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INTEGRATED EFFECT OF BIOCHAR AND PK FERTILIZER ON MAIZE YIELD AND SOIL PEROPERTIES INTRODUCTION Maize is an important summer cereal crop grown in Pakistan. At national level during 2008- 2009 the total area under maize cultivation was 1051.7 thousand hectares with a total production of 3604.7 thousand tons and average grain yield of 3427 kg per hectare. The figures in Khyber Pakhtunkhwaare 509 thousand hectares with a total production of 903.9 thousand tons and average yield of 1776 kg hectare -1 (MINFAL, 2006). Maize is multipurpose cereal crop that provides food for human, feed for animals, and raw material for the industries (Khaliq et al., 2004). In developing countries, maize is consumed directly and serves as staple diet for about 200 million people. However, in processed form it is used as fuel (ethanol) and starch. Starch in turn involves enzymatic conversion into products such as sorbitol, dextrine, sorbic and lactic acid, and appears in household items such as beer, ice cream, syrup, shoe polish, 1
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INTEGRATED EFFECT OF BIOCHAR AND PK FERTILIZER ON MAIZE YIELD

AND SOIL PEROPERTIES

INTRODUCTION

Maize is an important summer cereal crop grown in Pakistan. At national level during

2008- 2009 the total area under maize cultivation was 1051.7 thousand hectares with a total

production of 3604.7 thousand tons and average grain yield of 3427 kg per hectare. The figures

in Khyber Pakhtunkhwaare 509 thousand hectares with a total production of 903.9 thousand tons

and average yield of 1776 kg hectare-1 (MINFAL, 2006). Maize is multipurpose cereal crop that

provides food for human, feed for animals, and raw material for the industries (Khaliq et al.,

2004).

In developing countries, maize is consumed directly and serves as staple diet for about

200 million people. However, in processed form it is used as fuel (ethanol) and starch. Starch in

turn involves enzymatic conversion into products such as sorbitol, dextrine, sorbic and lactic

acid, and appears in household items such as beer, ice cream, syrup, shoe polish, glue, fireworks,

ink, batteries, mustard, cosmetics, aspirin and paint (Plessis, 2003).Maize is one of the most

important sources of edible oil. Our country spends a huge amount of foreign exchange every

year to import edible oil. Starch is the main product of maize for which dextrin, liquid glucose,

solid glucose, powder glucose and crystalline dextrose are prepared (Masood et al., 2011).

Maize is an exhaustive crop having higher potential than other cereals crops to consume

large quantity of nutrients from the soil during growth (Chen et al., 1994). Intensive cultivation,

growing of exhaustive crops, use of imbalanced and inadequate fertilizers accompanied by

restricted use of organic manures have made the soils not only deficient in the nutrients, but also

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deteriorated the soil health, productivity is largely dependent on nutrient management. Maize

needs fertile soil to express its yield potential. Additions of organic manure not only supply the

plant nutrients but also improve soil health (Kannan et al., 2013).The reduction of maize yields is

a result of reduced fertilizer application and nitrogen use efficiency. Degraded soils have reduced

mineral availability as a result of reduced cation exchange capacity. These soils have low pH

levels and as a result large amount of nutrient loss especially nitrogen through leaching. The soils

are generally becoming sandy with reduced organic matter content (Cushion et al., 2010)

Biochar is a fine-grained, carbon-rich, porous product remaining after plant biomass has

been subjected to thermo-chemical conversion process (pyrolysis) at low temperatures (350–

600°C) in an environment with little or no oxygen (Amonette and Joseph, 2009). Biochar is

composedof, sulphur (S), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), carbon (C)and ash in different

proportions (Masek, 2009). The important quality of biochar that makes it attractive as a soil

amendment is its highly porous structure; potentially responsible for improved water retention

and increased soil surface area (Arias et al., 2008). Biochar addition to agricultural soils can

improve soil fertility, with the added bonus of climate change mitigation through carbon

sequestration (Cornelissen et al.,2013). Conversion of biomass into biochar stabilizes the carbon

(C) that is then applied to soil; diminish increased levels of CO2 in the atmosphere. Biochar

contains high concentrations of carbon that is recalcitrant to decomposition, so it may stably

sequester carbon (Glaseret et al., 2002). Biochar amendments alter soil physical properties

(Venterea, 2008). Addition ofbiochar to soils improves soil fertility and thus increase crop yield

of agricultural lands (Marris, 2006; Chan et al., 2007). Application of biochar has beneficial

effects on soil properties like increased water holding capacity, enhanced cation-exchange

capacity (CEC), higher pH, increased water retention, reduced leaching of nutrients and adding

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nutrients by itself (Lehman & Joseph, 2009).Biochar application increases crop yields

of maize (Kimetu et al., 2008).Biocharhas the potential to improve soil quality, crop yield

and to expand terrestrial soil carbon pool (Palumbo et al., 2009). Biochar added in the soil can

increase microbial activities (Pietikainenet al., 2000). Biochar application to soil helps in several

ways: less fertilizer is needed because biochar absorbs and slowly releases nutrients to

plants,biochar improves soil moisture retention and conserves water, securing the crops against

drought and reduces the methane emissions from paddy. It increases the soil microbes and

decreases the bulk density of soils. It supports better growth of roots and helps in reclamation of

degraded soils (Cushion et al., 2010).

Phosphorus is one of the most important nutrients for higher yield in larger quantity

(Chen et al.,1994) and controls mainly the reproductive growth of plant (Wojnowska et al.,

1995). P is the second most crop-limiting nutrient in most soils. It is needed for growth,

utilization of sugar and starch, photosynthesis, nucleus formation and cell division, fat and

albumen formation. Energy from photosynthesis and the metabolism of carbohydrates is stored

in phosphate compounds for later use in growth and reproduction (Ayub et al., 2002). It is

readily translocated within the plants, moving from older to younger tissues as the plant forms

cells and develops roots, stems and leaves (Ali et al., 2002). Adequate P results in rapid growth

and earlier maturity and improves the quality of vegetative growth.It is a fundamental nutrient

for plants, because it plays a vital role in many physiological and biochemical processes

(Mathews et al., 1998). It is a structural component of nucleic acids, many co-enzymes, phospho-

proteins and phospho-lipids (Ozanne, 1980).

Potassium (K) is an essential nutrient for plant growth and cannot be replaced by other

elements. The function of potassium is associated with increased root growth and tolerance to

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drought, cellulose formation, enzyme activity, photosynthesis, transportation of sugar and starch.

It also increase protein content of plants, maintain turgor, reduce water loss, and to protect plants

against diseases and nematodes (Thomson, 2008). In Pakistan most of soils contain relatively

large amounts of total K, however only a small fraction is present in available form to plants.

Most of the soils have <1 50 mg kg-1 of exchangeableK, which is considered a critical limit for

soil K deficiency (Bajwa and Rehman, 1 996).

The cultivable land is a limited resource and its expansion is not possible, the concern

regarding increased crop production on sustainable basis.There is a dire need of developing new

strategies,integrated use of organic and inorganic fertilizers to the soil, in order to

maintain and protect the current soil resources and to feed the present and future generations.

The issue is directly related to maintain the soil quality, refers to the soil’s capacity to support

crop growth without resulting in soil degradation or harming the environment. This study is

therefore proposed to assess the integrated effect of biochar and PK fertilizers on soil properties

and maize yield in Peshawar valley.

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OBJECTIVES:

Main objective

1. To assess the integrated effect of biochar and PK fertilizer on yield of maize and soil

quality.

Specific objectives

1. To determine the effect of biochar alone and in combination with PK fertilizer on yield

and yield component of maize.

2. To determine the effect of integrated use of biochar and PK fertlizer on nutrient uptake of

maize.

3. To determine the effect of biochar and PK fertilzer on soil properties (bulk density,

S.O.M and total nitrogen).

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REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Zhenget al(2010) conducted a field experiment on using biochar as a soil amendment for

sustainable agriculture. Two sources of biochars were used in the field trial. One was pyrolyzed

from corn cobs at 450 oC (biochar-A) and the other produced from wood chips at 450 Co

(biochar-B). The effect of three fertilizer treatments, no fertilizer at 0 lbs N acre -1, 50% fertilizer

application (81 lbs N acre-1), and 100% fertilizer application (192 lbs N acre-1) on corn yields and

concluded that application of biochar as a soil amendment has significantly increased crop

yields, even in the absence of nitrogen fertilizer the corn yields increased approximately 18%

and 23% for biochar-A and biochar-B, respectively, compared to the field without any treatment.

Thestudy showed that the addition of biochar may improve soil quality or release nutrients to

plants. With the application of nitrogen fertilizer, more significant increases in crop yields were

observed in both biochar treatments. When biochar was integrated with fertilizer, the crop yield

increased by approximately 54% and 39% for biochar-A and biochar-B in the 50% fertilizer

treatment respectively, and 72% and 44% in 100% fertilizer use, respectively.The results further

suggested that biochar as soil amendment can efficiently utilize the nutrients by holding

ammonium ions in soils and inhibiting nitrogen fertilizer nitrification.

Masood et al (2011) conducted a field experiment in order to investigate the effect of

different phosphorus levels, 0 (control), 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg ha -1 on the yield and yield

components of maize and concluded that different levels of phosphorus significantly affected

maize plant height, number of cobs plant-1, number of grains cob-1 and grain yield. Application of

P at the rate of 100 kg ha-1 resulted in maximum plant height (158 cm), number of cobs plant-1

(1.25), number of grain cob-1 (327), thousand grain weight (241 g), grain yield (2415 kg ha-1) and

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biological yield (7999 kg ha-1) as compared to the minimum values in control plots, 145cm, 0.80,

290, 188 g, 1305 kg ha-1 and 5753 kg ha-1, respectively. The study revealed that phosphorus

should be applied at the rate of 100 kg ha-1 for best grain yield in the agro-ecological conditions

of Peshawar.

Robertson et al (2011) conducted a pot experiment and planted lodgepole pine

(Pinuscontorta var. latifolia) or sitka alder (Alnusviridis ssp. sinuata) seeds in pots containing

field collected forest soils amended with 0, 5, or 10% (dry mass basis) biochar with and without

urea fertilizer (150 mg N kg-1) and concluded that Biochar raised soil pH, exchangeable cations

and cation exchange capacity in some treatments in both soils. Pine had greater biomass in

biochar + fertilizer treatments compared to control and fertilizer only treatments. Alder seedlings

had greater shoot biomass when grown in biochar-amended soils compared with control. The

study showed that biochar addition can enhance soil properties and the early growth of pine and

alder.

Imran et al (2012) conducted a field experiment on integration of biochar with organic

and inorganic sources of phosphorous for improvingmaize productivity in order to study the

integration of biochar with organic and inorganic sources of phosphorous for improving maize

productivity. Two levels of biochar (0 and 25 t ha-1) were allotted to main plots, while two

organic sources (Farmyard manure (FYM) and poultry manure (PM)) and the ratios of (organic

vs SSP) were applied to the field in such a combination that 100%, 75%, 50% and 25% of P was

obtained from the organic sources and the rest was compensated from the inorganic source SSP

and for making a total of 100 kg P ha-1 and concluded that Plots treated with 25 tones biochar ha-1

produced maximum grains ear-1 (366), 1000 grains weight (285.6 g) and grain yield (4013 kg ha -

1) as compared with control plots. The ratios showed that integration of phosphorous 50 %

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from organic and 50 % from inorganic phosphorous had maximum ear plant -1 (1.31),

grains row-1 (27), rows ear-1 (14.8), grains ear-1 (374), 1000 grains weight (295.2) and grain yield

(4330 kg ha-1). The interaction between biochar, organic sources and the ratios of (organic vs

SSP) revealed that application of biochar at the rate of 25 t ha-1 with 50 % from organic and 50 %

from inorganic phosphorous had maximum 1000 grains weight and grain yield.

Zhang et al (2012) conducted a field experiment to investigate the consistency of biochar

effects on rice production and greenhouse gases emissions. Biochar was applied before rice

transplantation at rates of 0, 10, 20 and 40 t ha−1, soil emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2),

methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) were monitored with closed chamber method at 7 days

interval throughout the whole rice growing season. The results showed that biochar amendment

increased rice productivity, soil pH, soil organic carbon, total nitrogen but decreased soil bulk

density. However, biochar amendment decreased nitrous oxide emission, overall GWP (global

warming potential) and GHGI (greenhouse gases emission) were observed significantly

decreased under biochar amendment as compared to control, ranging from 7.1% to 18.7% and

from 12.4% to 34.8%, respectively. However, the biochar effect on corbon intensity of rice

production was observed from 36.9% to 18.6%.

RashidandIqbal(2012) conducted a field study to evaluate the effect of phosphorus

fertilizer on the yield and quality of maize fodder on a clay loam (calcareous) soil and concluded

that yield and quality of maize fodder was improved with phosphorus application. Yield

increased up to 57 kg ha-1with the highest rate of phosphorus application @ 53 kg ha-1. The

quality traits (P concentration, dry matter, crude protein, crude fiber and ash contents were also

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improved). The study suggested that external and internal phosphorus requirements of

maize fodder to obtain 95 % relative yield were 0.25 mg L-1 and 0.23 mg L-1 respectively.

Cornelissen et al (2013) conducted a field experiment on the effect of biochar on maize

yield and soil characteristics in conservation farming sites,to assess use of a low dosage biochar

combined with CF minimum tillage with maize cob biochar and wood biocharon soils with

variable physical and chemical characteristics and concluded thatthe use low of dosage @4 tons

ha-1, had a strong positive effect on maizeyield (444%and 352%) of the fertilized reference plots

for maize and wood biochar respectively. The study further revealed that the increase in crop

yield was due to increased base saturation (from <50% to 60%) and cation exchange capacity

(CEC; from 2–3 to 5–9 cmolkg-1) and increased plant-available water (from 17% to 21%) as well

as water vapor uptake.

Masto et al(2013)conducted a field experiment to investigate the effects of lignite fly ash

(LFA) and biochar (BC) on soil nutrients, biological properties, and the yield of maize crop and

concluded that soil phosphorus (110%) and pottasium (64%) contents increased by lignite fly ash

+biochar application due to the presence of plant nutrient in biocharandlignite fly ash. Soil

enzymes like dehydrogenase activity (60.7%), alkaline phosphatase (32.2%), fluorescein

hydrolases activity (12.3%) and microbial biomass (25.3%) increased due to integrated

application of lignite fly ash and biochar probably due to the pH-buffering and sorption of the

organic matter to mineral surfaces to create a more reactive network for water, air and nutrient

interactions in the soil. The maize grain yield increased by 11.4% and for biochar, 28.1%.

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Widowati and Asnah (2013)conducted a field experiment to study the effect of biochar

on potassium fertilizer leaching and uptake,efficiency and effectiveness of K fertilization.The

experiment was comprised of control (without biochar and KCl), K1 (200 kg ha-1KCl), BK0

(biochar, withoutKCl), BK1/4 (biochar + 50 kg ha-1KCl), BK 1/2 (biochar + 100 kg ha-1KCl),

BK 3/4 (biochar + 150 kg ha-1KCl),and BK1 (biochar + 200 kg ha-1KCl) and concluded that

application increased the availability of nutrients by 69-89% for K+,61-70% for Ca++, 39-53% for

N total, 179-208% for P, and 14-184% for K.The study further revealed that the soleapplication

of biochar increased maize production (6.24 Mg ha-1) by 14% compared sole application of

KClfertilizer (5.45 Mg ha-1). The integrated use of biochar and 75% lower dosage of KCl

fertilizer applicationincreased maize production by 29%. Application of biochar and KCl

fertilizer at the rate of 50 kg ha-1 resulted inthe highest relative agronomic effectiveness (137%)

and K fertilizer efficiency (18%).

Wiqar et al (2013) conducted a field experiment on maize yield and soil properties as

influenced by integrated use of organic, inorganic and bio-fertilizers in a low fertility soil and

concluded that combining organic sources with 50% of recommended NPK fertilizers produced

the highest grain and biological yields of maize over the 50% NPK treatment, and obtained the

greatest net result when organic sources were combined with 50% of recommended NPK

fertilizers. Moreover soil analysis after crop harvest showed that soil organic matter, total N,

extractable P and K and EC were all greatest for treatment receiving organic sources with 50% of

recommended NPK fertilizers, on theother hand soil pH was lowest in the corresponding

treatments. Thestudy suggested that integrating organic sources with 50% of recommended NPK

fertilizers are appropriate for sustainable crop production on a low fertility soil.

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Carter et al (2013) carried out a pot experiment on the impact of biochar application on

soil properties and plant growth lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and cabbage (Brassica chinensis) and

concluded that application of biochar at the rates of 25, 50 and 150 g kg-1 to potting medium

increased the pH of the soil, and contained elevated levels of some trace metals and

exchangeable cations (K, Ca and Mg) in comparison to the soil with no biochar. The biochar

treatments were found to increase the final biomass, root biomass, plant height and number of

leaves in all the cropping cycles in comparison with no biochar treatments. The greatest biomass

increase due to biochar additions (903%) was found in the soils without fertilization, rather than

fertilized soils (483% with the same biochar application.

Kumar et al (2014) conducted a field experiment on impact of biochar on soil health and

concluded that as a soil amendmentbiochar can stabilize carbon belowground and potentially

increase agricultural and forest productivity withadded bonus of environmental function in the

mitigation of diffuse pollution and emissions of trace gases from soil. The study further revealed

thatbiochar alters soil properties, encourages microbial activity and enhances sorption of

inorganic and organic compounds, ability to increase the plant available water in the soil which

enables the plants to survive longer with water shortage, increase soil fertility and agricultural

yields, improve soil structure, aeration, water penetration, and land reclamation.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field experiment will be conducted to assess the integrated effect of biochar and PK

fertilizer on maize yield and soil properties at the New Research Farm of the University of

Agriculture Peshawar, during summer 2015. The experiment will be laid out in a RCB design

with three replications. The size of treatment plot will be kept 4m by 3.5m. There will be two

factors viz., biochar, phosphorus (SSP) and potassium (SOP) fertilizer. Biochar will be applied at

the rate of 0, 5, 10 and 15 t ha-1, P and K fertilizer at (0, 0), (50, 30) and (100, 60 kg ha -1). The

recommended dose of P and K for maize is 100, 60 kg ha1 respectively. The N (Urea) will be

applied as a basal dose to all treatment plots.

The experiment will be comprised of the following treatment combinations:

Treatment Biochar

(t ha-1)

Phosphorus

(kg ha-1)

Potassium

(kg ha-1)

T1 0 0 0

T2 0 50 30

T3 0 100 60

T4 5 0 0

T5 5 50 30

T6 5 100 60

T7 10 0 0

T8 10 50 30

T9 10 100 60

T10 15 0 0

T11 15 50 30

T12 15 100 60

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Maize variety Azam will be sown in rows 75 cm apart with plant to plant distance 10 cm after

proper seed bed preparation and experimental lay out as per plan. Biochar and P, K along with ½

of recommended dose of N will be applied before sowing and thoroughly mixed into the soil.

Remaining ½ N will be applied at knee height stage. All recommended cultural practices will be

followed throughout the growing period. Data will be recorded on number of cobs and grain

yield. Grain and plant samples will be collected from each treatment plot at harvest and will be

analyzed for NPK to determine the total nutrient uptake in maize. Data on 1000 grain weight and

shelling % age will also be recorded. Soil samples (0 – 15 cm) will be collected from each

treatment plot after crop harvest and analyzed for soil fertility parameters (S.O.M, total N, total

P, total K, and bulk density).

Agronomic Parameters

Data will be recorded on the following parameters

1. Plant height

From each treatment plot five maize plants will be selected randomly at maturity and

height will be measured in centimeters from soil surface to top and average plant height

will be recorded.

2. Number of cobs plant-1

Data on number of cobs plant-1 will be recorded by counting cobs in five randomly

selected plants in each plot and then average will be taken.

3. Thousand grain weight (g)

Data on 1000 grain weight will be recorded by counting 1000 grains at random and

weighed with the help of electronic balance.

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4. Biological yield (kg ha-1)

Biological yield will be recorded by weighing dry plants harvest from two central rows of

each plot and then converted into kg ha-1.

Biological yield= biolgical yield (kg ha−1)r−r distance x No of rows xrow length

x 10000m 2

5. Grain yield

Grain yield will be recorded after shelling dry ears of two central rows from each treatment

plot and will be converted into kg ha-1.

Grain yield (kg ha-1)¿grain yield of two rows

areaoftworowsx 10,000

6. Strove yield (kg ha-1)

Stover yield will be measured by following formula;

Total biological yield – grain yield = strove yield

Laboratory Analysis

Determination of soil pH (Mclean, 1982)and E.C (Richards, 1954)

The pH and E.C of soil samples will be determined in 1:5 soil suspensions. Ten gram of soil sample will

be mixed with 50 ml of distilled water and shaken for 30 minutes. The pH of the suspension will be read

using pH meter and E.C using E.C meter after proper calibration of the instruments.

Bulk density

The bulk density will be determined by core method as described by (Blake and Hartge,

1984). In this method the core sampler (100 cm3) will be inserted in soil up to certain

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depth to fill the core completely precautions will be followed to avoid the compression.

Soil will be removed from the sides of the core. The obtained soil from core sampler will

be dried at 105 c to a constant weight. The bulk density will be calculated as;

Bulk density= mass

volume

Determination of extractable P and K (Soltanpour And Shwab, 1977)

The extractable P in soil sample will be determined in AB-DTPA extract. In this method

10 g soil sample will be shaken with 20 ml of AB-DTPA solution for 15 minutes. After filtering

one ml aliquot will be treated with 5 ml ascorbic acid and make volume up to 25 ml. After 15

minutes of color development aliquot will be read for P on spectrophotometer at 880 nm

however, Pottash will read directly in the AB-DTPA extract on Flame photometer.

Determination of soil Organic matter (Neslson And Sommers, 1996)

One gram of air dried soil sample will be treated with 10 mL of 0.5 N K 2Cr2O7 and 20 mL of

concentrated H2SO4.After 30 minutes, 200 mL of distilled water will be added and filtered. After

filtering, 2-3 drops of orthophenantholein will be added and titrated against 0.5 N FeSO4.7H2O.

The volume of FeSO4.7H2O consumed will be noted and calculation will be done to measure the

percent organic matter in the soil by following formula;

%SOM ¿meq of K 2 Cr 2O7−meq of FeSO 4

weight of soil sample x0.69

Determination of total nitrogen (Bremmer, 1996)

Total N in soil sample will be determined by the Kjeldhal Method of Bremmer (1996).In this

method,0.25 g of the finely ground soil sample will be digested with 3 ml of concentrated H2SO4

in the presence of K2SO4, CuSO4 and Se in 100: 10: 1 ratio. After cooling, the digest will be

distilled with 20 ml of 40% NaOH solution into 5 ml boric acid mix indicator. The distillate will

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be titrated against 0.01 M HCl and the amount of N will be determined as 1 ml of 0.01 M HCl

equals 140 ug N.

Total % N¿(sample−blank ) x 0.005 x0.014 x 100x 100

weightofsoilsample

Determination of mineral nitrogen (Mulvaney, 1996)

Total mineral N in soil samples will be determined by steam distillation method as described

in Mulvaney (1996). In this method, 20 g of soil sample will be shaken with 100 ml of 1 M

KCl for one hour and filtered. Twenty ml of the filtrate will be distilled with MgO to recover

NH4-N or with MgO + devarday’s alloy to recover total mineral N. The distillate will be

collected in 5 ml boric acid mixed indicator solution and then titrated against 0.005 M HCl.

The total mineral N will be calculated as 1 ml of 0.005 M HCl equals to 70 ug N. The NO3-N

will be determined by subtracting the NH4-N from the total mineral N.

Plant Analysis

The total nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium will be determined by using standard

methods as stated below:

Determination of total N in plant sample

Total nitrogen in plant sample will be determined by thekjeldhal method of Bremmer

(1996)as described for determining total N in soil samples.

Determination of P and K in plant sample

Total phosphorus and K in plant samples will be determined by the wet digestion method

using percholoric and nitric acids as described by Kue (1996). In this method, 1.0 g plant sample

will be digested with 10 ml of concentrated HNO3 and 4 ml of perchloric acid at 100 – 350 C for

1 ½ hours. After cooling the digest will be filtered and diluted to 100 ml. One ml of the digest

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will be treated with 5 ml ascorbic acid and diluted to 25 ml with distilled water and read for P on

spectrophotometer at 880 nm. Potash will be read directly in the digest or flame photometer.

Statistical analysis and data management

The data will be statistically analyzed by using analysis of variance appropriate for

randomized complete block design. Means will be compared by using LSD test at 5% level of

significance, when the F-values will be significant (Steel and Terrie, 1984).

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