6

.388(*)

9 (47) 7)

(.013)

Female HH 2 (33) 3 (16) 0 ( 0 ) Gender

Male =1 Female = 0

Male HH 4 (67) 16 (84) 15 (100)

.340(*)

(.032)

* Correlation is significant at

the 0.05 leve

Another important factor investigated in the study area is gender. As it can e seen in

the table 7, gender(male) has a e a icant correlation with both

maintaining an ating SW sures. F e total o ntinued none of

the female headed households are involved in both maintaining and replicating the

Ta result e with a et al. (2008) that showed that male

headed households have a higher chances nvolved ontinued use of SWC.

This may be due to the fact th and w nservat ctures de and much

l (2-tailed).

b

positiv nd signif

d replic C mea rom th f 15 co users,

structures ( ble 7). The is in lin Krishn

to be i in c

at soil ater co ion stru m

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

33

and ca rried e . Furth , the f headed

s t of thei on dom spons includ ild care.

As a result, such households even rent out land due to low labour availability. This shows

at female-headed households have no motivation to invest in soil conservation due to

bour shortage.

ntinued use of SWC work (Table 7). This is similar to the findings of

Kessler (2006 ), who found that a greater income from the land encourages farmers to

ho get more off-farm earnings are less involved in the continued work. They may spend

used as a source of cash to invest in SWC.

labour nnot be ca out by wom n only ermore emale

households pend mos r time estic re ibilities, ing ch

th

la

3.4.2 Economic factors in relation to continued use of SWC

Economic factors can play important role in determining the continued use of SWC

practices. The main economic factors considered in this study are annual income from

agriculture, off farm income, expenditures on fertilizers, access to credit and farm size.

Annual income is significantly correlated to continued work on SWC as can be seen in

the last column of table 8. The significant and positive correlation with continued use of

SWC shows that rich farmers are more involved in the maintenance and replication of

SWC than farmers that have a low income. The study results clearly show that almost

100% of the farmers who obtain an annual income of more than 5,500 Birr are strongly

involved in the co

invest more in conservation measures.

Although the amount of income generated from off farm activities is not significantly

correlated with continued work of soil and water conservation, it appears that farmers

w

more time on cash generation and on satisfying immediate needs than on investing in soil

and water conservation activities. Similar results were found by Tenge et al. (2004): the

involvement in off-farm activities negatively influenced the continued use of soil and

water conservation measures. This is due to competition in labour between SWC and off-

farm activities. Pali et al. (2002) found different results in Uganda, where farmers with

off-farm activities were better “continued users,” implying that the off-farm income was

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

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mic factors” and “continued use of SWC”: ross tabulation and correlation

Table 8: Relationship between “econoc

Continued work on SWC

No maintenance

Maintenance without

replication

Maintenance with

replication

Correlation

with continued

use

Variables Count (%) Count (%) Count (%) N = 40

<1500 1 (17) 2 (11) 2 (13)

1500-2500 2 (33) 3 (16) 3 (20)

2500-3500 2 (33) 6 (31) 1 (7)

3500-4500 0 (0) 5 (26) 1 (7)

4500-5500 1 (17) 3 (16) 2 (13)

.314(*) (.048)

Annual income >5500 0 (0) 0 (0) 6 (40)

0-2000 2 (33) 13 (68) 11 (73)

2000-4000 2 (33) 4 (21) 3 (20)

Off- farm income >4000 2 (33) 2 (11) 1 (7)

-.171 (.290)

No 4 (67) 11 (73) 17 (90)

Access to credit Yes 2 (33) 2 (10) 4 (27) .041

(.800)

<1 6 6 (100) 14 (74) (40 )

Farm size >1 0 ( 0 ) 5 (26) 9 ( 60 ) .419(**) (.007)

0 0 ( 0 ) 7 (37) 1 (7)

430 6 ( 100 ) 10 (53) 8 (53)

Fertilizer

xpenditure

.329(*)

E>860 0 ( 0 ) 2 (10) 6 (40)

(.038)

* Correlation is significan vel (2-ta

gnific 01 level (2-t

ccess to credit is ain factor ing the continued work as it has no significant

elationship with th d use of SWC (Table 8). Those farm ho have r

t at the 0.05 le iled). ** Correlation is si

ant at the 0. ailed).

A not a m affect

r e continue ers w b ttee

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

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are cessarily nvolved tinued w he explanation

ere is that they the money obtained through credit for purposes other than

easures. However, another research from Krishna et al. (2008) found

ifferent results: fa eived loans from various instituti cultivation

ops and ivestock farm ere significantly more d in co d

use of soil and water conservation technology. This implies that the use of credit

ers to produce more cash crops and get m

tation of s nservation logy.

mong the other economic factors, farm size is the most important variable in relation

ervation. Its effect is found to be positive and

drought and excess rainfall. It is also

ften related to the wealth status of the farmers, which helps them to encourage the

access to credit not ne more i in con ork. T

h use

conservation m

d rmers who rec ons for the

of new cr for l ing, w involve ntinue

motivated farm ore income which lead to better

implemen

oil co techno

A

to the continued use of soil and water cons

significantly correlated at a 1% level of significance showing that farmers who hold a

large farm are more involved in both maintaining and replicating soil and water

conservation structures. From the total of 15 continued users, 60% have land size which

is more than one hectare (Table 8). Farm size is also related to other economic factors.

For instance, a farmer with a large farm gets a high annual income from agriculture. In

addition to this a farmer who has a large farm also uses more fertilizer on his farmland.

This is similar to the findings of Amsalu and Graaff (2007), who found out that farmers

who have a larger farm are more likely to invest in soil conservation measures. Farmers

with more land can take more risks, including a relatively high investment required in

order to protect crops against pests, hailstones,

o

farmers to maintain and replicate soil and water conservation structures in his fields as

they get large amounts of income from the field.

Another useful finding is the positive and significant relationship between the

expenditure on fertilizer and the continued work on SWC at 5% significance level

(Table 8). Farmers who are capable of investing more in fertilizers are more involved in

the continued use of SWC measures, which is possibly due to the income difference of

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

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farmers who apply fertilizers and those who do not. The expenditure on fertilizers is often

correlated with annual income at 1% significance level (Table 9).

Table 9: Relationship between economic and personal variables: Correlation

Variables

Significance level

Fertilizer cost HH

Annual income from agriculture

.768(**) .000 40

Education of the HH activities 40

Annual earning from off-farm

.330(*) .038

Hence, those farmers who have a higher income and who use much fertilizer are likely to

maintain and replicate SWC structures. A plausible explanation for this is that, due to the

high investment stakes in terms of fertilizer application and other farm inputs, richer

farmers are forced to maintain and replicate SWC structures. A similar study by Shiferaw

and Holden (2000), indicates that an increase in fertilizer application is expected to have

se the

ent on fertilizers serves as a replacem C measures and hence

discourages farmer tinuously using so rvation structures.

nother stud by Ch mba (2004 ) stated hat, if fertilizer application would be

creased, the likelihoo of a farmer to follow conservation practices would also increase.

ecause, he argues, co vent fertilizers from ng washed away by

e are n ore.

a negative influence on farmers’ choice for conservation measures. This is becau

increm ent for SW

s from con il and water conse

A y o t

in d

B nservation practices pre

eeded m

bei

erosion and henc

3.4.3 Institutional factors in relation to the continued use

Most of the variables considered among the institutional factors did not show a

significant relationship with the continued use of soil and water conservation practices.

The level of satisfaction with technical support does not have a significant correlation

with the continued implementation of SWC’s (Table 9). This is possibly because the

extension support provided is not aimed at the promotion of conservation practices and is

more focused on crop production and other agricultural activities. Farmers who

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

37

gricultural support programs did not continue the

improved practices. This shows that it is not sufficient to have extension support but the

he continuation of

expressed satisfaction with the technical support are not more involved in the continued

work. This is in line with the study by Chomba (2004) that showed that a large proportion

of farmers who had contacts with a

aim or purpose of the extension service should also relate to t

conservation work.

Table 10: Relationship between “institutional factors” and “continued use of SWC”: cross tabulation and correlation

Continued work on SWC

No

maintenance

Maintenance without replication

Maintenance with

replication

Correlation with continued

use

Variables Count (%) Count (%) Count (%) N = 40

No 5 ( 83) 9 ( 47) 9 (60) Satisfaction with Technical support

Yes 1 (17) 10 ( 53) 6 ( 40 )

.062 (.703)

Once in a week 0 (0) 2 (10) 1 (7)

Once in15 days 2 (33)

7 (37) 3 (20)

Visits by extension worker Once in a

0 (0) 20)

44.0 (.786)

month 3 (16) 3 (

Do not feel ownership

1 (17)

10 (53)

9 (60)

Suspicious 5 (83) 7 (36) 5 (33)

Land

Feel ownership

-.206

ownership 0 (0) 1 (11) 1 (7)

(.201)

1-6 6 (100) 8 (42) 1 (7)

Market

istance d 7-13

.560(**)

0 (0)

11 (58)

14 (93)

(.000)

**

Correlation is s vel (2-tignificant at the 0.01 le ailed).

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

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the ts by ex nsion worke does not have a significant impact

inu ion of SW h be attri the fact that the

visits is focused on other matters than co ion wo communication

etween farmers and extension agents in the study area was poor and not built up very

uch. For exa 47% of eyed f ere ne ted by e n

and on he farmer met th ion ag e a wee

ob tension system in the area relate to the involvement of

xtension agents in other duties such as collectio ans and Furthermore the

pervision o tension agents i or wh uld rec during

Similarly,

on the cont

frequency of visi te rs

ed applicat C practices. T is may but d toe

other nservat rk. The

b

m mple, about the surv armers w ver visi xtensio

agents

10). The pr

ly 7.5% of t s have e extens ents onc k ( able T

lems with the ex

e n o lof ta es.x

su n ex s very po ich I co ognize ldmy fie

work.

Table 11: Farmers being visited by local extension agents in the study area Farmers Response No(n=40) %

Once in a week 3 7.5

Every fifteen days 12 30

Once in a month 6 15

Never visited me 19 47.5

Land tenure is not a main factor in determining the continued use of soil and water

conservation. Other studies arrived at a different conclusions with respect to the role of

land security in the application of SWC. In his study of soil conservation in highlands of

luded that land tenure security is ‘not sufficient enough’

thiopian

armers lack concern for land conservation because of the insecure tenure. The

th other studies may be due d distribution refo in the northern

ntry where these studies were conducted. During discussions with farmers

ants, it appeared that there has been no land distribution before the study

why it is not a major factor w regard to the continued use of soil and

ater conservation measure and hence does not show any significant relationship with

the continued use of SWC.

Ethiopia, Sutcliffe (1995) conc

for farmers to invest in SWC works. Similarly, Yeraswork (2000) showed that E

f

disagreement wi to the lan rm

part of the cou

and key inform

period. That is ith

w

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

39

r group of characteristics that are likely to determine the

ontinued use of SWC are. The biophysical factors considered in this group are the level

Another interesting factor here is that the distance to markets from the villages is

positively and significantly correlated at 1% level of significance for both maintaining

and replicating structures (Table 9). Farmers who are living far away from the market

are more involved in the work of SWC. Proximity to markets creates disincentive for

participation in SWC schemes because farmers living close to the market have the option

of going to the towns instead of working on the farm. It can be easily observed that it is

very customary for farmers near the towns to leave for the market even when they do not

have anything to do there.

3.4.4 Biophysical factors in relation to the continued use

Biophysical factors anothe

c

of soil fertility, the slope and the type of erosion in the study area. These different

factors were interrelated to each other ( Fig 8).

0

20

Low Moderate High very high

Fertility status of plots

P

40

ecen

60

80

100

e of

plo

tsr

tag

FlatGentleModerateSteepVery steep

Figure 8: The relationship between fertility status of the investigated plots and slope of the plots

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

40

can be seen that the level of soil fertility is very high on flat land as compared to the

other slope degrees. It can also be observed that the steeper the slope the lower the

fertility of soil, indicating the presence of higher erosion on very steep slopes.

The soil fertility condition of cultivated plots is an important factor of farmers'

decisions on the continued use of soil and water conservation practices. The level of soil

fertility has a negative and significant correlation with the degree of involvement in

continued work at 1% level (Table 11). Farmers with poor soils or plot with low and

medium fertility (76%) are more involved in conservation work than those who have

fertile land. Due to the reason that farmers have an interest to improve the level of soil

fertility and the productivity of the land at the plot level. Whereas farmers which have

very fertile land, possibly do not see the negative effects of erosion on their plots in the

positive relationship was observed between the gradient of the slope and the continued

those who

wn flat or gently sloping farmland. On steep slopes farmers are constructing soil bunds

It

short term.

A

use of SWC technologies significant at 1 % level of significance (Table 11). Obviously,

the slope of the farmland is highly related to the degree of involvement in conservation

work. Farmers with steep slopes are more involved in the continued use than

o

and fanyajuu on their farmland to prevent soil erosion. Nearly on all of the plots with

steep and very steep slopes the soil and water conservation structures are both maintained

and replicated. A similar conclusion was also arrived at by Amsalu (2006): the effect of

steep slope on continued use of stone terraces is found to be significantly positive. The

farmers were encouraged to continue to use the stone terraces due to effectiveness of the

measure for erosion control on steep slopes. This implies that constructing the stone

terraces on steep plots might lead to continued use of the measures.

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

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Table 12: Relationship between “biophysical factors” and “continued use of SWC”: cross tabulation and correlation

Continued work on SWC

No

conservation

No

maintenance

Maintenance

without

replication

Maintenance

with

replication

Correlation with

continued use

Variables

Count (%) Count (%) Count (%) Count (%) No = 81

Flat 23 (77) 3 (50) 2 (8) 0 (0)

Gentle 2 (7) 1(18) 3 (13) 0 (0)

Moderate 3 (10) 2 (33) 11 (46) 0 (0)

Steep 1 (3) 0 (0) 7 (29) 11 (52)

Slope

Very steep 1 (3) 0 (0) 1 (4) 10 (48)

.800(**)

(.000)

Low 5 (17) 2 (33) 7 (29) 10 ( 48)

Medium 2 (7) 1 (17) 8 (33) 6 (29)

High 16 (53) 3 (50) 8 (33) 4 (18)

-.412(**)

Fertility

Very high 7 (23) 0 (0) 1 (4) 1 (5)

(.000)

No 2 (7) 1 (17) 1 (4) 0 (0)

Sheet 14 (47) 1 (17) 10 (42) 2 (10)

Rill 7 (23) 4 (19) 1 ( 17) 3 (13) Erosion

Gully

.375(**)

(.001)

7 (23) 3 (50) 10 (42) 15 (71)

* Correlation is significant at ai* Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level

The type of erosion in t ea ed rms . T

s ll ully eros the tim e transect walks with the farmers in the

study area, gully erosion was observed st of th plots. It has a positive and

significant n wit r conservation structures at

1% signifi level. Mor 93% o armers having awareness about the forms

the 0.05 level (2-t led). *

he study ar is categoriz by three fo of erosion hese are

heet, ri and g ion. By e of th

in mo e farm

correlatio h the continued use of soil and wate

cance e than f the f

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

42

of soil erosion in the study area(Appendix 1 table14). Farmers that suffer from severe

gully erosion are more inv n the co tion wo viously e the

t from erosion and to prevent the total loss of the his is

with the fi of Bekel rake (2 the ea ghland Gebremedhin

and Swinton (2003) in the northern highlands of Ethiopia. Both studies reported that

farmers are more likely to continue conservation measures on plots th e high

n isible. The result clea

plots with severe and visible erosion the farmers are forced to m l ate

olved i nserva rk. Ob , becaus y had to

conserve heir soil land. T in line

ndings e and D 003) in stern hi and of

at ar ly prone

to soil erosion and whe erosion features are v rly shows that on

aintain and rep ic

the structures on their farmland.

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

43

. Conclusions and Recommendations

his thesis is aimed at identifying the current soil and water conservation practices in

ulla District, Ethiopia, and to assess the major constraints farmers are facing in

aintaining and replicating these practices. It is hoped that, by analyzing the most

portant factors that affect farmers’ decisions, useful insights for improving the

plementation of SWC measures in the area would be gained. In the study area, as is the

ase in much of rural Ethiopia, the people are poor. The average annual income is Birr

183 which is equivalent to145 Euro(Appendix1 table 15). The farming system is a

pical mixed crop-livestock system that is carried out on a subsistence level. The total

verage family size for the studied area was 6.4. Only 42% of the households were found

be engaged in off-farm activities as additional source of income, indicating the heavy

ependence on the land. On the other hand, land has become scarce and an average land

olding per household is 0.69 ha. The average farm size has been declining because of

e increasing population. Moreover, the productivity of cropland has declined over time

ue to “ageing of the land”, drought, soil erosion and inability to use chemical fertilizers

because of its high cost. The people in the study area face serious land degradation,

4

T

T

m

im

im

c

2

ty

a

to

d

h

th

d

which requires integrated conservation measures.

Before the introduced SWC measures by the Productive Safety Net Program and other

government-sponsored schemes, farmers were already using different types of indigenous

SWC measures. These include the application of manure, contour ploughing, plantation

of sisal and euphorbia, cut-of-drains, fallowing and leaving crop residues on the field.

Descriptive data analysis showed that most of the farmers in the area use a mixture of

contour ploughing, plantation of sisal and euphorbia and cut-of-drains. During transect

walks with farmers, it was observed that plantation of Sisal and Euphorbia along the

contour was the most often used indigenous method of SWC measures in the area.

Besides these measures, the newly introduced SWC measures are soil bunds and

fanyajuu. The descriptive results showed that 73% of the SWC measures in the cultivated

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

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t influence the continued use (both

aintaining and replicating the structures in other plot) of SWC measures. Continued use

ial stakes

rovide rich farmers with incentives to mitigate the risk of low productivity caused by

fields are soil bunds. Although the measures need frequent maintenance and did not allow

oxen ploughing, the farmers preferred the structures since they do not occupy much

cultivable land and their capacity to conserve the soil and moisture is effective.

This study also identified the main factors tha

m

of SWC measures is positively and significantly influenced by family size and male

headed households (personal factors), annual income, fertilizer expenditure and farm size

(economic factors), market distance (institutional factors) and slope and type of erosion

(biophysical factors). The level of soil fertility affects the continued use of SWC

measures negatively and significantly. On the other hand, age, education (personal

factors), off-farm income and access to credit (economic factors), visits by extension

agent, technical support and land tenure (institutional factors) show no significant

influence on farmers’ decisions on both maintaining and replicating the structures.

The positive association of (male) gender and family size is the result of the fact that

most SWC structures demand a high labor availability. The economic variables of

income, farm size and fertilizer expenditure are positively associated with maintenance

and replication of SWC measures because richer farmers can employ the additional

labour required to implement the measures. In addition, their higher financ

p

erosion. Farmers living far from the market are more involved in the continued use of

SWC measures.

Biophysical and economic variables played more important roles in the continued use of

SWC measures than personal and institutional factors. Especially the institutional factors

(except market distance) do not show any significant relationship with the continued use

of SWC measures. One can conclude that the extension service and technical support

services provided by the Production Safety Net Program (through the district’s

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

45

show that agricultural extension services and technical support have

ttle impact on the farmers’ replication of SWC structures, implying that the services

sion services related to the SWC schemes

ey construct, they will be better informed and capable to maintain and replicate them

on

w fertility and steep sloping farmland. Also not only maintained the low fertility farms

Agricultural Office) do not give enough emphasis on the training and encouraging

farmers with SWC techniques and measures.

As discussed in the findings, sufficient labour is one of the major requirements for the

construction and maintenance of SWC structures. Hence female-headed and small-family

households are at disadvantage in employing SWC measures. To solve this problem, the

Agricultural Office of Tulla District could encourage farmer collaborations which enable

all farmers to get the labor required to maintain and replicate their SWC structures.

Farmer collaboration can serve as insurance for households without sufficient labor.

The results also

li

concentrate more on other topics such as crop and livestock production. As the main

government unit responsible for the task of facilitating the successful use of SWC

measures in the district, the Agricultural Office of Tulla District should make a targeted

effort to encourage farmers to maintain and replicate their SWC structures. To that end

the extension services and technical support provided for the farmers by the Agricultural

Office need to be integrated with the SWC activities conducted by the PSN Program. If

farmers are provided with training and exten

th

successfully.

As the results indicated, SWC structures are more likely to be implemented on low

fertility and steep sloping farmland. It is hence imperative that the agricultural office

keep up with proper targeting of farmland that require SWC measures. Because labour

and other resources are scarce, the SWC structures are more likely to be implemented

lo

besides that a farmland with high soil fertility also maintained and conserved.

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

46

g an integrated and comprehensive approach that takes into account all

ctors (personal and social, economic, institutional and biophysical) in the preparation of

Furthermore, proper integration of physical (SWC) structures with biological structures

can be more productive in the area. The fact that some SWC structures consume a lot of

land which will be unproductive is one of the reasons farmers are discouraged from

applying SWC structures. If biological conservation measures are used to cultivate

animal feed and other useful plants on the SWC structures which take up much of the

scarce land (such as Fanyajuu and soil bunds), this problem could be partly solved.

Finally, Takin

fa

soil and water conservation plans and the implementation

.

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Determinants for Continued Use of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: the Case of Productive Safety Net Programmes in Tulla District, Ethiopia 

47

5. References

Admassie, Y. 1995. Twenty years to nowhere. Property rights, land management, and

conservation in Ethiopia, Ph.D. thesis, Uppsala University, Sweden.

Admassie, Y. 2000. Twenty years to nowhere: property right, and conservation in

Ethiopia, Red Sea Press, Lawrenceville, NJ.

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Table 11. A olds each the two

6. Appendices

Appendix 1

ge distribution of all members of the 20 sampled househ in of

villages

Age category (years)

<10 15 - 60 >60

Villages

Number % Number % Number %

Total number investigated

Fenchawa 42 36.2 70 60.3 4 3.5 116

Tullo 51 37.5 80 58.8 5 3.7 136

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Table 12. Educational background of t holds

Educational status

he studied house

Villages

Family

me

Total No.

investigated

Illiterate

(%)

Grades 1 - 5

(%)

Grades 6 – 7

(%)

Grades 8 to 11

(%) mber

Father 17 52.9 23.5 11.8 11.8

Mother 20 8 - - 5.0 15.0

Son*30 13.3 46.7 23.3 16.7

Fenchewa

Daughter*31 29.0 51.6 12.9 3.2

Father 19 36.8 26.3 15.8 21.1

Mother 20 65.0 30.0 5.0 -

Son 48 10.4 64.6 14.6 10.4 Tulu

Daughter 26 19.2 53.8 19.2 7.7

* Considers children that reached school age only

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Table 13. Occurrences of the three ty l r u

the existence of erosion problems as view y farm the studi eas

villag

pes of soi erosion on fa mland and ca ses for

ed b ers in ed ar

es

Variable Fenchew Tullo

Overall totala

Erosion type No. % No. % No. %

Sheet 9 7 31 18 29 2 9

Rill 10 0 21 16 26 3 6

Gully 14 2 48 28 45 4 14

Causes of soil erosion

Very steep slopes 4 20 4 20 8 20

High and torrential rainfall 4 20 - - 4 10

Runoff from upstream areas 4 20 4 20 8 20

Uplands being too degraded 8 40 12 60 20 50

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able 14. Farmers’ perception about existence of soil erosion problems on their rmland

Villages

Tfa

Variab Fe

le nchewa Tullo Overall Farmers recognition of erosio Number % N r ber % n problem umbe % Numyes 17 85 0 37 2.5 20 10 9No 3 15 3 5 - - 7.

Suggested indicators of erosio lem n prob Gully f ation 3 15 6 30 9 22.5 ormLoss of soil fertility 1 5 - - 1 2.5 Poor pl 2 10 5 25 7 17.5 ant growth Washinfertilizers 3 15 2 10 5 12.5

g away of seeds, plants and

Washing away of top soil 11 55 6 30 17 42.5 Sedime farm - - 1 5 ntation brought to the 1 5 2. Consprobl

equences of erosion em

Washingplants 7 35 5 14 35

away of fertilizers, seeds, and topsoil 7 3

Poor so and production 4 20 7 35 11 27.5 il fertility Decreased cultivable land area and loss of roduction 7 35 - - 7 17.5 pBurial seed - - 4 20 4 10 ofPoor p ductivity and poverty 1 5 2 10 3 7.5 roPoor pl nt growth 1 5 - - 1 2.5 a Degree of soil erosion Severe 10 50 8 40 18 45 Moder e 6 30 9 45 15 37.5 at

Minor 4 20 3 15 7 17.5

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able 15. Yield and income obtained, as well as cost of fertilizers incurred, during

the previous cropping season, shown by major crop types

T

Type of crop cultivated during the previous harvest

season

Variable Maize Enset Coffee Soya bean

Overall

total

No. of plots cultivated 47 30 2 1 80

Cultivated area of land (hectare )

Mean 0.37 0.32 0.25 0.25 0.34

S.D 0.23 0.11 0.19

Crop yield/ Plot (Quintal)

Mean 7 7 2 10 7

S.D 6 2 5

Average price/quintal 350 200 2500 600 351

Total Income/year

Mean 2487 1393 5000 6000 2184

S.D 2053 462 0 1792

Cost of fertilizer /cropping seas on

Mean 366 0 215 430 226

S.D 237 0 304 256