Electrical consumtion in india

ELECTRICITY SECTOR IN INDIA

The electricity sector in India had an installed capacity of 207.85 Gigawatt (GW)

as of September 2012, the world's fifth largest.

[1]Captive power plants generate an additional 31.5 GW. Thermal power plants

constitute 66% of the installed capacity, hydroelectric about 19% and rest being a

combination of wind, small hydro, biomass, waste-to-electricity, and nuclear. India

generated 855 BU (855 000 MU i.e. 855 TWh

[2]) electricity during 2011-12 fiscal.

In terms of fuel, coal-fired plants account for 56% of India's installed electricity

capacity, compared to South Africa's 92%; China's 77%; and Australia's 76%. After

coal, renewal hydropower accounts for 19%, renewable energy for 12% and natural

gas for about 9%.[3][4]

In December 2011, over 300 million Indian citizens had no access to electricity.

Over one third of India's rural population lacked electricity, as did 6% of the urban

population. Of those who did have access to electricity in India, the supply was

intermittent and unreliable. In 2010, blackouts and power shedding interrupted

irrigation and manufacturing across the country.[5][6]

The per capita average annual domestic electricity consumption in India in 2009

was 96 kWh in rural areas and 288 kWh in urban areas for those with access to

electricity, in contrast to the worldwide per capita annual average of 2600 kWh and

6200 kWh in the European Union.

[7] India's total domestic, agricultural and industrial per capita energy consumption

estimate vary depending on the source. Two sources place it between 400 to

700kWh in 2008–2009.[8][9] As of January 2012, one report found the per capita total

consumption in India to be 778 kWh.[5]

India currently suffers from a major shortage of electricity generation capacity, even

though it is the world's fourth largest energy consumer after United States, China

and Russia

.[10] The International Energy Agency estimates India needs an investment of at least

$135 billion to provide universal access of electricity to its population.

The International Energy Agency estimates India will add between 600 GW to 1200

GW of additional new power generation capacity before 2050.

[6]This added new capacity is equivalent to the 740 GW of total power generation

capacity of European Union (EU-27) in 2005. The technologies and fuel sources

India adopts, as it adds this electricity generation capacity, may make significant

impact to global resource usage and environmental issues

.[11]India's electricity sector is amongst the world's most active players in renewable

energy utilization, especially wind energy.[12] As of December 2011, India had an

installed capacity of about 22.4 GW of renewal technologies-based electricity,

exceeding the total installed electricity capacity in Austria by all technologies.

India's network losses exceeded 32% in 2010 including non-technical losses,

compared to world average of less than 15%. Both technical and non-technical

factors contribute to these losses, but quantifying their proportions is difficult. But

the Government pegs the national T&D losses at around 24% for the year 2011 &

has set a target of reducing it to 17.1% by 2017 & to 14.1% by 2022. Some experts

estimate that technical losses are about 15% to 20%, A high proportion of non‐

technical losses are caused by illegal tapping of lines, but faulty electric meters that

underestimate actual consumption also contribute to reduced payment collection. A

case study in Kerala estimated that replacing faulty meters could reduce

distribution losses from 34% to 29%.[6]

Key implementation challenges for India's electricity sector include new project

management and execution, ensuring availability of fuel quantities and qualities,

lack of initiative to develop large coal and natural gas resources present in India,

land acquisition, environmental clearances at state and central government level,

and training of skilled manpower to prevent talent shortages for operating latest

technology plants.[8]

CONTENTS

1 History

2 Demand

3 Electricity Consumption

4 Generation

o 4.1 Thermal power

o 4.2 Hydro power

o 4.3 Nuclear power

5 Other renewable energy

o 5.1 Solar power

o 5.2 Wind power

o 5.3 Biomass power

o 5.4 Geothermal energy

o 5.5 Tidal wave energy

6 Problems with India's power sector

7 Resource potential in electricity sector

8 Rural electrification

9 Human resource development

10 Trading

11 Regulation and administration

12 See also

13 References

14 External links

HISTORY

The first demonstration of electric light in Calcutta was conducted on 24 July 1879 by P W Fleury &

Co.On January 7, 1897, Kilburn & Co secured the Calcutta electric lighting licence as agents of the Indian

Electric Co, which was registered in London on January 15, 1897.

A month later, the company was renamed the Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation. The control of the

company was transferred from London to Calcutta only in 1970.

Enthused by the success of electricity in Calcutta, power was thereafter introduced in Bombay.[13]

Mumbai saw electric lighting demonstration for the first time in 1882 at Crawford Market, and Bombay

Electric Supply & Tramways Company (B.E.S.T.) set up a generating station in 1905 to provide electricity

for the tramway.[14]

The first hydroelectric installation in India was installed near a tea estate at Sidrapong for the Darjeeling

Municipality in 1897.[15]

The first electric train ran between Bombay's Victoria Terminus and Kurla along the Harbour Line, in

1925.[16]

In 1931, electrification of the meter gauge track between Madras Beach and Tambaram was started.[17]

DEMAND

Demand drivers

Satellite pictures of India show thick haze and black carbon smoke above India and

other Asian countries. This problem is particularly severe along the Ganga Basin in

northern India. Major sources of particulate matter and aerosols are believed to be

smoke from biomass burning in rural parts of India, and air pollution from large

cities in northern India.

"Expanding access to energy means including 2.4 billion people: 1.4 billion that still

has no access to electricity (87% of whom live in the rural areas) and 1 billion

that only has access to unreliable electricity networks. We need smart and

practical approaches because energy, as a driver of development, plays a central

role in both fighting poverty and addressing climate change. The implications are

enormous: families forego entrepreneurial endeavors, children cannot study after

dark, health clinics do not function properly, and women are burdened with time

consuming chores such as pounding grain or hauling water, leaving them with less

time to engage in income generating activities. Further, it is estimated that kitchen

smoke leads to around 1.5 million premature deaths every year, more than the

number of deaths from malaria each year. After gaining access to energy,

households generate more income, are more productive and are less hungry,

further multiplying the Millenium Development Goal's progress."

— Rebeca Grynspan, UNDP Associate Administrator and Under Secretary General,

Bloomberg New Energy Summit, April 7, 2011[18]

Of the 1.4 billion people of the world who have no access to electricity in the world,

India accounts for over 300 million.

Some 800 million Indians use traditional fuels – fuelwood, agricultural waste and

biomass cakes – for cooking and general heating needs. These traditional fuels are

burnt in cook stoves, known as chulah or chulha in some parts of India.

[19][20] Traditional fuel is inefficient source of energy, its burning releases high levels

of smoke, PM10 particulate matter, NOX, SOX, PAHs, polyaromatics, formaldehyde,

carbon monoxide and other air pollutants.[21][22][23][24] 

Some reports, including one by the World Health Organization, claim 300,000 to

400,000 people in India die of indoor air pollution and carbon monoxide poisoning

every year because of biomass burning and use of chullahs.[25]

 Traditional fuel burning in conventional cook stoves releases unnecessarily large

amounts of pollutants, between 5 to 15 times higher than industrial combustion of

coal, thereby affecting outdoor air quality, haze and smog, chronic health problems,

damage to forests, ecosystems and global climate.

Burning of biomass and firewood will not stop, these reports claim, unless

electricity or clean burning fuel and combustion technologies become reliably

available and widely adopted in rural and urban India.

The growth of electricity sector in India may help find a sustainable alternative to

traditional fuel burning.

In addition to air pollution problems, a 2007 study finds that discharge of untreated

sewage is single most important cause for pollution of surface and ground water in

India.

There is a large gap between generation and treatment of domestic wastewater in

India. The problem is not only that India lacks sufficient treatment capacity but also

that the sewage treatment plants that exist do not operate and are not maintained.

Majority of the government-owned sewage treatment plants remain closed most of

the time in part because of the lack of reliable electricity supply to operate the

plants.

The wastewater generated in these areas normally percolates in the soil or

evaporates. The uncollected wastes accumulate in the urban areas cause

unhygienic conditions, release heavy metals and pollutants that leaches to surface

and groundwater.

[26][27] Almost all rivers, lakes and water bodies are severely polluted in India. Water

pollution also adversely impacts river, wetland and ocean life.

Reliable generation and supply of electricity is essential for addressing India's

water pollution and associated environmental issues.

Other drivers for India's electricity sector are its rapidly growing economy, rising

exports, improving infrastructure and increasing household incomes.

Demand trends

Electricity transmission grid in eastern India.

As in previous years, during the year 2010–11, demand for electricity in India far

outstripped availability, both in terms of base load energy and peak availability.

Base load requirement was 861,591 (MU[2]) against availability of 788,355 MU, a

8.5% deficit. During peak loads, the demand was for 122 GW against availability of

110 GW, a 9.8% shortfall.[28]

In a May 2011 report, India's Central Electricity Authority anticipated, for 2011–12

year, a base load energy deficit and peaking shortage to be 10.3% and 12.9%

respectively.

The peaking shortage would prevail in all regions of the country, varying from 5.9%

in the North-Eastern region to 14.5% in the Southern Region. India also expects all

regions to face energy shortage varying from 0.3% in the North-Eastern region to

11.0% in the Western region. India's Central Electricity Authority expects a surplus

output in some of the states of Northern India, those with predominantly

hydropower capacity, but only during the monsoon months.

In these states, shortage conditions would prevail during winter season.[28] 

According to this report, the five states with largest power demand and availability,

as of May 2011, were Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar

Pradesh andGujarat.

In late 2011 newspaper articles, Gujarat was declared a power surplus state, with

about 2–3 GW more power available than its internal demand.

The state was expecting more capacity to become available.

It was expecting to find customers, sell excess capacity to meet power demand in

other states of India, thereby generate revenues for the state.[29][30]

Despite an ambitious rural electrification program,[31] some 400 million Indians lose

electricity access during blackouts.[32]

 While 80% of Indian villages have at least an electricity line, just 52.5% of rural

households have access to electricity.

In urban areas, the access to electricity is 93.1% in 2008. The overall electrification

rate in India is 64.5% while 35.5% of the population still live without access to

electricity.[33]

According to a sample of 97,882 households in 2002, electricity was the main

source of lighting for 53% of rural households compared to 36% in 1993.[34]

The 17th electric power survey of India report claims:[35]

Over 2010–11, India's industrial demand accounted for 35% of electrical power

requirement, domestic household use accounted for 28%, agriculture 21%,

commercial 9%, public lighting and other miscellaneous applications accounted

for the rest.

The electrical energy demand for 2016–17 is expected to be at least 1392 Tera

Watt Hours, with a peak electric demand of 218 GW.

The electrical energy demand for 2021–22 is expected to be at least 1915 Tera

Watt Hours, with a peak electric demand of 298 GW.

If current average transmission and distribution average losses remain same (32%),

India needs to add about 135 GW of power generation capacity, before 2017, to

satisfy the projected demand after losses.

McKinsey claims[36] that India's demand for electricity may cross 300 GW, earlier

than most estimates. To explain their estimates, they point to four reasons:

India's manufacturing sector is likely to grow faster than in the past

Domestic demand will increase more rapidly as the quality of life for more

Indians improve

About 125,000 villages are likely to get connected to India's electricity grid

Currently blackouts and load shedding artificially suppresses demand; this

demand will be sought as revenue potential by power distribution companies

A demand of 300GW will require about 400 GW of installed capacity, McKinsey

notes. The extra capacity is necessary to account for plant availability,

infrastructure maintenance, spinning reserve and losses.

In 2010, electricity losses in India during transmission and distribution were about

24%, while losses because of consumer theft or billing deficiencies added another

10–15%.[37]

According to two studies published in 2004, theft of electricity in India, amounted to

a nationwide loss of $4.5 billion.

[38][39] This led several states of India to enact and implement regulatory, and

institutional framework; develop a new industry and market structure; and privatize

distribution.

The state of Andhra Pradesh, for example, enacted an electricity reform law;

unbundled the utility into one generation, one transmission, and four distribution

and supply companies; and established an independent regulatory commission

responsible for licensing, setting tariffs, and promoting efficiency and competition.

Some state governments amended the Indian Electricity Act of 1910 to make

electricity theft a cognizable offense and impose stringent penalties.

A separate law, unprecedented in India, provided for mandatory imprisonment and

penalties for offenders, allowed constitution of special courts and tribunals for

speedy trial, and recognized collusion by utility staff as a criminal offense.

The state government made advance preparations and constituted special courts

and appellate tribunals as soon as the new law came into force. High quality

metering and enhanced audit information flow was implemented. Such campaigns

have made a big difference in the Indian utilities’ bottom line.

Monthly billing has increased substantially, and the collection rate reached more

than 98%. Transmission and distribution losses were reduced by 8%.

Power cuts are common throughout India and the consequent failure to satisfy the

demand for electricity has adversely effected India's economic growth.[40][41]

ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION

The Per capita Consumption(kWh) in 2009-10 was as follows:

STATEPER CAPITA

CONSUMPTION(KWH)

GOA 2004.77

PUDUCHERRY 1864.5

PUNJAB 1663.01

GUJARAT 1558.58

HARYANA 1491.37

DELHI 1447.72

CHANDIGARH 1238.51

TAMIL NADU 1210.81

HIMACHAL PRADESH 1144.94

MAHARASHTRA 1054.1

ANDHRA PRADESH 1013.74

STATEPER CAPITA

CONSUMPTION(KWH)

JAMMU & KASHMIR 968.47

UTTARAKHAND 930.41

KARNATAKA 873.05

SIKKIM 845.4

ORISSA 837.55

RAJASTHAN 811.12

JHARKHAND 750.46

MADHYA PRADESH 618.1

MEGHALAYA 613.36

KERALA 536.78

WEST BENGAL 515.08

ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 506.13

ARUNACHAL PRADESH 503.27

STATEPER CAPITA

CONSUMPTION(KWH)

MIZORAM 429.31

LAKSHADWEEP 428.81

UTTAR PRADESH 386.93

NAGALAND 242.39

TRIPURA 223.78

ASSAM 209.2

MANIPUR 207.15

BIHAR 117.48

This information was given by the Minister of State for Power Shri K.C.Venugopalina, written reply to a

question in LokSabha on 18-05-2012[42

GENERATION

Tehri Hydroelectric Power station's lake in Uttarakhand. Tehri is world's 7th tallest dam.[43] With a

capacity of 2.4 GW, it is India's largest hydroelectric power generation installation.

Power development in India was first started in 1897 in Darjeeling, followed by

commissioning of a hydropower station at Sivasamudram in Karnataka during 1902.

India's electricity generation capacity additions from 1950 to 1985 were very low

when compared to developed nations. Since 1990, India has been one of the fastest

growing markets for new electricity generation capacity.

The country's annual electricity generation capacity has increased in last 20 years

by about 120 GW, from about 66 GW in 1991[44] to over 100 GW in 2001,[45] to over

185 GW in 2011.

[46] India's Power Finance Corporation Limited projects that current and approved

electricity capacity addition projects in India are expected to add about 100 GW of

installed capacity between 2012 and 2017.

This growth makes India one the fastest growing markets for electricity

infrastructure equipment.

[47][48] India's installed capacity growth rates are still less than those achieved by

China, and short of capacity needed to ensure universal availability of electricity

throughout India by 2017.

State-owned and privately owned companies are significant players in India's

electricity sector, with the private sector growing at a faster rate.

India's central government and state governments jointly regulate electricity sector

in India.

As of August 2011, the states and union territories of India with power surplus

were Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Tripura, Gujarat,Delhi and Dadra and Nagar Haveli.[28][29]

Major economic and social drivers for India's push for electricity generation include

India's goal to provide universal access, the need to replace current highly polluting

energy sources in use in India with cleaner energy sources, a rapidly growing

economy, increasing household incomes, limited domestic reserves offossil

fuels and the adverse impact on the environment of rapid development in urban

and regional areas.[49]

The table below presents the electricity generation capacity, as well as availability

to India's end user and their demand.

The difference between installed capacity and availability is the transmission,

distribution and consumer losses.

The gap between availability and demand is the shortage India is suffering. This

shortage in supply ignores the effects of waiting list of users in rural, urban and

industrial customers; it also ignores the demand gap from India's unreliable

electricity supply.

Electricity sector capacity and availability in India (excludes effect of blackouts / power-shedding)

Item Value Date reported Reference

Total installed capacity (GW) 201.64 April 2012 [1][50]

Available base load supply (MU) 837374 May 2011 [46]

Available peak load supply (GW) 118.7 May 2011 [46]

Demand base load (MU) 933741 May 2011 [46]

Demand peak load (GW) 136.2 May 2011 [46]

According to India's Ministry of Power, about 14.1 GW of new thermal power plants

under construction are expected to be put in use by December 2012, so are 2.1 GW

capacity hydropower plants and a 1 GW capacity nuclear power plant.[46] India's

installed generation capacity should top 200 GW in 2012.

In 2010, the five largest power companies in India, by installed capacity, in

decreasing order, were the state-owned NTPC, state-owned NHPC, followed by three

privately owned companies: Tata Power, Reliance Power and Adani Power.

In India's effort to add electricity generation capacity over 2009–2011, both central

government and state government owned power companies have repeatedly failed

to add the capacity targets because of issues with procurement of equipment and

poor project management. Private companies have delivered better results.[51]

[edit]Thermal power

A super thermal power plant in Rajasthan

A thermal power plant in Maharashtra

Thermal power plants convert energy rich fuel into electricity and heat. Possible

fuels include coal, natural gas, petroleum products, agricultural waste and domestic

trash / waste.

Other sources of fuel include landfill gas and biogases.

In some plants, renewal fuels such as biogas are co-fired with coal.

Coal and lignite accounted for about 57% of India's installed capacity. However,

since wind energy depends on wind speed, and hydropower energy on water levels,

thermal power plants account for over 65% of India's generated electricity.

India's electricity sector consumes about 80% of the coal produced in the country.

India expects that its projected rapid growth in electricity generation over the next

couple of decades is expected to be largely met by thermal power plants.

Fuel constraints

A large part of Indian coal reserve is similar to Gondwana coal. It is of low calorific

value and high ash content. The iron content is low in India's coal, and toxic trace

element concentrations are negligible. The natural fuel value of Indian coal is poor.

On average, the Indian power plants using India's coal supply consume about 0.7 kg

of coal to generate a kWh, whereas United States thermal power plants consume

about 0.45 kg of coal per kWh. This is because of the difference in the quality of the

coal, as measured by the Gross Calorific Value (GCV). On average, Indian coal has a

GCV of about 4500 Kcal/kg, whereas the quality elsewhere in the world is much

better; for example, in Australia, the GCV is 6500 Kcal/kg approximately.[52]

The high ash content in India's coal affects the thermal power plant's potential

emissions. Therefore, India's Ministry of Environment & Forests has mandated the

use of beneficiated coals whose ash content has been reduced to 34% (or lower) in

power plants in urban, ecologically sensitive and other critically polluted areas, and

ecologically sensitive areas. Coal benefaction industry has rapidly grown in India,

with current capacity topping 90 MT.

Thermal power plants can deploy a wide range of technologies. Some of the major

technologies include:

Steam cycle facilities (most commonly used for large utilities);

Gas turbines (commonly used for moderate sized peaking facilities);

Cogeneration and combined cycle facility (the combination of gas turbines or

internal combustion engines with heat recovery systems); and

Internal combustion engines (commonly used for small remote sites or stand-by

power generation).

India has an extensive review process, one that includes environment impact

assessment, prior to a thermal power plant being approved for construction and

commissioning. The Ministry of Environment and Forests has published a technical

guidance manual to help project proposers and to prevent environmental pollution

in India from thermal power plants.[53]

Installed thermal power capacity

The installed capacity of Thermal Power in India, as of June 30, 2011, was

115649.48 MW which is 65.34%[54] of total installed capacity.

Current installed base of Coal Based Thermal Power is 96,743.38 MW which

comes to 54.66% of total installed base.

Current installed base of Gas Based Thermal Power is 17,706.35 MW which is

10.00% of total installed capacity.

Current installed base of Oil Based Thermal Power is 1,199.75 MW which is

0.67% of total installed capacity.

The state of Maharashtra is the largest producer of thermal power in the country.

Hydro power

Main article: Hydroelectric power in India

Indira Sagar Dam partially completed in 2008

Nagarjuna Sagar Dam and hydroelectric power plant on the Krishna River. It is the

world's largest masonry dam, with an installed capacity of 800MW. The dam also

irrigates about 1.4 million acres of previously drought-prone land.

In this system of power generation, the potential of the water falling under

gravitational force is utilized to rotate a turbine which again is coupled to a

Generator, leading to generation of electricity. India is one of the pioneering

countries in establishing hydro-electric power plants. The power plants

at Darjeeling and Shimsha (Shivanasamudra) were established in 1898 and 1902

respectively and are among the first in Asia.

India is endowed with economically exploitable and viable hydro potential assessed

to be about 84,000 MW at 60% load factor. In addition, 6,780 MW in terms of

installed capacity from Small, Mini, and Micro Hydel schemes have been assessed.

Also, 56 sites for pumped storage schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of

94,000 MW have been identified. It is the most widely used form of renewable

energy. India is blessed with immense amount of hydro-electric potential and ranks

5th in terms of exploitable hydro-potential on global scenario.

The present installed capacity as of 30 June 2011 is approximately 37,367.4 MW

which is 21.53% of total electricity generation in India.[55] The public sector has a

predominant share of 97% in this sector.[56] National Hydroelectric Power

Corporation (NHPC), Northeast Electric Power Company (NEEPCO), Satluj jal vidyut

nigam (SJVNL), Tehri Hydro Development Corporation, NTPC-Hydro are a few public

sector companies engaged in development of hydroelectric power in India.

Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB), illustrative state-owned enterprise in

north India, has an installed capacity of 2.9 GW and generates 12000-14000

MU[2] per year. The cost of generation of energy after four decades of operation is

about 20 paise/kWh.[citation needed] BBMB is a major source of peaking power and black

start to the northern grid in India. Large reservoirs provide operational flexibility.

BBMB reservoirs annually supply water for irrigation to 125 lac (12.5 million) acres

of agricultural land of partner states, enabling northern India in its green revolution.

[edit]Nuclear power

Main article: Nuclear power in India

Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant under construction in 2009. It was 96% complete

as of March 2011, with first phase expected to be in use in 2012. With initial

installed capacity of 2 GW, this plant will be expanded to 6.8 GW capacity.

As of 2011, India had 4.8 GW of installed electricity generation capacity using

nuclear fuels. India's Nuclear plants generated 32455 million units or 3.75% of total

electricity produced in India.[57]

India's nuclear power plant development began in 1964.

India signed an agreement with General Electric of the United States for the

construction and commissioning of two boiling water reactors at Tarapur.

In 1967, this effort was placed under India's Department of Atomic Energy. In 1971,

India set up its first pressurised heavy water reactors with Canadian collaboration in

Rajasthan. In 1987, India created Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited to

commercialize nuclear power.

Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited is a public sector enterprise, wholly

owned by the Government of India, under the administrative control of its

Department of Atomic Energy.

Its objective is to implement and operate nuclear power stations for India's

electricity sector. The state-owned company has ambitious plans to establish 63 GW

generation capacity by 2032, as a safe, environmentally benign and economically

viable source of electrical energy to meet the increasing electricity needs of India. [58]

India's nuclear power generation effort satisfies many safeguards and oversights,

such as getting ISO-14001 accreditation for environment management system and

peer review by World Association of Nuclear Operators including a pre-start up peer

review.

Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited admits, in its annual report for 2011,

that its biggest challenge is to address the public and policy maker perceptions

about the safety of nuclear power, particularly after the Fukushima incident in

Japan.[57]

In 2011, India had 18 pressurized heavy water reactors in operation, with another

four projects of 2.8 GW capacity launched. The country plans to implement fast

breeder reactors, using plutonium based fuel. Plutonium is obtained by reprocessing

spent fuel of first stage reactors. India successfully launched its first prototype fast

breeder reactor of 500 MW capacity in Tamil Nadu, and now operates two such

reactors.

India has nuclear power plants operating in the following states: Maharashtra,

Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. These reactors have

an installed electricity generation capacity between 100 to 540 MW each. New

reactors with installed capacity of 1000 MW per reactor are expected to be in use

by 2012.

In 2011, The Wall Street Journal reported the discovery of uranium in a new mine in

India, the country's largest ever. The estimated reserves of 64,000 tonnes, could be

as large as 150,000 tonnes (making the mine one of the world's largest). The new

mine is expected to provide India with a fuel that it currently imports. Nuclear fuel

supply constraints had limited India's ability to grow its nuclear power generation

capacity. The newly discovered ore, unlike those in Australia, is of slightly lower

grade. This mine is expected to be in operation in 2012.[59]

India's share of nuclear power plant generation capacity is just 1.2% of worldwide

nuclear power production capacity, making it the 15th largest nuclear power

producer. Nuclear power provided 3% of the country's total electricity generation in

2011.

India aims to supply 9% of it electricity needs with nuclear power by 2032.[57] 

India's largest nuclear power plant project under implementation is at Jaitapur,

Maharashtra in partnership with Areva, France.

[edit]Other renewable energy

Main article: Renewable energy in India

Renewable energy in India is a sector that is still in its infancy.

As of December 2011, India had an installed capacity of about 22.4 GW of renewal

technologies-based electricity, about 12% of its total.[60] For context, the total

installed capacity for electricity in Switzerland was about 18 GW in 2009. The table

below provides the capacity breakdown by various technologies.

Renewal energy installed capacity in India (as of June 30, 2012)

Type[61] TechnologyInstalled capacity

(in MW)

Grid connected power

Wind 17644

Small hydro 3411

Biomass 1182

Bagasse Cogeneration

2046

Waste-to-Energy (WtE)

93

Solar 1030

Off-grid, captive power

Waste to Energy-Urban

105

Biomass non-bagasse cogen

391

Biomass Gasifiers - Rural

16

Biomass Gasifiers - Industrial

136

SPV Systems (>1 kW)

85

Aerogen/Hybrids 1.74

As of August 2011, India had deployed renewal energy to provide electricity in 8846

remote villages, installed 4.4 million family biogas plants, 1800 microhydel units

and 4.7 million square meters of solar water heating capacity. India anticipates to

add another 3.6 GW of renewal energy installed capacity by December 2012.[61]

India plans to add about 30 GW of installed electricity generation capacity based on

renewal energy technologies, by 2017.[60]

Renewable energy projects in India are regulated and championed by the central

government's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy.

Solar power

Main article: Solar power in India

Solar resource map for India.

The western states of the country are naturally gifted with high solar incidence.

India is bestowed with solar irradiation ranging from 4 to 7 kWh/square meter/day

across the country, with western and southern regions having higher insolation.[62]

India is endowed with rich solar energy resource.

India receives the highest global solar radiation on a horizontal surface.[citation needed]

With its growing electricity demand, India has initiated steps to develop its large

potential for solar energy based power generation.

In November 2009, the Government of India launched its Jawaharlal Nehru National

Solar Mission under the National Action Plan on Climate Change.

Under this central government initiative, India plans to generate 1 GW of power by

2013 and up to 20 GW grid-based solar power, 2 GW of off-grid solar power and

cover 20 million square metres with solar energy collectors by 2020

.[63] India plans utility scale solar power generation plants through solar parks with

dedicated infrastructure by state governments, among others, the governments of

Gujarat and Rajasthan.[62]

The Government of Gujarat taking advantage of the national initiative and high

solar irradiation in the state, launched the Solar Power Policy in 2009 and proposes

to establish a number of large-scale solar parks starting with the Charanka solar

park in Patan district in the sparsely populated northern part of the state.

The development of solar parks will streamline the project development timeline by

letting government agencies undertake land acquisition and necessary permits, and

provide dedicated common infrastructure for setting up solar power generation

plants largely in the private sector.

This approach will facilitate the accelerated installation of private sector solar power

generation capacity reducing costs by addressing issues faced by stand alone

projects.

Common infrastructure for the solar park include site preparation and leveling,

power evacuation, availability of water, access roads, security and services. In

parallel with the central government's initiative, the Gujarat Electricity Regulatory

Commission has announced feed-in-tariff to mainstream solar power generation

which will be applied for solar power generation plants in the solar park.

Gujarat Power Corporation Limited is the responsible agency for developing the

solar park of 500 megawatts and will lease the lands to the project developers to

generate solar power.

Gujarat Energy Transmission Corporation Limited will develop the transmission

evacuation from the identified interconnection points with the solar developer. This

project is being supported, in part, by the Asian Development Bank.[62]

The first Indian solar thermal power project (2X50MW) is in progress in Phalodi

(Rajasthan), and is constructed by CORPORATE ISPAT ALLOY LTD.[citation needed]

The Indian Solar Loan Programme, supported by the United Nations Environment

Programme has won the prestigious Energy Globe World award for Sustainability for

helping to establish a consumer financing program for solar home power systems.

Over the span of three years more than 16,000 solar home systems have been

financed through 2,000 bank branches, particularly in rural areas of South India

where the electricity grid does not yet extend. Launched in 2003, the Indian Solar

Loan Programme was a four-year partnership between UNEP, the UNEP Risoe

Centre, and two of India's largest banks, the Canara Bank and Syndicate Bank.[64][65]

Land acquisition is a challenge to solar farm projects in India. Some state

governments are exploring means to address land availability through innovation;

for example, by exploring means to deploy solar capacity above their extensive

irrigation canal projects, thereby harvesting solar energy while reducing the loss of

irrigation water by solar evaporation.

Wind power

Main article: Wind power in India

Wind farm in Rajasthan.

Wind turbines midst India's agricultural farms.

Wind farms midst paddy fields in India.

India has the fifth largest installed wind power capacity in the world.[66] In 2010,

wind power accounted for 6% of India's total installed power capacity, and 1.6% of

the country's power output.

The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s by Tamil

Nadu Electric Board near Tuticorin, and has significantly increased in the last few

years. Suzlon is the leading Indian company in wind power, with an installed

generation capacity of 6.2 GW in India. Vestas is another major company active in

India's wind energy initiative.[67]

As December 2011, the installed capacity of wind power in India was 15.9 GW,

spread across many states of India.[60][66] The largest wind power generating state

was Tamil Nadu accounting for 30% of installed capacity, followed in decreasing

order by Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, andRajasthan.[68] It is estimated that 6

GW of additional wind power capacity will be installed in India by 2012.[69] In Tamil

Nadu, wind power is mostly harvested in the southern districts such as

Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli and Tuticorin.

The state of Gujarat is estimated to have the maximum gross wind power potential

in India, with a potential of 10.6 GW.[67]

[edit]Biomass power

In this system biomass, bagasse, forestry and agro residue & agricultural wastes are

used as fuel to produce electricity.[70]

BIOMASS GASIFIER

India has been promoting biomass gasifier technologies in its rural areas, to utilize

surplus biomass resources such as rice husk, crop stalks, small wood chips, other

agro-residues. The goal was to produce electricity for villages with power plants of

up to 2 MW capacities. During 2011, India installed 25 rice husk based gasifier

systems for distributed power generation in 70 remote villages of Bihar. The Largest

Biomass based power plant in India is at SIrohi, Rajasthan having the capacity of 20

MW.i.e. Sambhav Energy Limited. In addition, gasifier systems are being installed at

60 rice mills in India. During the year, biomass gasifier projects of 1.20 MW in

Gujarat and 0.5 MW in Tamil Nadu were successfully installed.[60]

Biogas

This pilot program aims to install small scale biogas plants for meeting the cooking

energy needs in rural areas of India. During 2011, some 45000 small scale biogas

plants were installed. Cumulatively, India has installed 4.44 million small scale

biogas plants.

In 2011, India started a new initiative with the aim to demonstrate medium size

mixed feed biogas-fertilizer pilot plants. This technology aims for generation,

purification/enrichment, bottling and piped distribution of biogas. India approved 21

of these projects with aggregate capacity of 37016 cubic meter per day, of which 2

projects have been successfully commissioned by December 2011.[60]

India has additionally commissioned 158 projects under its Biogas based

Distributed/Grid Power Generation programme, with a total installed capacity of

about 2 MW.

India is rich in biomass and has a potential of 16,881MW (agro-residues and

plantations), 5000MW (bagasse cogeneration) and 2700MW (energy recovery from

waste). Biomass power generation in India is an industry that attracts investments

of over INR 600 crores every year, generating more than 5000 million units of

electricity and yearly employment of more than 10 million man-days in the rural

areas.[citation needed]

As of 2010, India burnt over 200 million tonnes of coal replacement worth of

traditional biomass fuel every year to meet its energy need for cooking and other

domestic use. This traditional biomass fuel – fuelwood, crop waste and animal dung

– is a potential raw material for the application of biomass technologies for the

recovery of cleaner fuel, fertilizers and electricity with significantly lower pollution.

Biomass available in India can and has been playing an important role as fuel for

sugar mills, textiles, paper mills, and small and medium enterprises (SME). In

particular there is a significant potential in breweries, textile mills, fertilizer plants,

the paper and pulp industry, solvent extraction units, rice mills, petrochemical

plants and other industries to harness biomass power.[71]

[edit]GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

India's geothermal energy installed capacity is experimental. Commercial use is

insignificant.

India has potential resources to harvest geothermal energy. The resource map for

India has been grouped into six geothermal provinces:[72]

Himalayan Province – Tertiary Orogenic belt with Tertiary magmatism

Areas of Faulted blocks – Aravalli belt, Naga-Lushi, West coast regions and Son-

Narmada lineament.

Volcanic arc – Andaman and Nicobar arc.

Deep sedimentary basin of Tertiary age such as Cambay basin in Gujarat.

Radioactive Province – Surajkund, Hazaribagh, Jharkhand.

Cratonic province – Peninsular India

India has about 340 hot springs spread over the country. Of this, 62 are distributed

along the northwest Himalaya, in the States of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal

Pradesh and Uttarakhand. They are found concentrated along a 30-50-km wide

thermal band mostly along the river valleys. Naga-Lusai and West Coast Provinces

manifest a series of thermal springs. Andaman and Nicobar arc is the only place in

India where volcanic activity, a continuation of the Indonesian geothermal fields,

and can be good potential sites for geothermal energy. Cambay graben geothermal

belt is 200 km long and 50 km wide with Tertiary sediments. Thermal springs have

been reported from the belt although they are not of very high temperature and

discharge. During oil and gas drilling in this area, in recent times, high subsurface

temperature and thermal fluid have been reported in deep drill wells in depth

ranges of 1.7 to 1.9 km. Steam blowout have also been reported in the drill holes in

depth range of 1.5 to 3.4 km. The thermal springs in India's peninsular region are

more related to the faults, which allow down circulation of meteoric water to

considerable depths. The circulating water acquires heat from the normal thermal

gradient in the area, and depending upon local condition, emerges out at suitable

localities. The area includes Aravalli range, Son-Narmada-Tapti lineament, Godavari

and Mahanadi valleys and South Cratonic Belts.[72]

In a December 2011 report, India identified six most promising geothermal sites for

the development of geothermal energy. These are, in decreasing order of potential:

Tattapani in Chhattisgarh

Puga in Jammu & Kashmir

Cambay Graben in Gujarat

Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh

Surajkund in Jharkhand

Chhumathang in Jammu & Kashmir

India plans to set up its first geothermal power plant, with 2–5 MW capacity at Puga

in Jammu and Kashmir.[73]

TIDAL WAVE ENERGY

Tidal energy technologies harvest energy from the seas. The potential of tidal wave

energy becomes higher in certain regions by local effects such as shelving,

funneling, reflection and resonance.

India is surrounded by sea on three sides, its potential to harness tidal energy is

significant.

Energy can be extracted from tides in several ways. In one method, a reservoir is

created behind a barrage and then tidal waters pass through turbines in the barrage

to generate electricity. This method requires mean tidal differences greater than 4

meters and also favorable topographical conditions to keep installation costs low.

One report claims the most attractive locations in India, for the barrage technology,

are the Gulf of Khambhat and the Gulf of Kutch on India's west coast where the

maximum tidal range is 11 m and 8 m with average tidal range of 6.77 m and 5.23

m respectively. The Ganges Delta in the Sunderbans, West Bengal is another

possibility, although with significantly less recoverable energy; the maximum tidal

range in Sunderbans is approximately 5 m with an average tidal range of 2.97 m.

The report claims, barrage technology could harvest about 8 GW from tidal energy

in India, mostly in Gujarat. The barrage approach has several disadvantages, one

being the effect of any badly engineered barrage on the migratory fishes, marine

ecosystem and aquatic life. Integrated barrage technology plants can be expensive

to build.

In December 2011, the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, Government of India

and the Renewable Energy Development Agency of Govt. of West Bengal jointly

approved and agreed to implement India's first 3.75 MW Durgaduani mini tidal

power project.

Indian government believes that tidal energy may be an attractive solution to meet

the local energy demands of this remote delta region.[73]

Another tidal wave technology harvests energy from surface waves or from

pressure fluctuations below the sea surface.

A report from the Ocean Engineering Centre, Indian Institute of Technology,

Chennai estimates the annual wave energy potential along the Indian coast is

between 5 MW to 15 MW per meter, suggesting a theoretical maximum potential for

electricity harvesting from India's 7500 kilometer coast line may be about 40 GW.

However, the realistic economical potential, the report claims, is likely to be

considerably less.[74] A significant barrier to surface energy harvesting is the

interference of its equipment to fishing and other sea bound vessels, particularly in

unsettled weather. India built its first seas surface energy harvesting technology

demonstration plant in Vizhinjam, near Thiruruvananthpuram.

The third approach to harvesting tidal energy consists of ocean thermal energy

technology. This approach tries to harvest the solar energy trapped in ocean waters

into usable energy.

Oceans have a thermal gradient, the surface being much warmer than deeper

levels of ocean. This thermal gradient may be harvested using modified Rankine

cycle.

India's National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) attempted this approach over

the last 20 years, but without success. In 2003, with Saga University of Japan, NIOT

attempted to build and deploy a 1 MW demonstration plant.[75] However, mechanical

problems prevented success.

After initial tests near Kerala, the unit was scheduled for redeployment and further

development in the Lakshadweep Islands in 2005.

The demonstration project's experience have limited follow-on efforts with ocean

thermal energy technology in India.

PROBLEMS WITH INDIA'S POWER SECTOR

India's electricity sector faces many issues. Some are:[5][24][76][77]

Government giveaways such as free electricity for farmers, partly to curry

political favor, have depleted the cash reserves of state-run electricity-

distribution system. This has financially crippled the distribution network, and its

ability to pay for power to meet the demand. This situation has been worsened

by government departments of India that do not pay their bills.

Shortages of fuel: despite abundant reserves of coal, India is facing a severe

shortage of coal. The country isn't producing enough to feed its power plants.

Some plants do not have reserve coal supplies to last a day of operations. India's

monopoly coal producer, state-controlled Coal India, is constrained by primitive

mining techniques and is rife with theft and corruption; Coal India has

consistently missed production targets and growth targets. Poor coal transport

infrastructure has worsened these problems. To expand its coal production

capacity, Coal India needs to mine new deposits. However, most of India's coal

lies under protected forests or designated tribal lands. Any mining activity or

land acquisition for infrastructure in these coal-rich areas of India, has been rife

with political demonstrations, social activism and public interest litigations.

Poor pipeline connectivity and infrastructure to harness India's abundant coal

bed methane and shale gas potential.

The giant new offshore natural gas field has delivered less fuel than projected.

India faces a shortage of natural gas.

Hydroelectric power projects in India's mountainous north and northeast regions

have been slowed down by ecological, environmental and rehabilitation

controversies, coupled with public interest litigations.

India's nuclear power generation potential has been stymied by political activism

since the Fukushima disaster in Japan.

Average transmission, distribution and consumer-level losses exceeding 30%.

Over 300 million people in India have no access to electricity. Of those who do,

almost all find electricity supply intermittent and unreliable.

Lack of clean and reliable energy sources such as electricity is, in part, causing

about 800 million people in India to continue using traditional biomass energy

sources – namely fuelwood, agricultural waste and livestock dung – for cooking

and other domestic needs.[19] Traditional fuel combustion is the primary source of

indoor air pollution in India, causes between 300,000 to 400,000 deaths per year

and other chronic health issues.

India’s coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal power plants are

inefficient and offer significant potential for greenhouse gas (CO2) emission

reduction through better technology. Compared to the average emissions from

coal-fired, oil-fired and natural gas-fired thermal power plants in European Union

(EU-27) countries, India’s thermal power plants emit 50 to 120 percent more

CO2 per kWh produced.[78]

The July 2012 blackout, affecting the north of the country, was the largest power

grid failure in history by number of people affected.

[edit]RESOURCE POTENTIAL IN ELECTRICITY SECTOR

According to Oil and Gas Journal, India had approximately 38 trillion cubic feet (Tcf)

of proven natural gas reserves as of January 2011, world’s 26th largest. United

States Energy Information Administration estimates that India produced

approximately 1.8 Tcf of natural gas in 2010, while consuming roughly 2.3 Tcf of

natural gas.

The electrical power and fertilizer sectors account for nearly three-quarters of

natural gas consumption in India. Natural gas is expected to be an increasingly

important component of energy consumption as the country pursues energy

resource diversification and overall energy security.[79][80]

Until 2008, the majority of India's natural gas production came from the Mumbai

High complex in the northwest part of the country. Recent discoveries in the Bay of

Bengal have shifted the center of gravity of Indian natural gas production.

The country already produces some coalbed methane and has major potential to

expand this source of cleaner fuel. According to a 2011 Oil and Gas Journal report,

India is estimated to have between 600 to 2000 Tcf of shale gas resources (one of

the world’s largest). Despite its natural resource potential, and an opportunity to

create energy industry jobs, India has yet to hold a licensing round for its shale gas

blocks. It is not even mentioned in India's central government energy infrastructure

or electricity generation plan documents through 2025. The traditional natural gas

reserves too have been very slow to develop in India because regulatory burdens

and bureaucratic red tape severely limit the country’s ability to harness its natural

gas resources.[5][78][81]

RURAL ELECTRIFICATION

Main article: Rural Electrification Corporation Limited

India's Ministry of Power launched Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana as

one of its flagship programme in March 2005 with the objective of electrifying over

one lakh (100,000) un-electrified villages and to provide free electricity connections

to 2.34 crore (23.4 million) rural households. This free electricity program promises

energy access to India's rural areas, but is in part creating problems for India's

electricity sector.[5]

[edit]Human resource development

Rapid growth of electricity sector in India demands that talent and trained

personnel become available as India's new installed capacity adds new jobs. India

has initiated the process to rapidly expand energy education in the country, to

enable the existing educational institutions to introduce courses related to energy

capacity addition, production, operations and maintenance, in their regular

curriculum. This initiative includes conventional and renewal energy.

A Ministry of Renewal and New Energy announcement claims State Renewable

Energy Agencies are being supported to organize short-term training programmes

for installation, operation and maintenance and repair of renewable energy systems

in such places where intensive RE programme are being implemented. Renewable

Energy Chairs have been established in IIT Roorkee and IIT Kharagpur.[60]

Education and availability of skilled workers is expected to be a key challenge in

India's effort to rapidly expand its electricity sector.

REGULATION AND ADMINISTRATION

The Ministry of Power is India's apex central government body regulating the

electrical energy sector in India. This ministry was created on 2 July 1992. It is

responsible for planning, policy formulation, processing of projects for investment

decisions, monitoring project implementation, training and manpower development,

and the administration and enactment of legislation in regard to thermal, hydro

power generation, transmission and distribution. It is also responsible for the

administration of India's Electricity Act (2003), the Energy Conservation Act (2001)

and to undertake such amendments to these Acts, as and when necessary, in

conformity with the Indian government's policy objectives.[83]

Effective 31 July 2012, the Union Minister of Power is Veerappa Moily.

Electricity is a concurrent subject at Entry 38 in List III of the seventh Schedule of

the Constitution of India. In India's federal governance structure this means that

both the central government and India's state governments are involved in

establishing policy and laws for its electricity sector. This principle motivates central

government of India and individual state governments to enter into memorandum

of understanding to help expedite projects and reform electricity sector in

respective state.[84]

GOVERNMENT OWNED POWER COMPANIES

India's Ministry of Power administers central government owned companies

involved in the generation of electricity in India. These include National Thermal

Power Corporation, Damodar Valley Corporation, National Hydroelectric Power

Corporation and Nuclear Power Corporation of India. ThePower Grid Corporation of

India is also administered by the Ministry; it is responsible for the inter-state

transmission of electricity and the development of national grid.

The Ministry works with various state governments in matters related to state

government owned corporations in India's electricity sector. Examples of state

corporations include Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Corporation Limited, Assam

Power Generation Corporation Limited Tamil Nadu Electricity Board, Maharashtra

State Electricity Board, Kerala State Electricity Board, and Gujarat Urja Vikas

Nigam Limited.

Funding of power infrastructure

India's Ministry of Power administers Rural Electrification Corporation

Limited and Power Finance Corporation Limited. These central government owned

public sector enterprises provide loans and guarantees for public and private

electricity sector infrastructure projects in India.

THE END

See also

Energy portal

Energy policy of India

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[edit]External links

Macro Patterns in the Use of Traditional Biomass Fuels – A Stanford/TERI report on energy sector

and human history

Electricity industry in the Public Sector in India

India's Energy Policy and Electricity Production

“Electricity online trading in India”

“Energy resources in India”

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WHAT IS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MCB ,MCCB, ELCB AND RCCB.

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)

ARACTERISTICS

Rated current not more than 100 A.

Trip characteristics  normally not adjustable.

Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation.

What is the difference between MCB, MCCB, ELCB, and RCCBPosted OCT 25 2011  by J IGUPARMAR   in ENERGY AND POWER  with 9 COMMENTS

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MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)

CHARACTERISTICS

Rated current not more than 100 A.

Trip characteristics  normally not adjustable.

Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation.Top

MCCB (Moulded Case Circuit Breaker)

CHARACTERISTICS

Rated current up to 1000 A.

Trip current may be adjustable.

Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation.Top

Air Circuit Breaker

CHARACTERISTICS

Rated current up to 10,000 A.

Trip characteristics often fully adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays.

Usually electronically controlled—some models are microprocessor controlled.

Often used for main power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged

in draw-out enclosures for ease of maintenance.Top

Vacuum Circuit Breaker

CHARACTERISTICS

With rated current up to 3000 A,

These breakers interrupt the arc in a vacuum bottle.

These can also be applied at up to 35,000 V. Vacuum circuit breakers  tend to have longer life

expectancies between overhaul than do air circuit breakers.Top

RCD (Residual Current Device / RCCB(Residual Current Circuit Breaker)

CHARACTERISTICS

Phase (line) and Neutral  both wires connected through RCD.

It trips the circuit when there is earth fault current.

The amount of current flows through the phase (line) should return through neutral .

It detects by RCD. any mismatch between two currents flowing through phase and neutral detect

by -RCD and trip the circuit within 30Miliseconed.

If a house has an earth system connected to an earth rod and not the main incoming cable, then

it must have all circuits protected by an RCD (because u mite not be able to get enough fault

current to trip a MCB)

RCDs are an extremely effective form of shock protection

The most widely used are 30 mA (milliamp) and 100 mA devices. A current flow of 30 mA (or 0.03

amps) is sufficiently small that it makes it very difficult to receive a dangerous shock. Even 100 mA is a

relatively small figure when compared to the current that may flow in an earth fault without such

protection (hundred of amps)

A 300/500 mA RCCB may be used where only fire protection is required. eg., on lighting circuits, where

the risk of electric shock is small.

Top

Limitation of RCCB

Standard electromechanical RCCBs are designed to operate on normal

supply waveformsand cannot be guaranteed to operate where none standard waveforms are

generated by loads. The most common is the half wave rectified waveform sometimes called

pulsating dc generated by speed control devices, semi conductors, computers and even

dimmers.

Specially modified RCCBs are available which will operate on normal ac and pulsating dc.

RCDs don’t offer protection against current overloads: RCDs detect an imbalance in the live

and neutral currents. A current overload, however large, cannot be detected. It is a frequent

cause of problems with novices to replace an MCB in a fuse box with an RCD. This may be done

in an attempt to increase shock protection. If a live-neutral fault occurs (a short circuit, or an

overload), the RCD won’t trip, and may be damaged. In practice, the main MCB for the premises

will probably trip, or the service fuse, so the situation is unlikely to lead to catastrophe; but it may

be inconvenient.

It is now possible to get an MCB and and RCD in a single unit, called an RCBO (see below).

Replacing an MCB with an RCBO of the same rating is generally safe.

Nuisance tripping of RCCB: Sudden changes in electrical load can cause a small, brief current

flow to earth, especially in old appliances. RCDs are very sensitive and operate very quickly;

they may well trip when the motor of an old freezer switches off. Some equipment is notoriously

`leaky’, that is, generate a small, constant current flow to earth. Some types of computer

equipment, and large television sets, are widely reported to cause problems.

RCD will not protect against a socket outlet being wired with its live and neutral

terminalsthe wrong way round.

RCD will not protect against the overheating that results when conductors are not properly

screwed into their terminals.

RCD will not protect against live-neutral shocks, because the current in the live and neutral is

balanced. So if you touch live and neutral conductors at the same time (e.g., both terminals of a

light fitting), you may still get a nasty shock.Top

ELCB (Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker)

CHARACTERISTICS

Phase (line), Neutral and Earth wire connected through ELCB.

ELCB is working based on Earth leakage current.

Operating Time of ELCB:  

The safest limit of Current which Human Body can withstand is 30ma sec.

Suppose Human Body Resistance is 500Ω and Voltage to ground is 230 Volt.

The Body current will be 500/230=460mA.

Hence ELCB must be operated in  30maSec/460mA = 0.65msecTop

RCBO (Residual Circuit Breaker with OverLoad)

It is possible to get a combined MCB and RCCB in one device (Residual Current Breaker with

Overload RCBO), the principals are the same, but more styles of disconnection are fitted into

one packageTop

Difference between ELCB and RCCB

ELCB is the old name and often refers to voltage operated devices that are no longer available

and it is advised you replace them if you find one.

RCCB or RCD is the new name that specifies current operated (hence the new name to

distinguish from voltage operated).

The new RCCB is best because it will detect any earth fault. The voltage type only detects earth

faults that flow back through the main earth wire so this is why they stopped being used.

The easy way to tell an old voltage operated trip is to look for the main earth wire connected

through it.

RCCB will only have the line and neutral connections.

ELCB is working based on Earth leakage current. But RCCB is not having sensing or

connectivity of Earth, because fundamentally Phase current is equal to the neutral current in

single phase. That’s why RCCB can trip when the both currents are deferent and it withstand up

to both the currents are same. Both the neutral and phase currents are different that means

current is flowing through the Earth.

Finally both are working for same, but the thing is connectivity is difference.

RCD does not necessarily require an earth connection itself (it monitors only the live and

neutral).In addition it detects current flows to earth even in equipment without an earth of its own.

This means that an RCD will continue to give shock protection in equipment that has a faulty

earth. It is these properties that have made the RCD more popular than its rivals. For example,

earth-leakage circuit breakers (ELCBs) were widely used about ten years ago. These devices

measured the voltage on the earth conductor; if this voltage was not zero this indicated a current

leakage to earth. The problem is that ELCBs need a sound earth connection, as does the

equipment it protects. As a result, the use of ELCBs is no longer recommended.Top

MCB Selection

The first characteristic is the overload which is intended to prevent the accidental overloading of

the cable in a no fault situation. The speed of the MCB tripping will vary with the degree of the

overload. This is usually achieved by the use of a thermal device in the MCB.

The second characteristic is the magnetic fault protection, which is intended to operate when the

fault reaches a predetermined level and to trip the MCB within one tenth of a second. The level

of this magnetic trip gives the MCB its type characteristic as follows:

Type Tripping Current Operating Time

Type B 3 To 5 time full load current 0.04 To 13 Sec

Type C 5 To 10 times full load current 0.04 To 5 Sec

Type D 10 To 20 times full load current 0.04 To 3 Sec

The third characteristic is the short circuit protection, which is intended to protect against heavy

faults maybe in thousands of amps caused by short circuit faults.

The capability of the MCB to operate under these conditions gives its short circuit rating in Kilo

amps (KA). In general for consumer units a 6KA fault level is adequate whereas for industrial

boards 10KA fault capabilities or above may be required.Top

Fuse and MCB characteristics

Fuses and MCBs are rated in amps. The amp rating given on the fuse or MCB body is the

amount of current it will pass continuously. This is normally called the rated current or nominal

current.

Many people think that if the current exceeds the nominal current, the device will trip, instantly.

So if the rating is 30 amps, a current of 30.00001 amps will trip it, right? This is not true.

The fuse and the MCB, even though their nominal currents are similar, have very different 

properties.

For example, For 32Amp MCB and 30 Amp Fuse, to be sure of tripping in 0.1 seconds, the MCB

requires a current of 128 amps, while the fuse requires 300 amps.

The fuse clearly requires more current to blow it in that time, but notice how much

bigger boththese currents are than the ’30 amps’ marked current rating.

There is a small likelihood that in the course of, say, a month, a 30-amp fuse will trip when

carrying 30 amps. If the fuse has had a couple of overloads before (which may not even have

been noticed) this is much more likely. This explains why fuses can sometimes ‘blow’ for no

obvious reason

If the fuse is marked ’30 amps’, but it will actually stand 40 amps for over an hour, how can we

justify calling it a ’30 amp’ fuse? The answer is that the overload characteristics of fuses are

designed to match the properties of modern cables. For example, a modern PVC-insulated cable

will stand a 50% overload for an hour, so it seems reasonable that the fuse should as well.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE POWER TRANSFORMER AND DISTRIBUTION

TRANSFORMER

Power transformers are used in transmission  network of higher voltages for step-up and step down

application (400 kV, 200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV) and are generally rated above 200MVA.

Distribution transformers are used for lower voltage distribution networks as a means to end user

connectivity. (11kV, 6.6 kV, 3.3 kV, 440V, 230V) and are generally rated less than 200 MVA.

Transformer Size / Insulation Level:

Power transformer is used for the  transmission  purpose at heavy load, high voltage  greater than 33

KV & 100% efficiency. It also having a big in size as compare to distribution transformer, it used in

generating station and Transmission substation .high insulation level.

The distribution transformer is used for the distribution of electrical energy at low voltage as less

than 33KV in industrial purpose and 440v-220v in domestic purpose. It work at low efficiency at 50-

70%, small size, easy in installation, having low magnetic losses & it is not always fully loaded.

Iron Losses and Copper Losses

Power Transformers are used in Transmission network so they do not directly connect to the

consumers, so load fluctuations are very less. These are loaded fully during 24 hr’s a day, so Cu

losses & Fe losses  takes place throughout day the specific weight i.e. (iron weight)/(cu weight) is very

less .the average loads are nearer to full loaded or full load and these are designed in such a way that

maximum efficiency at full load condition. These are independent of time so in calculating the efficiency

only power basis is enough.

Power Transformers are used in Distribution Network so directly connected to the consumer so load

fluctuations are very high. these are not loaded fully at all time so iron losses takes place 24hr a day

and cu losses takes place based on load cycle. the specific weight is more i.e. (iron weight)/(cu

weight).average loads are about only 75% of full load and these are designed in such a way that max

efficiency occurs at 75% of full load. As these are time dependent the all day efficiency is defined in

order to calculate the efficiency.

Power transformers are used for transmission as a step up devices so that the I2r loss can be

minimized for a given power flow. These transformers are designed to utilize the core to maximum and

will operate very much near to the knee point of B-H curve (slightly above the knee point value).This

brings down the mass of the core enormously. Naturally these transformers have the matched iron

losses and copper losses at peak load (i.e. the maximum efficiency point where both the losses match).

Distribution transformers obviously cannot be designed like this. Hence the all-day-efficiency comes

into picture while designing it. It depends on the typical load cycle for which it has to supply. Definitely

Core design will be done to take care of peak load and as well as all-day-efficiency. It is a bargain

between these two points.

Power transformer generally operated at full load. Hence, it is designed such that copper losses are

minimal. However, a distribution transformer is always online and operated at loads less than full load

for most of time. Hence, it is designed such that core losses are minimal.

In Power Transformer the flux density is higher than the distribution transformer.

Maximum Efficiency

The main difference between power and distribution transformer is distribution transformer is designed

for maximum efficiency at 60% to 70% load as normally doesn’t operate at full load all the time. Its load

depends on distribution demand. Whereas power transformer is designed for maximum efficiency at

100% load as it always runs at 100% load being near to generating station.

Distribution Transformer is used at the distribution level where voltages tend to be lower .The

secondary voltage is almost always the voltage delivered to the end consumer. Because of voltage

drop limitations, it is usually not possible to deliver that secondary voltage over great distances.

As a result, most distribution systems tend to involve many ‘clusters’ of loads fed from distribution

transformers, and this in turn means that the thermal rating of distribution transformers doesn’t have to

be very high to support the loads that they have to serve.

.

All day efficiency = (Output in KWhr) / (Input in KWhr) in 24 hrs which is always less than power

efficiency.

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LOAD TRANSMISION LINE STRUCTURE

Loads on Transmission Line Structure Loads are calculated on the structures in three directions: vertical, transverse, and longitudinal. The transverse load is perpendicular to the line and the longitudinal loads act parallel to the line 

Vertical Loads

The vertical load on supporting structures consists of the weight of the structure plus the superim-posed weight, including all wires, ice coated where specified. Vertical load of wireVwin. (lb/ft) is given by the following equations:  

Transverse Loads Transverse loads are caused by wind pressure on wires and structure, and the transverse component of theline tensionat angles 

Wind Load on Wires

The transverse load due to wind on the wire is given by the following equations: 

Transverse Load Due to Line Angle Where a line changes direction, the total transverse load on the structure is the sum of the transverse wind load and the transverse component of the wire tension. The transverse component of the tension may be of significant magnitude, especially for large angle structures. To calculate the total load, a wind direction should be used which will give the maximum resultant load considering the effects on the wires and structure.  The transverse component of wire tension on the structure is given by the following equation:  

Wind Load on Structures

In addition to the wire load, structures are subjected to wind loads acting on the exposed areasof the structure. The wind force coefficients on lattice towers depend on shapes of member sections, solidity ratio, angle of incidence of wind (face-on wind or diagonal wind), and shielding. Methods for calculating wind loads on transmission structures are given in the ASCE Guide as well the NESC code  

Longitudinal Loading There are several conditions under which a structure is subjected to longitudinal loading: Deadend Structures—These structures are capable of withstanding the full tension of the conductors and shield wires or combinations thereof, on one side of the structure. Stringing— Longitudinal load may occur at any one phase or shield wire due to a hang-up in the blocks during stringing. The longitudinal load is taken as the stringing tension for the complete phase (i.e., all subconductors strung simultaneously) or a shield wire. In order to avoid any prestressing of the conductors, stringing tension is typically limited to the minimum tension required to keep the conductor from touching the ground or any obstructions. Based on common practice and according to the IEEE “Guide to the Installation of Overhead Transmission Line Conductors” , stringing tension is generally about one-half of thesaggingtension. Therefore, the longitudinal stringing load is equal to 50% of the initial, unloaded tension at 60  F. Longitudinal Unbalanced Load—Longitudinal unbalanced forces can develop at the structures due to various conditions on the line. In rugged terrain, large differentials in adjacent span lengths, combined with

inclined spans, could result in significant longitudinal unbalanced load under ice and wind conditions. Non-uniform loading of adjacent spans can also produce longitudinal unbalanced loads. This load is based on an ice shedding condition where ice is dropped from one span and not the adjacent spans. Reference  includes a software that is commonly used for calculating unbalanced loads on the structure. 

EXAMPLE Determine the wire loads on a small angle structure in accordance with the data given below. UseNESC medium district loading and assume all intact conditions. Given Data: 

Solution NESC Medium District Loading  

    Reference:  “Transmission Structures” Structural EngineeringHandbook by Fang, S.J.; Roy, S. and Kramer, J.

Article Tags: #Loads on Transmission #Vertical Loads #Transverse Loads #Wind Load on Wires #Line Angle #Transverse Load #Wind Load on Structures #Longitudinal Loading#Loads on Transmission Line Structure #Transmission Line Structure