Top Banner
Issued 07 April 2004 © 2004 The New York Botanical Garden Copies of this issue [69(4)] may be purchased from the NYBG Press, The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458-5128, U.S.A.; [email protected]. Please inquire as to prices. 321 The Botanical Review 69(4): 321–376 Trees and Their Economic Importance M. K. SETH Department of Bio-Sciences Himachal Pradesh University Shimla 171 005, H.P., India I. Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 II. Introduction and Classification of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 III. The Economic Importance of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 A. Trees as a Source of Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 B. Trees in the Restoration, Reclamation and Rejuvenation of Denuded and Disturbed Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 C. Ecological, Ecodevelopmental and Environment Uses of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 1. Natural Purifiers of the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 2. Environment Screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 3. The Physical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 4. Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 5. Urban and Rural Afforestation Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 6. Road Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 7. Protection of Road Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 D. The Educational and Recreational Value of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 1. Shade and Shelter (or Avenue Trees) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 2. Ornamental Flowering Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 3. Ornamental Foliage Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 4. Ornamental Fragrance Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 5. Ornamental Fruiting Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 6. Ornamental Hedges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 7. Live Screens and Fences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 8. Sculpture and Topiary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 9. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 10. Landscaping and Bioaesthetic Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 11. Veneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 12. Art and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 E. Trees as a Source of Sustenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 1. Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 2. Sugars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 3. Starches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 4. Spices and Condiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 5. Nonalcoholic Beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 6. Fumitories, Masticatories and Narcotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 7. Medicines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 8. Essential Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
56
Welcome message from author
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
Page 1: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 321

Issued 07 April 2004© 2004 The New York Botanical Garden

Copies of this issue [69(4)] may be purchased from the NYBG Press,

The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY 10458-5128, U.S.A.;

[email protected]. Please inquire as to prices.

321

The Botanical Review 69(4): 321–376

Trees and Their Economic Importance

M. K. SETH

Department of Bio-Sciences

Himachal Pradesh University

Shimla 171 005, H.P., India

I. Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

II. Introduction and Classification of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

III. The Economic Importance of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

A. Trees as a Source of Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

B. Trees in the Restoration, Reclamation and Rejuvenation of Denuded and

Disturbed Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

C. Ecological, Ecodevelopmental and Environment Uses of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

1. Natural Purifiers of the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

2. Environment Screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

3. The Physical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

4. Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

5. Urban and Rural Afforestation Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

6. Road Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

7. Protection of Road Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

D. The Educational and Recreational Value of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

1. Shade and Shelter (or Avenue Trees) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

2. Ornamental Flowering Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

3. Ornamental Foliage Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328

4. Ornamental Fragrance Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

5. Ornamental Fruiting Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

6. Ornamental Hedges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

7. Live Screens and Fences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

8. Sculpture and Topiary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

9. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

10. Landscaping and Bioaesthetic Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

11. Veneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

12. Art and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

E. Trees as a Source of Sustenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

1. Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

2. Sugars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

3. Starches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

4. Spices and Condiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

5. Nonalcoholic Beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

6. Fumitories, Masticatories and Narcotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

7. Medicines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

8. Essential Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Page 2: Economic Value of Trees (2)

322 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

9. Fatty Oils and Vegetable Fats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

10. Waxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342

11. Soap Substitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

12. Vegetable Ivory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

13. Fodder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

14. Fuel, Bioenergy or Biofuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

15. Fertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

16. Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

17. Pulp and Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

18. Tannins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

19. Dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

20. Rubber and Other Latex Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352

21. Gums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

22. Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

23. Cork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

24. Food for Silkworms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

IV. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

V. Literature Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

I. Abstract

The biological and logical meaning of trees, which are one of the important woody plants of

our ecosystem, are reviewed in this article. Trees are mostly used for timber purposes, but in the

present article the utility of trees with respect to their importance in restoring, reclaiming and

rejuvenating denuded and disturbed soils, their ecological, ecodevelopmental and environmental

use, and their educational and recreational value in gardening, landscaping and bioesthetic plan-

ning is described. In addition, the importance of trees is discussed with reference to their value as

a source of sustenance: food, sugars, starches, spices and condiments, beverages, fumitories, mas-

ticatories and narcotics, medicines, essential oils, fatty oils and vegetable fats, waxes, soap substi-

tutes, vegetable ivory, fodder, fuel, bioenergy or biofuel, fertilizers, fiber, pulp and paper, tannins,

dyes, rubber and other latex products, gums, resins and cork. Lastly, the food plants of mulberry

and non-mulberry silkworms, which feed on the leaves of many forest trees, are mentioned.

II. Introduction and Classification of Trees

Trees are important to humankind not only economically, environmentally and industrially

but also spiritually, historically and aesthetically, for they sustain human life through direct and

indirect gains by providing a wide range of products for survival and prosperity. However, it is

not always easy to define “tree.” A tree is a large, long-lived (i.e., perennial) woody plant that

attains a height of at least 6 m (20 ft) at maturity in a given locality and usually—but not

always—has a single main self-supporting stem called a “trunk” or a “bole,” which gives off

spreading branches, twigs and foliage to make a crown (Venkatesh, 1976; Panshin & de Zeeuw,

1980; Hawkins, 1986). Since the diameter at breast height (dbh) of trees is determined interna-

tionally at 1.35 m (4.5 ft) above the ground, a tree must be unbranched—i.e., with a single

trunk—at least up to 1.5 m (5 ft) from the ground. But this definition does not cover the

following (Venkatesh, 1976), which are also considered trees:

• Palms are typically unbranched trees with only one trunk (columnar stem), called the

“caudex,” which ends in a crown of large leaves.

• Bamboos are trees without a main trunk but with a cluster of culms arising from the

underground rhizome. These culms are unbranched, with distinct nodes and internodes

that give them a jointed appearance.

Page 3: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 323

• The banana tree (plant) has only a thick false stem (pseudostem), which is not woody but

made up of a central core of soft tissues concealed by the fibrous and sheathing bases of

large leaves. Strictly speaking, the banana plant is a giant herb.

• Tree ferns like Cyathaea and Alsophila have erect rhizomes with generally unbranched

trunks, topped by a crown of graceful, feathery fronds that form a rosette at the apex.

• Bonsai—i.e., tailored or humanmade miniature or dwarfed living trees that have been

prevented from reaching their normal size—are grown in pots and kept in greenhouses,

drawing rooms, etc. This technique was first perfected by the Japanese.

In addition to the above definitions, the scientific distinction between trees, shrubs, lianas

and undershrubs or semishrubs is not always clear. For example, many species of trees—e.g.

Rhododendron spp., which are large under normal conditions—become shrubs when growing

near their altitudinal and latitudinal limits. Woody plants in which several branches arise from

near the base, giving the plant a bushy appearance, are called “shrubs.” Likewise, certain spe-

cies of figs (Ficus spp.) begin their life as woody climbers called “lianas” but eventually end up

as trees; i.e., they become arborescent. Similarly, Grewia scabrophylla at times is an under-

shrub, when exposed to annual fires; in other places, however, it grows into a tall shrub (Panshin

& de Zeeuw, 1980). The science dealing with the study of woody plants—i.e., trees and shrubs—

is called “dendrology.”

Trees can be classified in several ways: Depending upon their utility or end products, they

may be called “avenue,” “ornamental,” “shade bearing,” “fragrant,” “fruit bearing,” “medici-

nal” or “drug yielding,” “timber yielding,” “fodder yielding,” “nitrogen fixing,” “venerated,”

“fuel yielding,” “fiber yielding,” “multipurpose trees,” etc. Those trees that remain green in

their dormant season due to persistence of leaves are called “evergreen trees.” In such trees all

the leaves do not fall off simultaneously, and the plants are never leafless. Those trees in which

all the leaves of a plant fall at the end of one growing season one by one or simultaneously,

leaving the plant leafless in the dormant season, are called “deciduous trees.” All cone-being

trees are called “conifers” or “coniferous trees,” and all trees that are not cone bearing but are

flower bearing are called “flowering trees” or “broad-leaved trees.” Whereas conifers have

needle-shaped leaves, flowering trees have broad or flattened leaves.

A conifer usually has a conical appearance and has an excurrent stem; i.e., its main stem is

thickest at the base and gradually tapers toward the apex, with lateral branches in an acropetal

succession. A flowering tree usually has a dome-shaped appearance and a deliquescent or de-

current stem in which the main trunk divides at some distance from the ground into several

branches, which branch again and again, making the trunk appear to deliquese or melt away.

Ornamental trees that have showy flowers are called “ornamental flowering trees,” and

those with beautiful foliage and inconspicuous flowers are called “ornamental foliage trees.”

The former are usually deciduous; the latter, evergreen.

Those trees in which seeds are borne naked are called “gymnosperms” (from the Greek

gymnos [naked] and sperma [seed]), and those trees in which seeds are enclosed within an

ovary/fruit wall are called “angiosperms” (from the Greek angeon [vesicle] and sperma [seed]).

The angiospermic trees are further classified into dicotyledonous or dicot trees, if they have

two cotyledons in their seeds, and monocotyledonous or monocot trees, if they have only one

cotyledon in their seeds. Both gymnosperms and angiosperms are sometimes placed under one

division, called “spermatophyta,” “siphonagama” or “phanerogams.” “Spermatophytes” (from

the Greek sperma [seed] and phyton [plant]) are those plants that are seed bearing. “Siphona-

gama” (from the Greek siphon [tube] and gamous [marriage]) are those plants in which fertili-

zation occurs by means of a pollen tube. “Phanerogamous” (from the Greek phaneros [open]

and gamous [marriage]) are those plants in which reproduction is not concealed or hidden but

Page 4: Economic Value of Trees (2)

324 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

open; i.e., they bear flowers and produce seeds. Trees belonging to gymnosperms and an-

giosperms not only constitute the dominant component of any vegetation but also add to the

biodiversity or biological diversity of any particular region.

III. The Economic Importance of Trees

Trees represent one of the important components of each and every terrestrial ecosystem

and are a part of nature’s precious gifts. Some are deciduous; others are evergreen. Some have

beautiful flowers; others have beautiful fruits or foliage. Some are scented; others are ugly but

economically very important. The welfare of humankind is affected not only by their density

and diversity but also by their direct and indirect values, which are beyond estimation. In fact,

each letter of the plural word “TREES” has a logical meaning (Seth, 2002):

T Timber, the first and the foremost use of trees

R Restoration, reclamation and rejuvenation of denuded and disturbed soils

by using trees to control soil erosion and desertification, protect water-

sheds, improve soil nutrient status (by growing nitrogen-fixing trees) and

retain moisture in the soil

E Ecological, ecodevelopmental and environmental use of trees for effective

and efficient purification of the environment because trees act as oxygen

banks and eliminate air pollutants; for abating or moderating temperature,

noise and wind by planting trees as environmental screens, thus affecting

the microclimate; for harboring wildlife; for maintaining biodiversity; and

for conserving energy

E Educational and recreational value in gardening, landscaping, bioesthetic

planning, art, culture and religion

S Source of sustenance; i.e., food, fuel, fodder, fertilizer, fiber, medicine,

tannin, dyes, oils, etc.

A. TREES AS A SOURCE OF TIMBER

Trees are woody perennial plants, i.e. they are capable of producing wood through the

meristematic activity of the vascular cambium. The latter gives rise to secondary xylem

(nontechnically called “wood”) toward its inner side and to secondary phloem (nontechnically

called “bark”) toward its outer side. Wood produced by cycads is called “manoxylic.” It is not

compact—i.e., it is loose, not dense—with wide rays, pith and cortex and thus useless commer-

cially. Wood produced by conifers, taxads, Ginkgo biloba and dicots is called “pycnoxylic.” It

is compact and dense, with narrow rays, pith and cortex and hence commercially very useful.

The commercially useful woods are called “timbers,” and timber that is used for building pur-

poses is called “lumber.” Tectona grandis (teak) and Cedrus deodara (deodar) are, respec-

tively, considered the best angiospermic and gymnospermic timbers in the world.

Woods obtained from timber trees are used for construction and other miscellaneous pur-

poses like agricultural implements, boat and ship building, carts and carriages, carving and

turnery, cooperage (barrel making), electric poles, engraving and printing blocks, furniture and

cabinet work, matches and match boxes, mathematical instruments, musical instruments, pack-

ing cases and boxes, pencil and pen holders, picture framing, railway carriage and wagon

building, railway sleepers, rifle parts, shoe heels and boot lasts, shuttles, sports goods, tea

chests, toys, etc. For examples of these one may consult Anonymous (1970–1972, 1983) and

Trotter (1940, 1944).

Page 5: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 325

B. TREES IN THE RESTORATION, RECLAMATION AND REJUVENATION OF

DENUDED AND DISTURBED SOILS

Planting trees on denuded and waste land, along roads, railway tracks, deserted areas, wa-

tersheds, etc. protects soil from erosion by wind or water by firmly binding it with roots and by

diverting runoff during rains. The sides of the roads, railway tracks and watersheds can thus be

protected. Desertification can likewise be controlled by planting trees. The trees also retain

moisture in the soil, and if nitrogen-fixing trees are grown, the nutrient status of the soil can be

enriched tremendously.

The sap of Cassia fistula (amaltas) leaves contains certain chemicals that have a purgative

action on the digestive organs of grazing animals like goats, cows and buffalo, and thus amaltas

is well suited for planting on wastelands. Wild fruit trees like Zizyphus jujuba (ber) and Morus

alba (toot) can also be propagated on wastelands in and around villages.

C. ECOLOGICAL, ECODEVELOPMENTAL AND ENVIRONMENT USES OF TREES

1. Natural Purifiers of the Environment

Plants, including shrubs and trees, act as biological filters by helping cleanse the environment.

They are the best natural purifiers of environment pollution; i.e., they improve the quality of the air

we breathe. First, they act as the oxygen banks on this planet. They play an important role in

maintaining the oxygen cycle, which is essential for the survival of all forms of life. Second, they

may help reduce pollution. Leaves can absorb gaseous pollutants on their surfaces, especially if

their surfaces are waxy, spiny or hairy. In addition, stems, branches and twigs can intercept particu-

lates. Third, they reduce oxides of carbon in the air, can also fix atmospheric nitrogen, disintegrate

waste and act as sinks of pollution or pollutant scavenges by absorbing and metabolizing toxic

gases and heavy metals (Chakraverty & Jain, 1984).

Different species as well as individuals within a species can vary in their tolerance to pollut-

ants. High concentrations of pollutants can damage and even kill many tree species. Trees that

are particularly sensitive could be used as early warnings of high pollution levels.

2. Environmental Screens

When properly grown in urban and rural areas, trees act as wind barriers by decreasing the

force of the wind and reducing the level of noise from highways and other sources. Even

individual trees, if strategically planted around a house, can provide relief from noise and

annoying lights at night. Trees thus reduce stress on human beings. Ecologically they act as

wind breaks and shelter belts, thus providing protection against soil erosion and a defense

against encroachment by seas, floods and deserts.

3. The Physical Environment

Trees help to reduce temperature by providing shade and by intercepting, absorbing and

reflecting solar radiation, especially in warmer places, where there is year-round warmth and

sunshine (Schubert, 1979). Trees also function as natural air conditioners by evaporating water

from their leaves through the process of transpiration. A single large, well-watered city tree can

transpire about 380 liters (100 gallons) of water in one day, thus producing the cooling effect of

five average room air conditioners running 20 hours a day (Schubert, 1979). Trees thus im-

prove the microclimate; i.e., they help control and stabilize the climate of the region and of the

world as a whole. A single tree standing alone may not affect the overall surrounding much, but

Page 6: Economic Value of Trees (2)

326 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

a belt or groups of trees or many trees scattered throughout the neighborhood can be quite

effective (Schubert, 1979).

4. Wildlife

Trees, both native and ornamental, harbor wildlife. They directly feed and house the major-

ity of world’s creatures and animals like insects, birds, small mammals and reptiles, which we

need in order to live. Thus they play a major role as one of the important components of natural

and humanmade biodiversity.

5. Urban and Rural Afforestation Programs

Large-scale urbanization and industrialization have led to the development of severely eroded,

barren and denuded areas, rocks, cliffs, etc. on which direct plantation of trees is difficult. In

such cases shrubs act as the primary colonizers of denuded areas. The successful growths of

shrubs create favorable conditions for tree growth by way of retaining moisture, increasing soil

nutrient status and sheltering the trees from frost, wind and other biotic interferences through

the process of secondary succession. The whole forest-management program can thus bring

not only greenery to the Himalayas and other urban and rural regions of India but also stability

to the environment by restoring the ecological balance (Maithani et al., 1991).

6. Road Safety

The presence of shrubs and trees along roadsides makes their edges and curves conspicu-

ous, thus making a natural guide for safe driving, and for this purpose the lower portions of

their stems are usually painted white (Chakraverty & Jain, 1984).

7. Protection of Road Surfaces

The semimelting of tar or bitumen in summers, cracking of road surfaces during hot weather

and mechanical damage to road surfaces by heavy downpours and hailstorms can largely be

prevented by growing roadside trees with thick crowns (Chakraverty & Jain, 1984).

D. THE EDUCATIONAL AND RECREATIONAL VALUE OF TREES

Increased urbanization and industrialization have resulted in isolating humans from nature.

Trees can help make urban areas green, livable and beautiful. Trees with colorful flowers or

foliage add extra attractiveness. They are the dominant elements of gardens and contribute

substantially to the garden atmosphere.

According to Kohli (1996), the comfortable urban life needs better avenue trees and shrubs,

because:

• An agricultural component is not feasible;

• Comfortable temperatures and microclimates for residents are needed;

• Pollutants that pose major problems are to be removed;

• Cool shade is needed in summer; and

• Dense populations need vegetation for gaseous exchange.

Trees are thus a source of pleasure and recreation when they are planted along roads and

railway tracks and in botanical gardens, arboreta, city parks, squares, home gardens, public

places, industrial areas, etc. The cultivation of trees for their aesthetic or recreational value is

Page 7: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 327

known as “arboriculture.” In an ornamental garden they are usually planted either as specimen

trees or in groups. The educational and recreational value of trees can be studied under the

following headings:

1. Shade and Shelter (or Avenue Trees)

The concept of avenue planting is as old as the vedic period. It was during the period of

Ashoka (260 B.C.) and later during the reign of Kanishka (A.D. 78–101) and the Mughals,

however, that the foundations of proper roadside avenues were laid.

When properly grown, the tall, fast-growing and majestic trees with thick foliage along

roadsides provide not only shade for pedestrians and travelers but also shelter for stray animals

from scorching heat, wind, rain, etc. Species selected for such purposes should not be thorny or

prickly (Chakraverty & Jain, 1984).

The other important factors for selection of roadside trees, according to Chakraverty and

Jain (1984) and Randhawa (1961, 1965–1983), are:

• The trees should be branchless up to 3–4 m above the soil surface so that vehicles can

pass easily, particularly on narrow roads.

• On national highways or on very wide roads, two to three deep rows of large trees

spaced 5–6 m apart should be planted. These trees should have good, dense crowns so

they can provide adequate shade and protection from rain, sun and hail.

• Dwarf trees or medium-sized-to-large shrubs, preferably ever blooming in nature, should

be selected for boulevards and road medians.

• The trees should not have spreading crowns that might obstruct the growth of trees in

the opposite row.

• Trees on the two sides of the road should not be opposite each other; they should be

planted alternately.

• Fuel-wood species and fodder species should not be chosen for the roadsides, because

they are likely to be lopped, pruned and chopped by the neighboring inhabitants, thus

destroying the landscaping and giving the avenue a shabby appearance.

• The root system of the trees should be neither very spreading nor very shallow. Trees

with very robust and spreading root systems damage the masonry work of roads, foot

paths and adjacent buildings. On the other hand, trees with shallow root system, like

Millingtonia hortensis (mahanim), topple over in storms and obstruct traffic. Thus trees

with deep root systems should be selected.

• Trees like Ficus benghalensis (bat or barghad) have hanging aerial roots, which would

obstruct traffic and pedestrians, so they should not be selected.

• Soft-wooded and brittle trees like Albizia lebbek, Cassia siamea, Eucalyptus spp., Eugenia

jambolana, Ficus glomerata, Millingtonia hortensis and Sygyzium cumini should not be

planted along roadsides, for they tend to break in storms and block traffic.

• During summers and rainstorms, protection from sun and rain are most needed, so trees

that shed their leaves during these periods should not be planted. Moreover, fallen leaves

in the rainy season make the road slippery and block the drainage system.

• Various species of Acacia, Zizyphus, etc., which are prickly or thorny, should not be

planted because the fallen prickles or thorns cause trouble for pedestrians, animals and

people and may also damage the tires of cycles and vehicles.

• The trees should have the ability to withstand winter lopping, when little shade is re-

quired. These loppings can be utilized as fuel wood (Singhal & Khanna, 1991).

• Too many species should not be mixed within short distances, particularly on roads

away from cities and towns.

Page 8: Economic Value of Trees (2)

328 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Randhawa (1965–1983) recommended avenue trees for planting purposes: as foliage trees

for outer avenues for town roads, Albizia procera (safed siris), Anthocephalus cadamba (kadam),

Averrhoea carambola (kamrak), Bassia latifolia (mahua), Callistemon lanceolatum (lal botal

brush), Dalbergia sissoo (shisham), Eugenia operculata, Mangifera indica (mango), Melia

azedarach (drek), Pithecolobium saman (rain tree), Platanus orientalis (chinar), Polyalthia

longifolia (ashoka), Putranjiva roxburghii, Sterculia alata, Tamarindus indica (imli), etc; as

flowering trees for inner avenues for town roads, Bauhinia purpurea (gulabi kachnar),

B. variegata (kachnar), Cassia fistula (amaltas), Colvillea racemosa (kilbili), Gliricidia maculata

(madre tree), Grevillea robusta, Jacaranda mimosaefolia (nili-gul-mohur), Lagerstroemia flos-

reginae (jarul, crepe flower), L. thorelli (barri sanwani), Peltophorum ferrugineum (ivalvagai),

Poinciana regia (gul mohur), Spathodea nilotica (fountain tree), etc.

2. Ornamental Flowering Plants

Ornamental trees that have showy flowers are called “ornamental flowering trees.” India

has the largest number of flowering trees in the world, indigenous as well as exotic, that can be

utilized for beautifying towns. Many trees bloom at a particular season and appear more effec-

tive when planted in groups.

In small and medium-sized gardens, ornamental trees should be planted only in the bound-

aries as foundation planting. An “arboretum” is a garden of trees. While planting a tree, beauty

and utility should be combined deftly. The best time for planting trees is during the rainy

season.

Dwarf ornamental flowering trees suitable for small compounds are Acacia auriculiformis,

Alangium lamarckii, Bauhinia purpurea, B. variegata, Brownea ariza, B. coccinea, Butea

frondosa, Cassia fistula, C. javanica, C. marginata, Cochlospermum gossypium, Cordia

sebestena, Crataeva religiosa, Erythrina blakei, E. cristagalli, Gliricidia maculata, Guaicum

officinale, Holarrhena antidysentrica, Jacaranda mimosaefolia, Kleinhovia hospita, Lager-

stroemia thorelli, Mesua ferrea, Milletia auriculata, Plumeria alba, P. rubra, Pongamia glabra,

Saraca indica, Solanum wrightii, Spathodea nilotica, Sterculia colorata, Tecomella undulata,

Thespesia populnea, etc. (Cowen, 1950; Randhawa, 1965–1983).

For large compounds, some examples of beautiful flowering trees are Anthocephalus indicus,

Bombax malabaricum, Cassia grandis, C. nodosa, Chorisia speciosa, Colvillea racemosa,

Lagerstroemia flos-reginae, Millingtonia hortensis, Peltophorum ferrugineum, Poinciana re-

gia and Sterculia colorata (Cowen, 1950; Randhawa, 1965–1983).

Trivedi (1983, 1987, 1996) recommended the following small trees for the hills: Acacia

alata (with bright yellow flowers), A. dealbata (with light yellow flowers), Bauhinia variegata

(with rose, purple and white flowers), Magnolia grandiflora (with white flowers), Prunus

serrulata (with pink flowers), Rhododendendron arboreum (with crimson flowers) and R. cam-

panulatum (with magenta flowers). Trivedi also recommends a few trees for cultivation on the

plains.

3. Ornamental Foliage Plants

Ornamental trees with beautiful foliage but inconspicuous flowers are called “ornamental

foliage trees.” Common examples are palms, evergreen conifers, Acacia auriculiformis, Averrhoa

carambola, Callistemon lanceolatum, Citharexylum subserratum, Diospyros embryopteris,

Eucalyptus spp., Ficus infectoria, F. retusa, Kigelia pinnata, Phyllanthus emblica, Polyalthia

longifolia, Putranjiva roxburghii, Tamarindus indica and Terminalia arjuna (Randhawa, 1961,

1965–1983).

Page 9: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 329

Evergreen shrubs and trees provide a structure for the garden during winter months. With-

out them the garden will look bleak and dull, when the foliage of most herbaceous perennials

disappears, leaving only bare stems and branches.

In temperate regions conifers constitute the most important and showy group of plants.

Many varieties show symmetrical growth and are frequently used in formal gardens. They keep

their ornamental effect even in winter, when most broad-leaved trees shed their leaves. Com-

mon examples of foliage trees in the hills are the species of Araucaria, Cryptomeria and

Cupressus (Trivedi, 1983, 1987, 1996).

4. Ornamental Fragrance Plants

Many trees combine beauty with fragrance. Some trees that are commonly cultivated for

scent or fragrance are Acacia podalyriaefolia, Anthocephalus indicus (kadam), Biota orientalis,

Citrus aurantifolium (lime), C. japonica, C. limon (lemon), Cymphomandra betacea, Garde-

nia lucida, G. latifolia, G. resinifera (dekamali), Galphimia gracilis, Grewia asiatica, Luculia

gratissima, Magnolia grandiflora (bara champa), Michelia champaca (champa or champak),

Mimusops elengi (maulsari), Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (harsinghar), Plumeria tuberculata, Rhodo-

dendron formosum and Sambucus nigra (Randhawa, 1961). In home gardens these can be

planted opposite windows and doors of bedrooms, so that one can enjoy their fragrance in the

evening, particularly in summer months (Randhawa, 1961, 1965–1983; Trivedi, 1990).

Some examples of fragrant ornamental trees for large compounds are Dillenia indica,

Mimusops elengi and Pterospermum acerifolium (Randhawa, 1965–1983).

Trees with snow-white, fragrant flowers against the background of dark green foliage are

very delightful for moonlit gardens. Some common examples in this category are Bauhinia

alba, Citharexylum subserratum, Crataeva religiosa, Delonix regia, Dillenia indica, Erythrina

variegata, Gardenia resinifera, Gliricidia alba, Holarrhena antidysentrica, Lagerstromia in-

dica (white), Millingtonia hortensis, Mimusops elengi, M. hexandra, Plumeria acutifolia, P. alba,

Prunus domestica and Wrightia tinctoria (Randhawa, 1961).

5. Ornamental Fruiting Plants

Trees commonly grown for their beautiful, attractive and colorful fruits are Citrus micro-

carpea, Hazara orange and other Citrus spp., papaya (Carica papaya), peach (Prunus persica),

pineapple (Ananas comosus), tree tomato (Cymphomandra betacea), banana (Musa

paradisiaca), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), quince (Cydonia oblonga), loquat (Eriobotrya

japonica), common spindle tree (Euonymus europeaus), gean (Prunus avium), pomegranate

(Punica granatum) and jujube (Zizyphus jujuba) (Lunardi, 1987; Trivedi, 1983, 1987, 1996).

Planting of trees in and around children’s park can provide vitamins and nutrients to children

when they eat the fruit as they play.

6. Ornamental Hedges

Hedges provide a natural background for a garden, as a frame does for a painting. The

hedge may be external or internal. An external hedge—live fence—is usually tall, measuring

about 1.5–2.5 m (5–9 ft) high, and it may replace the compound wall; thus it demarcates the

garden from the public road. It also serves as a protective screen against wind and noise pollu-

tion. Species selected for external hedges should be tall, fast-growing and evergreen, with thick

and dense foliage from the base to the top. The blooms should not clash with the general color

scheme. An internal hedge that separates parts within a garden is not as tall. It is usually 30–90

Page 10: Economic Value of Trees (2)

330 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

cm (1–3 ft) tall. Species that are capable of growing under adverse conditions and require

minimal maintenance are selected for both types of hedges.

Species of Biota, Cupressus, Ilex, Juniperus, Thuja, etc. are used for evergreen hedges. The

following flowering trees may be used for making colorful hedges: Bauhinia acuminata,

Bougainvillaea spp., Erythrina indica, Hibiscus spp., Meyenia erecta, Plumbago capensis,

Sesbania aegyptica, Strobilanthes spp. and Tecoma stans (Randhawa, 1961).

7. Live Screens and Fences

In cities and towns trees can be utilized for screening the premises of adjacent houses and

thus maintaining privacy. Servants’ quarters and other unsightly views like manure pits, potting

areas, etc. in large gardens can also be screened by growing closely spaced, small trees. Species

with prickles or spines or having stiff branches or both with nonedible leaves should be pre-

ferred, according to the requirements. Ideally, the species selected for this purpose should be

fast growing, of medium height, long-lived, capable of growing under adverse conditions and

with minimal maintenance requirements (Singhal & Khanna, 1991).

8. Sculpture and Topiary

Topiary is an art of shaping hedges—shrubs—and trees into an ornamental form like a ball,

spiral, table, cube, etc., into a figure like a bird, beast or human or into a theme such as a farmer

with a pair of bullocks. A formal garden is most suitable for topiary work because it creates an

Old World appearance. The most common examples used for such purposes are Buxus

sempervirens, Cupressus macropoda, Murraya exotica and Taxus baccata (Randhawa, 1961,

1965–1983).

9. Education

Ornamental trees are not only a source of recreation and pleasure but also educate people,

when visitors in gardens and travelers along roadsides wish to know the names and uses of

such trees. If roads and gardens are named after some dominant shrub and tree species, the

work of making them familiar to the public becomes easier (Chakraverty & Jain, 1984).

10. Landscaping and Bioaesthetic Planning

Shrubs and trees improve the landscape. For example, trees along roadsides are a source of

beauty not only to the road but also to the length and breadth of the area through which the road

runs. Along roads, fuelwood, fodder and thorny species should not be chosen. Shrubs and trees

constitute two of the most important components of landscaping and bioaesthetic planning of

urban cities and towns. Many species bloom at a particular season and appear more effective

when planted in groups (Randhawa, 1961, 1965–1983).

As far as possible, native species should be selected, because, apart from their aesthetic

value, scenic beauty and immediate utility, these trees involve reduced maintenance costs, pre-

serve biological diversity and prevent species extinction. They are also a valuable national

asset and a reserve of timber and fuel in case of emergency. It is estimated that India has the

largest number of flowering trees in the world, indigenous as well as exotic, that can be utilized

for beautifying cities and towns.

It may be mentioned here that bioaesthetic planning of ornamental trees has a close relation-

ship with plant ecology. Plants must be planted only in those localities or habitats that are

Page 11: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 331

similar to their natural habitats or surroundings, because the texture of the soil, the availability

of water resources, the amount of rainfall, the presence of rivers, canals and tanks and the

temperature play an important role in the growth and survival of the trees (Randhawa, 1965–

1983).

Trees must be planted in habitats that are similar to their natural surrounding—i.e., that

have approximately the same edaphic and climatic conditions—otherwise either dwarfing may

occur or the species will not be able to survive. Some examples of ornamental flowering trees

suited to moist localities are Amherstia nobilis, Bauhinia purpurea, Brownea ariza, B. coccinea,

Cassia javanica, C. marginata, C. nodosa, Colvillea racemosa, Guaicum officinale, Lager-

stroemia flos-regine, L. thorelli, Milletia auriculata, Poinciana regia, Peltophorum ferrugineum,

Pithecolobium saman, Saraca indica and Solanum wrightii (Randhawa, 1965–1983).

Examples of ornamental flowering trees suited to dry localities are Acacia auriculiformis,

Butea frondosa, Cassia fistula, Cochlospermum gossypium, Cordia subestena, Erythrina blakei,

E. indica, Jacaranda mimosaefolia, Melia azadirachta, Plumeria alba, Pongamia glabra,

Spathodea campanulata, S. nilotica, Sterculia colorata, Tecomella undulata and Thespesia

populnea (Randhawa, 1965–1983).

Drought-resistant trees suitable for arid regions are Albizia lebbek (siris), Butea frondosa

(dhak), Cassia fistula (amaltas), Casuarina equisetifolia (beefwood tree), Eucalyptus citriodora

(safeda), Melia azedarach (Persian lilac, bakain), Morus indica (mulberry), Phoenix dactylifera

(khajoor), Prosopis juliflora (mesquite bean), Salvadora persica (pilu), etc. (Randhawa, 1965–

1983).

Some examples of salt-resistant trees are Azadirachta indica (neem), Butea frondosa (dhak),

Bassia latifolia (mahua), Eucalyptus citriodora (safeda), Phoenix dactylifera (khajoor), Phyl-

lanthus emblica (amla), Psidium guava (amrood), Tamarix articulata (farash) and Thespesia

populnea (bhendi) (Randhawa, 1965–1983).

Trees for swamps and marshy areas are Eucalyptus rostrata, Salix tetrasperma (willow),

S. babylonica, Sapium sebiferum (makhan), Tamarix articulata (farash), plantain, etc. (Ran-

dhawa, 1965–1983). Sapium sebiferum, known as Chinese tallow tree, is a medium-sized,

deciduous tree whose leaves display lovely autumn tints. It is used for stream training in the

Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh.

11. Veneration

From one end of the world to the other we can trace the extreme power of trees over the

minds of humans. Christmas trees, May trees, pomegranates, Ginkgo biloba, bo trees, etc. can

be cited as occupying a place in the religious and ceremonial activities in diveve cultures through-

out the world. In India alone 99 trees are venerated (Bennet et al., 1992). In ancient times rishis

worshiped several trees as Vrikshadevta and Vanadevta. Groves of trees and flower gardens

were tended with loving care and were called “vrikshavatika” and “pushpavatika,” respec-

tively. Several such protected forest groves or gardens, including Ashoka Vatika, Chitrakoot

and Panchvatti, were known in ancient India.

12. Art and Culture

A tree laden with flowers and/or fruits is a great joy to the beholder. Native trees have a

special place in Indian folk songs. Immortal poets and writers like Valmiki and Kalidasa have

sung songs in praise of trees. Even folktales have celebrated the importance and beauty of trees

in India (Randhawa, 1961, 1965–1983).

Page 12: Economic Value of Trees (2)

332 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Indian trees have a personality of their own. The beauty of Indian trees has been sketched or

painted by many artists (Randhawa, 1961, 1965–1983), like Bireshwar Sen and his wife,

Lakshmi, Sarbjeet Singh, Ganga Singh, Anil Roy Chowdhry, Gopal Ghosh, Manishi Day,

Madhava Menon, Devyani Kanwal Krishna, Sudhir Khastgir, Francis Brunell, Madame Sass

Brunner and her daughter Elizabeth, A. K. Gohel, R. A. Eklund, E. Blatter, P. N. Sharma, A. K.

Sharma, H. Smith, Margaret Thacker, G. Millard (Lady Kinnear), Sister Marychionia, Lady

Douie, S. H. Prater, H. Robinson and H. N. Wandrekar. Many of their works have been in-

cluded in books on Indian botany (Seth et al., 2002).

Kalidasa observed that the women of Alkapuri rubbed the dust of lodhra flowers on their

cheeks, maghya flowers decorated their temples, kuruvaka flowers hung from the knots of their

hair and sirisha flowers decorated their ears. Elsewhere, in the monsoon kadamba flowers

glorified women’s heads. The women carried pink lotuses in their hands, decorated their tress

knots with white champaka, wore bracelets of jasmine around their wrists and wore garlands of

jasmine and bela (Randhawa, 1961, 1965–1983).

India’s vast, rich Sanskrit literature contains the names of several trees, including the orna-

mental trees arjuna (Terminalia arjuna), asoka (Saraca indica), champaka (Michelia champaca),

chuta (Mangifera indica), devadaru (Cedrus deodara), gandharaja (Gardenia florida), kadamba

(Anthocephalus cadamba), karnikara (Pterospermum acerifolium), ketaki (Pandanus odora-

tissimus), kimsuka (Butea frondosa), kovidara (Bauhinia purpurea), kunda (Jasminum

pubescens), kuravaka (Lawsonia alba), lodhra (Symplocos racemosa), mandara (Erythrina

indica), naga kesara (Mesua ferrea), narikela (Cocos nucifera), parijataka (Nyctanthes arbor-

tristis), punnaga (Calophyllum inophyllum), sala (Shorea robusta), krishna sirish (Albizia

amara), pitsirish (Albizia lebbek), tala (Borassus flabelliformis) and vakula (Mimusops elengi)

(Randhawa, 1961; Anonymous, 1986; Dwivedi, 2000).

E. TREES AS A SOURCE OF SUSTENANCE

Trees are one of the major sources of sustenance: food; sugars; starches; spices and condi-

ments; beverages; fumitories, masticatories and narcotics; medicines; essential oils; fatty oils

and vegetable fats; waxes; soap substitutes; vegetable ivory; fodder; fuel, bioenergy or biofuel;

fertilizers; fiber; pulp and paper; tannins; dyes; rubber and other latex products; gums; resins;

and cork. These are described separately under the following headings:

1. Food

Trees as a source of food include edible fruits, vegetables and tree legumes. Botanically, a

fruit is a matured or ripened ovary, along with its contents and adhering accessory structures, if

any. The seeds inside the fruits are the fertilized ovules. Sometimes seeds are formed without

fertilization. This phenomenon is called “agamospermy,” a kind of parthenogenesis. A fruit that

matures without seed formation is called “parthenocarpic fruit.” Fruits are eaten raw. Veg-

etables are edible plants that store reserve food—mainly carbohydrates—in roots, stems, leaves

or fruits and that are eaten either cooked or raw. Legumes—or pods—are the proteinaceous

fruits of family Leguminosae. Some of these are edible. The important food-yielding trees are

depicted in Table I.

2. Sugars

Sugar is a plant product surpassed in importance only by cereals and potatoes. It is one of

the most important reserve food supplies, not only for the plant in which it is found but also

also because it serves as the most necessary food—source of energy—for humans. Sugar in

(Text continues on p. 337)

Page 13: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 333T

ab

leI

Tre

esas

aso

urc

eo

ffo

od

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Tre

ele

gu

mes

Alg

aro

ba

Pro

sop

isch

inen

sis,

P.

juli

flo

raM

imo

sace

aeF

low

ers

aso

urc

eo

fh

on

ey;

po

ds

use

das

sto

ckfe

ed

Car

ob

bea

nC

era

ton

iasi

liq

ua

Cae

salp

inia

ceae

Dri

edp

od

edib

le

Ho

ney

locu

stG

led

itsi

atr

iaca

nth

us

Cae

salp

inia

ceae

Po

ds

eate

nb

yan

imal

s

Tam

arin

do

rim

liTa

ma

rin

du

sin

dic

aC

aesa

lpin

iace

aeP

od

su

sed

for

tart

;fr

uit

sp

ulp

use

dfo

rch

utn

eyo

rsa

uce

Rai

ntr

eeo

rv

ilai

tisi

rris

Sa

ma

nea

sam

an

Mim

osa

ceae

Sw

eet

pu

lpo

fb

lack

po

ds

exce

llen

tfo

od

sto

ck

Nit

tas

Pa

rkia

big

lob

osa

mP.

fili

coid

ea,

P.

roxb

urg

hii

Mim

osa

ceae

Po

ds

and

seed

sed

ible

Man

ila

tam

arin

do

rja

ng

alja

leb

iP

ith

ecel

lob

ium

du

lce

Mim

osa

ceae

Ari

led

ible

Nu

tsw

ith

hig

hfa

tco

nte

nt

Bra

zil

nu

t,“n

egg

erto

es,”

“cre

amn

uts

”B

erth

oll

etia

exce

lsa

Lec

yth

idac

eae

Co

nta

in6

5–

70

%fa

tsan

d1

7%

pro

tein

s

Cas

hew

nu

to

rk

aju

An

aca

rdiu

mo

ccid

enta

leA

nac

ard

iaca

eS

wo

llen

ped

un

cle,

thal

amu

san

dco

tyle

do

ns

edib

le

Co

con

ut

or

nar

iyal

Co

cus

nu

cife

raA

reca

ceae

En

do

sper

med

ible

Fil

ber

tC

ory

lus

ave

lla

na

Co

ryla

ceae

Ker

nel

sed

ible

Haz

eln

ut

Co

rylu

sa

mer

ica

na

,C

.co

rnu

ta,

C.

colu

rna

Co

ryla

ceae

Ker

nel

sed

ible

Hic

ko

ryC

ary

ao

vata

Jug

lan

dac

eace

Ker

nel

sed

ible

Pec

ann

ut

Ca

rya

illi

no

ensi

sJu

gla

nd

acea

eK

ern

els

edib

le

Pil

inu

tC

an

ari

um

ova

tum

Bu

rser

acea

eS

eed

sed

ible

Pin

en

ut

Pin

us

edu

lis,

P.

ger

ard

ian

a(C

hil

go

za),

P.

kesi

ya,

etc.

Pin

acea

eC

oty

led

on

sed

ible

Wal

nu

tJu

gla

ns

nig

ra,

J.re

gia

Jug

lan

dac

eae

Co

tyle

do

ns

edib

le

Eu

rop

ean

bee

chF

ag

us

sylv

ati

caF

agac

eae

Jan

gli

bad

amTer

min

ali

aca

tap

pa

Co

mb

reta

ceae

Qu

een

slan

dn

ut

Ma

cad

am

iatu

rnif

oli

aP

rote

acea

e

Mac

adam

ian

ut

Ma

cad

am

iatu

rnif

oli

a,

M.

inte

gri

foli

aP

rote

acea

e

Nu

tsw

ith

hig

hp

rote

inco

nte

nt

Alm

on

dP

run

us

am

ygd

alu

sR

osa

ceae

See

ds

edib

le

Bee

chn

ut

Fa

gu

sg

ran

dif

oli

a,

F.

sylv

ati

caF

agac

eae

See

ds

edib

le

Pis

tach

ion

ut,

gre

enal

mo

nd

Pis

taci

ave

raP

ista

ciac

eae

See

ds

edib

le

Page 14: Economic Value of Trees (2)

334 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

I,co

nti

nu

ed

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Nu

tsw

ith

hig

hca

rbo

hy

dra

teco

nte

nt,

con

tin

ued

Aco

rnQ

uer

cus

spp

.F

agac

eae

Eat

enb

yan

imal

s

Ch

estn

ut

Ca

sta

nea

den

tata

Fag

acea

eS

eed

sed

ible

Fru

itv

eget

able

s

Av

oca

do

,al

lig

ato

rp

ear

Per

sea

am

eric

an

aL

aura

ceae

Fru

its

edib

le

Bre

adfr

uit

Art

oca

rpu

sa

ltil

isM

ora

ceae

Fru

its

edib

le

Jack

fru

it,

kat

-hal

Art

oca

rpu

sh

eter

op

hyl

lus

Mo

race

aeF

ruit

sed

ible

Po

me

fru

its

Ap

ple

,v

ern

.se

bM

alu

sp

um

ila

,sy

n.

M.

do

mes

tica

Ro

sace

aeF

lesh

yth

alam

us

edib

le

Pea

r,v

ern

.n

akh

Pyr

us

com

mu

nis

Ro

sace

aeF

lesh

yth

alam

us

edib

le

Qu

ince

Cyd

on

iavu

lga

ris

Ro

sace

aeF

lesh

yth

alam

us

edib

le

Ch

ines

ep

ear

or

san

dp

ear,

ver

n.

nas

hp

ati

Pyr

us

pyr

ifo

lia

var

.cu

lta

Ro

sace

aeF

lesh

yth

alam

us

edib

le

Med

lar

Mes

pil

us

ger

ma

nic

aR

osa

ceae

Fle

shy

thal

amu

sed

ible

Sto

ne

fru

its

Ap

rico

t,v

ern

.k

hu

rman

iP

run

us

arm

enia

caR

osa

ceae

See

ds

edib

le

Ch

erry

,sw

eet

Pru

nu

sa

viu

mR

osa

ceae

See

ds

edib

le

Ch

erry

,so

ur,

ver

n.

gil

asP

run

us

cera

sus

Ro

sace

aeS

eed

sed

ible

Ch

erry

,H

imal

ayan

Pru

nu

sce

raso

ides

Ro

sace

aeS

eed

sed

ible

Ch

erry

,H

imal

ayan

bir

dP

run

us

corn

uta

Ro

sace

aeS

eed

sed

ible

Ch

erry

,E

uro

pea

nb

ird

,v

ern

.ja

man

Pru

nu

sp

ad

us

Ro

sace

aeS

eed

sed

ible

Pea

ch,

ver

n.

aru

Pru

nu

sp

ersi

caR

osa

ceae

See

ds

edib

le

Plu

m,

ver

n.

alu

cha,

alu

-bu

kh

ara

Pru

nu

sd

om

esti

caR

osa

ceae

See

ds

edib

le

Cit

rus

fru

its

Sw

eet

ora

ng

e,m

usa

mb

iC

itru

ssi

nen

sis

Ru

tace

aeG

lan

du

lar

hai

rsar

isin

gfr

om

end

oca

rped

ible

;fr

uit

ish

esp

erid

ium

So

ur

ora

ng

e,k

hat

taC

itru

sa

ura

nti

um

Ru

tace

aeG

lan

du

lar

hai

rsar

isin

gfr

om

end

oca

rped

ible

;fr

uit

ish

esp

erid

ium

Man

dar

ino

ran

ge,

san

tara

Cit

rus

reti

cula

taR

uta

ceae

Gla

nd

ula

rh

airs

aris

ing

fro

men

do

carp

edib

le;

fru

itis

hes

per

idiu

m

Po

mel

o,

gra

pef

ruit

Cit

rus

pa

rad

isi

Ru

tace

aeG

lan

du

lar

hai

rsar

isin

gfr

om

end

oca

rped

ible

;fr

uit

ish

esp

erid

ium

Page 15: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 335L

emo

n,

bar

a(p

ahar

i)n

imb

uC

itru

sli

mo

nR

uta

ceae

Gla

nd

ula

rh

airs

aris

ing

fro

men

do

carp

edib

le;

fru

itis

hes

per

idiu

m

Lim

e,n

imb

uo

rk

agh

zin

imb

uC

itru

sa

ura

nti

foli

aR

uta

ceae

Gla

nd

ula

rh

airs

aris

ing

fro

men

do

carp

edib

le;

fru

itis

hes

per

idiu

m

Sh

add

ock

,ch

ako

tra

Cit

rus

ma

xim

aR

uta

ceae

Gla

nd

ula

rh

airs

aris

ing

fro

men

do

carp

edib

le;

fru

itis

hes

per

idiu

m

Oth

erfr

uit

s

Em

lic,

amla

Em

bli

cao

ffic

ina

lis

Eu

ph

orb

iace

aeF

ruit

rich

inta

nn

inan

dv

itam

inC

;co

m-

mo

nly

pic

kle

dan

du

sed

asm

edic

ine;

epic

arp

and

mes

oca

rpo

fd

rup

eed

ible

Pin

eap

ple

,an

anas

An

an

as

com

osu

sB

rom

elia

ceae

Mu

lber

ry,

tut,

shah

too

tM

oru

sa

lba

,M

.a

ust

rali

s,M

.n

igra

,M

.ru

bra

,et

c.M

ora

ceae

Su

ccu

len

tp

eria

nth

and

fles

hy

axis

edib

le

Mo

ney

jack

,la

ko

och

a,b

arh

al,

dah

rua

Atr

oca

rpu

sla

koo

cha

Mo

race

ae

Ch

ines

ed

ate,

juju

be,

ber

,b

adar

aZ

izyp

hu

sm

au

riti

an

aR

ham

nac

eae

Ep

icar

pan

dm

eso

carp

of

dru

pe

edib

le

Lim

eber

ry,

chin

in

aran

gi

Tri

ph

asi

atr

ifo

lia

Ru

tace

ae

Ch

erim

oy

a,H

anu

man

ph

al,

Lak

shm

anp

hal

An

no

na

cher

imo

lia

An

no

nac

eae

Juic

ym

eso

carp

so

fin

div

idu

alb

erri

esed

ible

Jam

bo

lan

,ja

mu

n,

jam

bab

aS

yzyg

ium

cum

ini

My

rtac

eae

Ep

icar

pan

dm

eso

carp

of

dru

pe

edib

le

Wil

dju

jub

e,jh

arb

erZ

izyp

hu

sn

um

mu

lari

aR

ham

nac

eae

Ep

icar

pan

dm

eso

carp

of

dru

pe

edib

le

Car

amb

ola

,k

arm

alA

verr

ho

eaca

ram

bo

laA

ver

rho

acea

e

Bae

l,b

ilv

aA

egle

ma

rmel

os

Ru

tace

aeIn

ner

fles

hy

lay

ero

fp

eric

arp

and

pla

cen

tae

edib

le

Cu

star

dap

ple

,sw

eet

sop

,sh

arif

aA

nn

on

asq

ua

mo

saA

nn

on

acea

eIn

ner

fles

hy

lay

ero

fp

eric

arp

and

pla

cen

tae

edib

le

Dat

e,p

ind

kh

aju

rP

ho

enix

da

ctyl

ifer

aA

reca

ceae

Per

icar

ped

ible

Fig

Fic

us

cari

caM

ora

ceae

Fle

shy

rece

pta

cle

or

thal

amu

sed

ible

Gu

ava,

amro

od

Psi

diu

mg

ua

java

My

rtac

eae

Infe

rio

r(o

rfa

lse)

ber

ries

(i.e

..p

eric

arp

isfu

sed

wit

hth

alam

us)

;ep

icar

p,

mes

oca

rpan

den

do

carp

edib

le

Juju

be,

ber

Ziz

yph

us

ma

uri

tia

na

Rh

amn

acea

eE

pic

arp

and

mes

oca

rped

ible

Lit

chi

Lit

chi

chin

ensi

sS

apin

dac

eae

Ari

led

ible

Lo

qu

atE

rio

bo

trya

jap

on

ica

Ro

sace

aeF

ruit

isa

po

me

wh

ere

thal

amu

sis

enla

rged

tofo

rmfl

esh

y,ed

ible

par

t;p

eric

arp

isca

rtil

agin

ou

san

den

clo

ses

seed

-bea

rin

glo

culi

Page 16: Economic Value of Trees (2)

336 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

I,co

nti

nu

ed

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Oth

erfr

uit

s,co

nti

nu

edM

ang

o,

aam

Ma

ng

ifer

ain

dic

aA

nac

ard

iace

aeF

lesh

ym

eso

carp

edib

le

Oli

ve

Ole

aeu

rop

aea

Ole

acea

eE

pic

arp

and

mes

oca

rped

ible

;co

mm

erci

alo

liv

eo

ilis

ob

tain

edfr

om

fru

itp

ulp

and

seed

s

Pap

aya,

pap

eeta

Ca

rica

pa

pa

yaC

aric

acea

e

Po

meg

ran

ate,

anar

Pu

nic

ag

ran

atu

mP

un

icac

eae

See

ds

wit

hju

icy

test

aed

ible

Sap

od

ila,

sap

ota

,ch

iku

Ma

nik

ara

ach

ras

Sap

ota

ceae

Ku

mq

uat

Fo

rtu

nel

laja

po

nic

aR

uta

ceae

Wil

dd

ate,

kh

aju

rP

ho

enix

sylv

estr

isA

reca

ceae

On

lyo

ne

carp

eld

evel

op

sin

toa

on

e-se

eded

,ed

ible

ber

ry

Go

rgan

nu

t,m

akh

ana

(see

ds)

Eu

rya

lefe

rox

Eu

ryal

acea

eS

eed

sed

ible

Ph

alsa

Gre

wia

sub

ina

equ

ali

sT

ilia

ceae

Du

rian

Du

rio

zib

eth

inu

sB

om

bac

acea

e

Gra

nad

illa

,p

assi

on

fru

itP

ass

iflo

raed

uli

s,P.

inca

rna

ta,

P.

lau

ri-

oli

a,

P.

lin

gu

lari

s,P.

mo

llis

sim

a,

P.

qu

ad

ran

gu

lari

s

Pas

sifl

ora

ceae

Ro

seap

ple

,g

ula

bja

man

Syz

ygiu

mja

mb

os

My

rtac

eae

Ep

icar

pan

dm

eso

carp

of

dru

pe

edib

le

Jap

anes

ep

ersi

mo

n,

kak

iD

iosp

yro

ska

kiE

ben

acea

e

Page 17: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 337

plants may occur in the form of sucrose (a disaccharide of glucose and fructose that, to humans,

tastes sweeter than either of its constituent monosaccharides) or cane sugar, glucose or grape

sugar and fructose or fruit sugar. It occurs in roots (beets, carrots, parsnips, etc.), stems (sugar-

cane, maize, sorghum, sugar maple), flowers (palms), bulbs (onion) and many fruits. The im-

portant trees yielding sugars of commercial interest are shown in Table II.

3. Starches

Starch, a complex carbohydrate, is a polymer of glucose units linked by alpha bonds. It

exists in two forms in plants: unbranched or linear polymers called “amyloses,” in which hun-

dreds of glucose molecules form coiled molecules of starch; and branched polymers called

“amylopectins,” in which only 40–60 glucose molecules that form branched chains do not coil.

Soluble starch (starch grains soaked in hot water until they burst and form a thin, clear

solution or paste) is used in the textile industry for strengthening fibers and cementing loose

ends together, making the thread smoother and easier to weave and thus giving a finish to the

goods. It is used as a mordant in calico printing and a thickener or vehicle for colors. It is also

used in laundry work, in toilet powders, in medicine, as a sizing agent in the paper industry, as

binding material for china clay and many derivatives or products like dextrin, glucose, indus-

trial alcohol and nitrostarch.

Starch is one of the main reserve foods for green plants, which store it in thin-walled cells in

the form of grains of different sizes, shapes and microscopic and physical characteristics. The

chief sources of commercial starch are maize, potato, wheat, rice, sago, cassava and arrowroot,

of which the last two are obtained from shrubs and sago is obtained from trees.

Arrowroot starch is obtained from the tubers of many tropical plants, including: Maranta arun-

dinacea (Marantaceae), yielding Indian arrowroot; Canna edulis (Cannaceae), yielding Queens-

land arrowroot; Curcuma angustifolia (Zingiberaceae), yielding East Indian arrowroot; and Zamia

floridanda (Cycadaceae), yielding Florida arrowroot. Only the last is a small, shrublike plant.

Sago starch is obtained from the starchy pith of the stems of Metroxylon sagu, of the family

Arecaceae. Other important species that yield sago starch are: Arenga saccharifera, Borassus

flabellifer, Caryota urens, Metroxylon koenigii, M. leave and M. rumphii, all Arecaceae; Manihot

esculenta, of the family Euphorbiaceae; and Cycas species, of the family Cycadaceae, a gym-

nosperm. Starchy pith is removed after the trees are cut, and, after washing, the starch is freed

by sedimentation. Dried, it is known as “sago flour”; it is made into a flour and then dried in the

sun or in ovens to obtain shiny, granular starch, called “pearl sago.” Both are used almost

entirely for food purposes, like khir, kanji, payasam, kesari, uppuma, vaangibath, sago curd

bhath, vadam (pappad), macaroni and spaghetti.

4. Spices and Condiments

Spices and condiments are flavoring agents obtained from plants. They are difficult to dis-

tinguish, so the terms are used interchangeably. Because they have little nutritive value, they

are not classified as foods. They contain essential oils, which impart flavor and aroma to food

and add greatly to the pleasure of eating. They stimulate the appetite and increase the flow of

gastric juices. For these reasons they are often referred to as “food accessories” or “adjuncts.”

The important spice- and condiment-yielding trees are shown in Table III.

5. Nonalcoholic Beverages

Beverage plants are those plants which yield beverages or drinks—nonalcoholic or alco-

holic—that are palatable and refreshing. Nonalcoholic beverages usually contain caffeine, an

Page 18: Economic Value of Trees (2)

338 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

II

Su

gar

-yie

ldin

gtr

ees

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Su

gar

and

sap

fro

msw

eet

sap

of

map

les

Su

gar

map

leA

cer

sacc

ha

rum

Ace

race

aeIn

cisi

on

sar

em

ade

thro

ug

hth

eb

ark

into

the

sap

wo

od

or

larg

ero

ots

and

sap

isco

llec

ted

,u

sual

lyin

Mar

chan

dA

pri

l,w

hen

tem

per

a-tu

res

reac

h2

5�F

atn

igh

tan

d5

5�F

du

rin

gth

ed

ay;

sug

aris

sucr

ose

Bla

ckm

aple

Ace

rn

igru

mA

cera

ceae

Su

gar

fro

mu

no

pen

edin

flo

resc

ence

so

fp

alm

s

Dat

ep

alm

Ph

oen

ixd

act

ylif

era

Ace

race

aeIn

wil

dd

ate

pal

msu

gar

iso

bta

ined

fro

mte

nd

eru

pp

erp

ort

ion

so

fth

est

em;

the

tip

so

fin

flo

resc

ence

so

rst

ems

are

cut

and

swee

tsa

pth

ato

oze

so

ut

and

coll

ecte

dis

call

ed“t

od

dy

”;it

ssu

gar

con

ten

tis

abo

ut

14

%;

itis

bo

iled

and

coo

led

too

bta

inh

ard

cru

de

sug

arca

lled

“jag

-g

ary,

”an

dit

can

be

ferm

ente

dto

mak

eth

eb

ever

age

call

ed“a

r-ra

ck”;

sug

aris

sucr

ose

Wil

dd

ate

pal

mP

ho

enix

sylv

estr

isA

cera

ceae

Pal

my

rap

alm

Bo

rass

us

fla

bel

life

rA

cera

ceae

Co

con

ut

pal

mC

oco

sn

uci

fera

Ace

race

ae

To

dd

yp

alm

Ca

ryo

tau

ren

sA

cera

ceae

Go

mu

tip

alm

Are

ng

ap

inn

ata

Ace

race

ae

Ho

ney

pal

mJu

ba

cach

inen

sis

Ace

race

ae

Nip

ap

alm

Nig

afr

uti

can

sA

cera

ceae

Glu

cose

,d

extr

ose

or

gra

pe

sug

arP

rese

nt

ined

ible

fru

its

of

man

ytr

ees

and

shru

bs

Fru

cto

se,

lev

ulo

seo

rfr

uit

sug

arP

rese

nt

ined

ible

fru

its

of

man

ytr

ees

and

shru

bs

Man

na

or

man

no

se

Man

na

ash

tree

Fra

xin

us

orn

us

Ole

acea

eT

he

juic

eo

oze

so

ut

fro

msl

its

mad

ein

the

bar

kan

dd

ries

into

flak

e-li

ke

asw

eet

sub

stan

ceca

lled

“man

na,

”u

sed

mai

nly

inm

edic

ine

Nec

tar

Gu

lab

ik

ach

nar

Ba

uh

inia

pu

rpu

rea

Cae

salp

inae

Sec

rete

db

yat

trac

tiv

efl

ow

ers

of

man

ysp

ecie

sin

var

iou

sfa

mil

ies;

mai

nly

sucr

ose

,w

ith

som

eg

luco

sean

dfr

uct

ose

;m

ain

foo

do

fb

ees,

wh

ich

par

tial

lyd

iges

tit

;it

isth

us

con

ver

ted

into

ho

ney

;co

n-

tain

ing

70

–7

5%

inv

ert

sug

ar,

pro

tein

s,m

iner

alsa

lts

and

wat

er,

ho

ney

isan

exce

llen

tfo

od

for

hu

man

san

dis

use

din

med

icin

e,in

the

tob

acco

ind

ust

ryan

din

the

pre

par

atio

no

fm

ead

,a

ferm

ente

db

ever

age

Bo

ttle

bru

shC

all

iste

mo

nla

nce

ola

tum

My

rtac

eae

Ho

rse

ches

tnu

tA

escu

lus

ind

ica

Hip

po

cast

anac

eae

Jam

un

Eu

gen

iaja

mb

ola

na

My

rtac

eae

Nee

mA

zad

ira

chta

ind

ica

Mel

iace

ae

Sh

ish

amD

alb

erg

iasi

sso

oF

abac

eae

So

apn

ut

Sa

pin

du

ssp

p.

Sap

ind

acea

e

Tu

nC

edre

lato

on

aM

elia

ceae

Bar

na

Cra

taev

are

lig

iosa

Cap

par

idac

eae

Ch

ines

eta

llo

wS

ap

ium

seb

ifer

um

Eu

ph

orb

iace

ae

So

urc

e:In

form

atio

no

nn

ecta

r-y

ield

ing

tree

sis

fro

mR

and

haw

a,1

96

5–

19

83

.

Page 19: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 339

alkaloid, which has stimulating and refreshing qualities. Alcoholic beverages are those that

contain one or more hydroxyl (–OH) groups; e.g., ethanol (CH3–CH

2–OH). They may be fer-

mented or distilled. Fruit juices and other beverages that contain neither caffeine nor alcohol

are called “soft drinks.” They have a high sugar content and thus are a good source of energy.

The important nonalcoholic-beverage woody plants are shown in Table IV.

6. Fumitories, Masticatories and Narcotics

Some narcotic substances are smoked or chewed by humans for pleasure or to seek a “world

full of new sensation or some flight from reality.” Narcotic substances that are used for smok-

ing purposes are called “fumitories,” and those that are used for chewing purposes are called

“masticatories.” They have a distinct stimulating or even narcotic effect due to the presence of

various alkaloids. They are also used in religious ceremonies. The important woody plants of

these categories are shown in Table V.

7. Medicines

Several trees are a source of important drugs. These are obtained from the bark of Bauhinia

variegata (kachnar), Barringtonia acutangula (hijjal), Cinnamomum zeylanicum (dalchini),

C. calisaya, C. ledgerina, C. officinalis, C. robusta, C. succirubra (all yielding quinine), Mimu-

sops elengi (maulsari), Myrica nagi (kaiphal), Symplocos racemosa (lodh), Saraca indica

(ashok), Terminalia arjuna (arjun) and Toddalia asiatica (kanj). The stems and wood of Aca-

cia catechu (katha), Pinus roxburghii (chir) and Santalum album (safed chandan) yield drugs.

Drugs are also obtained from the fruit of Aegle marmelos (bael), Cassia fistula (amaltas),

Emblica officinalis (amla), Terminalia bellerica (bahera) and T. chebula (harar). The seeds of

Croton tiglium (jamalgota), Pongamia pinnata (karanja), Ricinus communis (arand) and Strych-

nos nux-vomica (kuchla) are also used for obtaining drugs.

8. Essential Oils

Like all other necessities of humans, oils are one of the main necessities of daily life. India

holds a prominent position in the world oil industry. Oils are of two types: essential, volatile or

Table III

Spice- and condiment-yielding trees

Common name Genus and species Family Part used

Cassia, vern. tejpat Cinnamomum cassia, syn.C. tamala

Lauraceae Bark

Dalchini or Ceyloncinnamon

Cinnamomum zeylanicum Lauraceae Bark

Sassafras Sassafras albidum Lauraceae Root bark

Cloves Syzygium aromaticum Myrtaceae Unopened flower buds

Allspice Pimenta dioica Myrtaceae Fruits

Juniper berries Juniperus communis andother species

Cupressaceae Mature cones

Star anise or anasphal Illicium verum Apiaceae Fruit

Nutmeg (seed or kernel)and mace (aril)

Myristica fragrans Myristicaceae Seeds

Sweet bay or laurel Laurus nobilis Lauraceae Leaves

Page 20: Economic Value of Trees (2)

340 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

IV

Imp

ort

ant

bev

erag

e-y

ield

ing

wo

od

yp

lan

ts

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yP

art

use

dC

affe

ine

con

ten

t(%

)

Co

ffee

Co

ffea

ara

bic

a,

C.

can

eph

ora

,C

.li

ber

ica

,C

.ro

bu

sta

,C

.st

eno

ph

ylla

Ru

bia

ceae

Co

ffee

seed

sca

lled

“bea

ns”

1–

1.5

Co

coa

or

cho

cola

teT

heo

bro

ma

caca

oS

terc

uli

acea

eS

eed

s

Mat

éo

rP

arag

uay

tea

Ilex

pa

rag

ua

rien

sis

Aq

uif

oli

acea

eL

eav

es

Gu

aran

aP

au

llin

iacu

pa

na

Sap

ind

acea

eS

eed

s3

–4

.5

Co

laC

ola

nit

ida

Ste

rcu

liac

eae

See

ds

2

Cas

sin

eIl

exvo

mit

ori

aA

qu

ifo

liac

eae

Fre

sho

rd

ried

leav

esan

dsh

oo

ts

Yo

coP

au

llin

iayo

coS

apin

dac

eae

Bar

k3

–4

Co

caan

dco

cain

eE

ryth

roxy

lon

coca

Ery

thro

xy

lace

aeD

ried

leav

es

Ta

ble

V

Tre

esu

sed

asfu

mit

ori

esan

dm

asca

tori

es

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Bid

io

rte

nd

uD

iosp

yro

sm

ela

no

xylo

nE

ben

acea

eD

ried

leav

esu

sed

for

wra

pp

ing

the

tob

acco

and

asa

fum

ito

ry

Are

ca,

bet

aln

ut

or

sup

ari

Are

caca

tech

uA

reca

ceae

Bet

aln

uts

(dru

pes

)ch

ewed

alo

ng

wit

hp

an(l

eav

eso

fP

iper

bet

le)

Cat

ech

u,

kat

ha,

kh

air

or

kh

adir

aA

caci

aca

tech

uM

imo

sace

aeK

ath

ao

bta

ined

fro

mh

eart

wo

od

app

lied

top

an(l

eav

eso

fP

iper

bet

le)

Co

lao

rk

ola

nu

tsC

ola

nit

ida

Ste

rcu

liac

eae

See

ds

of

cola

tree

use

das

am

asti

cato

rin

tro

pic

alA

fric

a;it

con

tain

s2

%ca

ffei

ne,

esse

nti

alo

ilan

da

glu

cosi

de,

chel

on

ian

,w

hic

his

ah

eart

stim

ula

nt

Page 21: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 341

distilled oils; and fatty, nonvolatile, expressed or fixed oils. These two types of oils can be

distinguished in Table VI.

Essential oils are by-products of carbohydrate and fat metabolism and occur in some 60

families. The important ones are Apiaceae (= Umbellifereae), Asteraceae (= Compositae),

Fabaceae (= Leguminosae), Geraniaceae, Lamiaceae (= Labiatae), Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Poa-

ceae (= Graminae) and Rutaceae. They occur in small concentrations, from minute traces to as

much as 1–2%, or even more, in specialized cells, glands or ducts, either in one particular

organ of the plant or distributed over many parts. They may be present in flowers (e.g., roses),

fruits (e.g., oranges), leaves (e.g., eucalyptus), bark (e.g., cinnamomum), roots (e.g., ginger),

woods (e.g., cedar) or seeds (e.g., cardamon) and many resinous exudations.

The utility of essential oils to the plant itself is obscure. The characteristic aroma and flavor

they impart to flowers, fruits and seeds probably attract insects and other animals, which play

an important role in pollination and/or in the dispersal of fruits and seeds. When essential oils

are present in high concentrations, the unpleasant odor may serve to repel enemies like para-

sites, animals and insects. The essential oils may have antiseptic and bactericidal properties

Table VI

Differences between essential and fatty (fixed) oils

Essential oils Fatty (fixed) oils

They evaporate or volatilize in contact with airand hence are called “volatile oils”

They do not evaporate or become volatile whenthey come into contact with air and hence arecalled “nonvolatile oils”

They can be readily removed from the plant tis-sues without any change in their compositionand hence are called “distilled oils”

They cannot be distilled without being decom-posed and hence are called “expressed oils”

They possess a pleasant taste, have a strong, aro-matic odor and may be colored

They do not possess a strong taste or odor andare colorless

They are typically liquids At normal (room) or high temperatures they areeither liquids or fluids and are called “oils”;at normal or cold temperatures they may besolids or semisolids and are called “fats.”Quite obviously, what is an oil in a warmclimate may be a fat in a cold climate.

They are very complex in their chemical compo-sition. The two principal groups are terpenes,which are hydrocarbons, and oxygenated andsulphuretted oils.

Chemically these vegetable fatty oils are close toanimal fats. They consist of glycerine andfatty acid, which is an oleic acid if it is an oilbut stearic or palmatic acid if it is a fat.

They have antiseptic qualities They generally do not possess antiseptic proper-ties

They are used for diverse purposes, but not asfood

Most of them are edible and are available as foodfor humans

Soap is not formed when they are treated with analkali

When a fat is boiled with an alkali, it decom-poses and the fatty acid unites with an alkalito form soap. If potash or lye is used, a softsoap is obtained; if soda is used, a hard soapis obtained.

They can be obtained by distillation, expressionor extraction

They can be obtained by a combination of ex-pression and extraction, but not by distilla-tion

Page 22: Economic Value of Trees (2)

342 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

and may thus act as a wound fluid. They affect transpiration and other physiological processes

by minimizing the effect of heat on transpiration. They play a vital role as hydrogen donors in

oxido-reduction reactions as potential sources of energy.

Because of their odor and high volatility, essential oils are also put to a variety of uses by

humans. They are extensively used in the manufacture of perfumes, sachets, soaps and other

toilet preparations. The perfumes are stored in closed, compactly filled containers since they

deteriorate due to oxidation and polymerization when they come into contact with air. In

confectionary and aerated waters they are used as flavoring materials or essences for ice creams,

candies, cordials, liqueurs, nonalcoholic beverages, tobacco, etc. They are very valuable in

medicine, dentistry and pharmaceuticals because of their therapeutic, antiseptic and bacteri-

cidal properties. They are used as insecticides and deodorants, as solvents in paint and varnish

industries and in the manufacture of several synthetic odors and flavors, such as attars and

scents. Some of the essential oils (e.g., clove oil) are used as clearing or cleaning agents in

histological work. They are also used in such diversified products as chewing gum, toothpaste,

dhoop, agar batis, incense, shoe polish, library paste and fish glue. The important essential oil-

yielding trees are listed in Table VII.

9. Fatty Oils and Vegetable Fats

Vegetable fatty oils are called “fixed oils” or “nonvolatile oils” because they do not evapo-

rate or become volatile like the essential oils. They are also called “nondistilled oils” because

they cannot be distilled without being decomposed.

Chemically, fatty oils consist of glycerin in combination with a fatty acid. The so-called fats or

tallows are solids at ordinary temperatures and contain stearic or palmitic acid. Their iodine num-

ber (the number of grams of iodine absorbed by 100 g of the fats in a medium in which it is soluble)

is below 70. On the other hand, oils are liquids at ordinary temperatures and contain oleic acid.

Oils are of three types: drying, semidrying and nondrying. The drying oils are able to absorb

oxygen and, on exposure, dry into thin elastic film. They are used mainly in the paint and

varnish industry. Their iodine number is higher than 150. The semidrying oils absorb oxygen

slowly and only in limited amounts. They form a soft film only after long exposure. Their

iodine number is between 100 and 150. The nondrying oils remain liquid at ordinary tempera-

tures and do not form a film. Their iodine number is between 70 and 100.

The fatty oils are insoluble in water but soluble in various organic solvents. When a fat is

boiled with an alkali, it decomposes, and the fatty acid unites with the alkali to form soap. If

soda is used, a hard soap is obtained; and if potash or lye is used, a soft soap is obtained.

When fats break down, they yield fatty acids and glycerin, of which they are composed, and

usually develop a rancid odor and taste. The fatty oils are bland (balmy) and lack the strong

taste, odor and antiseptic qualities of essential oils. Thus they are available as indispensable

articles in human food. Important species that yield fatty oils and vegetable fats are listed in

Table VIII.

10. Waxes

Waxes are quite similar to fats but are esters of monohydric alcohols rather than glycerides.

They are harder than fats and have a high melting point. They are less easily hydrolyzed and do

not become rancid. Waxes are usually found on the epidermis of leaves and fruits. They serve

to prevent excessive loss of water through transpiration, because of their impervious character.

The commercially important waxes obtained from trees are shown in Table IX. Wax is also

obtained from the leaves of the raffia and licuri palms, sugarcane and esparto.

(Text continues on p. 349)

Page 23: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 343

Ta

ble

VII

Ess

enti

al-o

il-y

ield

ing

tree

s

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Yla

ng

-yla

ng

Ca

na

ng

ao

do

rata

An

no

nac

eae

Oil

isex

trac

ted

fro

mfl

ow

erp

etal

s.C

anan

ga

oil

isu

sed

inso

me

of

the

fin

est

per

fum

ery

crea

tio

ns

inF

ran

ce;

chea

per

gra

des

are

use

din

soap

mak

ing

.

Ner

oli

:tr

ue

oil

of

ner

oli

or

ner

oli

big

arad

eC

itru

sa

ura

nti

um

Ru

tace

aeO

ilis

extr

acte

dfr

om

flo

wer

so

fth

eso

ur

ora

ng

e

Ner

oli

Po

rtu

gal

Cit

rus

sin

ensi

sR

uta

ceae

Oil

isex

trac

ted

fro

mfl

ow

ers

of

the

swee

to

ran

ge

Man

dar

ino

ilC

itru

sre

ticu

lata

Ru

tace

aeO

ilfr

om

pee

lsis

use

din

con

fect

ion

ery,

toil

etp

rod

uct

san

dp

har

mac

euti

cal

pre

par

atio

ns

Pet

itg

rain

oil

Cit

rus

spp

.;in

Ind

ia,

C.

au

ran

tiu

m,

C.

lim

etto

ides

Ru

tace

aeO

ilex

trac

ted

fro

mle

aves

and

twig

sis

use

dto

add

ap

leas

ant

bo

uq

uet

tosc

ents

,co

smet

ics,

skin

crea

ms

and

soap

s

Ora

ng

eo

ilC

itru

ssp

p.;

inIn

dia

,C

.a

ura

nti

foli

,C

.re

ticu

lata

Ru

tace

aeO

ilex

trac

ted

fro

mri

pe

pee

lsis

use

dto

add

ap

leas

ant

bo

uq

uet

tosc

ents

,co

s-m

etic

s,sk

incr

eam

san

dso

aps

Ber

gam

ot

Cit

rus

au

ran

tiu

msu

bsp

.b

erg

am

iaR

uta

ceae

Gre

enis

ho

ilex

trac

ted

fro

mri

pe

pee

lsh

asa

soft

,sw

eet

od

or

and

isu

sed

for

scen

tin

gto

ilet

soap

s,in

mix

edp

erfu

mes

and

asa

clea

rin

gag

ent

Mex

ican

lin

alo

eB

urs

era

pen

icil

lata

,B

.g

lab

rifo

lia

Bu

rser

acea

eV

ery

aro

mat

ico

ilex

trac

ted

fro

mth

ew

oo

dis

wid

ely

use

din

per

fum

es,

soap

s,co

smet

ics,

etc.

and

for

flav

ori

ng

foo

dan

db

ever

ages

My

sore

lin

alo

eB

urs

era

pen

icil

lata

Bu

rser

acea

eV

ery

aro

mat

ico

ilex

trac

ted

fro

mh

usk

so

fb

erri

esis

wid

ely

use

din

per

fum

es,

soap

s,co

smet

ics,

etc.

and

for

flav

ori

ng

foo

dan

db

ever

ages

Cay

enn

eli

nal

oe

An

iba

pa

nu

ren

sis

Lau

race

aeV

ery

aro

mat

ico

ilis

wid

ely

use

din

per

fum

es,

soap

s,co

smet

ics,

etc.

and

for

flav

ori

ng

foo

dan

db

ever

ages

Bra

zili

anb

ois

de

rose

Ari

ba

rosa

eod

ora

var

.a

ma

zon

iaL

aura

ceae

Ver

yar

om

atic

oil

extr

acte

dfr

om

the

wo

od

isw

idel

yu

sed

inp

erfu

mes

,so

aps,

cosm

etic

s,et

c.an

dfo

rfl

avo

rin

gfo

od

and

bev

erag

es

San

dal

wo

od

oil

,v

ern

.sa

fed

chan

dan

Sa

nta

lum

alb

um

and

rela

ted

spp

.S

anta

lace

aeO

ilex

trac

ted

fro

mth

ew

oo

dis

larg

ely

use

das

ap

erfu

me

and

inso

aps,

face

crea

ms

and

toil

etp

ow

der

s.In

med

icin

eit

has

coo

lin

g,

dia

ph

ore

tic,

diu

reti

can

dex

pec

tora

nt

pro

per

ties

.A

nex

cell

ent

fix

ativ

e,it

ism

uch

use

din

ble

nd

s.T

he

swee

t-sc

ente

dw

oo

dis

uti

lize

dfo

rb

ox

esan

dch

ests

.

Ch

amp

aca

oil

Mic

hel

iach

am

pa

caM

agn

oli

acea

eO

ne

of

the

mo

stfa

mo

us

per

fum

eso

fIn

dia

,it

isu

sed

for

var

iou

sp

urp

ose

s

Page 24: Economic Value of Trees (2)

344 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

VII

,co

nti

nu

ed

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Cam

ph

or,

cam

ph

or

gu

m,

mu

shk

apu

r,ca

mp

ho

ro

ilC

inn

am

om

um

cam

ph

ora

Lau

race

aeC

amp

ho

ris

soli

dw

ith

tou

gh

,w

hit

e,tr

ansl

uce

nt

gra

nu

le-l

ike

mas

ses

ato

rdi-

nar

yte

mp

erat

ure

s.E

xtr

acte

dfr

om

the

wo

od

,tw

igs

and

leav

es,

itis

use

din

the

man

ufa

ctu

reo

fce

llu

loid

,n

itro

cell

ulo

seco

mp

ou

nd

san

dex

pen

siv

ep

er-

fum

esan

din

med

icin

efo

rin

flam

mat

ion

s,rh

eum

atic

pai

ns

and

spra

ins,

asa

card

iac

stim

ula

nt

and

tore

liev

ed

iarr

ho

ea.

Th

eb

y-p

rod

uct

isca

lled

“sa-

fro

le.”

Ced

arw

oo

do

ilJu

nip

eru

svi

rgin

ian

aC

up

ress

acea

eO

ilex

trac

ted

fro

mth

eh

eart

wo

od

isv

alu

able

asa

clea

rin

gag

ent

inth

ep

rep

a-ra

tio

no

fp

erm

anen

tm

icro

sco

pic

mo

un

tsan

dfo

ru

sew

ith

oil

-im

mer

sio

nle

nse

sb

ecau

seo

fit

sh

igh

refr

acto

ryin

dex

.It

isal

sou

sed

inso

aps,

per

-fu

mes

,li

nim

ents

,d

eod

ora

nts

and

clea

nin

gan

dp

oli

shin

gp

rep

arat

ion

san

das

anad

ult

eran

to

fg

eran

ium

and

san

dle

wo

od

oil

s.B

ecau

seo

fit

sin

sect

i-ci

dal

pro

per

ties

itis

uti

lize

das

am

oth

rep

elle

nt

and

infl

ysp

ray

s.

Deo

dar

oil

Ced

rus

deo

da

ra,

Jun

ipe-

rus

ma

cro

po

da

Pin

acea

e,C

up

res-

sace

aeT

he

var

ian

tso

fce

dar

wo

od

oil

use

din

Ind

iaar

eo

bta

ined

fro

mch

ips,

saw

du

sto

rw

oo

do

fC

edru

sd

eod

ara

and

fro

mth

esh

avin

gs

and

saw

du

sto

fJu

nip

e-ru

sm

acr

op

od

a

Clo

ve

oil

,v

ern

.lo

un

g-

ka-

tel

Syz

ygiu

ma

rom

ati

cum

My

rtac

eae

Oil

extr

acte

dfr

om

flo

wer

bu

ds

isu

sed

inp

erfu

mes

,so

aps,

con

fect

ion

ery

and

med

icin

e,as

ast

imu

lan

t,ca

rmin

ativ

ean

din

flat

ule

nce

and

asa

clea

rin

gag

ent

inh

isto

log

ical

wo

rkfo

rm

icro

sco

py

Oil

of

turp

enti

ne,

pin

eo

ilP

inu

ssp

p.

Pin

acea

eO

ilfr

om

resi

ns

isu

sed

inth

em

anu

fact

ure

of

var

nis

hes

,la

cqu

ers,

dis

infe

c-ta

nts

,p

ain

ts,

lin

ole

um

,se

alin

gw

ax,

oil

clo

th,

lub

rica

tin

gco

mp

ou

nd

s,in

ks,

etc.

Cin

nam

on

oil

Cin

na

mo

mu

mze

yla

nic

um

Lau

race

aeO

ilfr

om

chip

san

dw

aste

bar

kis

use

din

the

pre

par

atio

no

fci

nn

amo

nq

uil

lsan

das

den

itif

rice

san

dp

erfu

mes

Eu

caly

ptu

so

ilE

uca

lyp

tus

citr

iod

ora

,E

.d

ives

,E

.g

lob

ulu

s,et

c.

My

rtac

eae

Oil

fro

mth

ele

aves

and

term

inal

bra

nch

lets

isa

sou

rce

of

citr

on

ella

l,ci

tro

nel

-lo

lan

dm

enth

ol.

Itis

wid

ely

use

din

per

fum

ery,

asa

mo

squ

ito

rep

elle

nt,

ger

mic

ide

and

dis

infe

ctan

tan

din

med

icin

ein

the

trea

tmen

to

fas

thm

aan

db

ron

chit

is.

Nu

tmeg

oil

Myr

isti

cafr

ag

ran

sM

yri

stic

acea

eO

ils

fro

mn

utm

eg(t

he

aro

mat

ick

ern

els)

and

mac

e(t

he

aril

s)o

fth

efr

uit

so

fM

yris

tica

fra

gra

ns

(ver

n.

jaip

hal

)ar

eu

sed

exte

rnal

lyto

trea

trh

eum

atis

man

din

soap

san

dp

erfu

mes

.O

ilo

bta

ined

fro

mth

ele

aves

isu

sed

inth

ep

rep

arat

ion

of

chew

ing

gu

m,

flav

ori

ng

esse

nce

san

dco

smet

ics.

Page 25: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 345

Mac

assa

ro

ilS

chle

ich

era

trij

ug

aS

apin

dac

eae

Ex

trac

ted

fro

mse

eds

of

the

gu

m-l

actr

ee(v

ern

.g

ausa

m),

the

oil

has

av

alu

able

stim

ula

tin

gan

dcl

ean

sin

gef

fect

on

the

scal

p,

pro

mo

tin

gh

air

gro

wth

.It

isal

sou

sed

tocu

resk

ind

isea

ses,

itch

es,

rheu

mat

ism

and

hea

dac

hes

.

Ag

aro

il,

agar

atta

rA

qu

illa

ria

ag

all

och

aT

hy

mel

aeac

eae

Ag

aro

il,

fro

mre

sin

ou

sp

ort

ion

so

fth

ew

oo

d,

isp

ale

yel

low

tob

row

nis

hy

el-

low

or

dar

kam

ber

inco

lor.

Itis

use

din

per

fum

ery

and

asan

ince

nse

.T

rue

agar

ish

eav

ier

than

wat

er.

Keo

rao

il,

atta

ro

fk

ewd

a,at

tar

keo

ra,

keo

raw

ater

,sa

nd

ali

atta

r,k

ewd

ao

ro

ilk

ewd

a

Pa

nd

an

us

tect

ori

us

(=P.

od

ora

tiss

imu

s)P

and

anac

eae

Scr

ewp

ine

flo

wer

sar

eu

nu

sual

lyla

rge:

asi

ng

lefl

ow

erw

eig

hs

up

to1

50

g.

Th

eo

ilis

use

din

the

pre

par

atio

no

ffr

agra

nt

hai

ro

ils,

per

fum

es,

etc.

Caj

epu

to

ilM

ela

leu

cale

uca

den

dro

nM

yrt

acea

eO

ilex

trac

ted

fro

mfr

esh

leav

esan

dtw

igs

isu

sed

inp

har

mac

euti

cals

asth

roat

loze

ng

es,

gar

gle

s,et

c.an

din

med

icin

eas

are

med

yfo

rco

lds,

thro

atd

is-

ease

s,h

ead

ach

es,

etc.

Ele

ng

io

ilM

imu

sop

sel

eng

iS

apo

tace

aeT

he

esse

nti

alo

il,

fro

mb

ull

etw

oo

dfl

ow

ers,

isa

pal

ey

ello

w,

mo

bil

eli

qu

idw

ith

av

ery

del

icat

e,sw

eet

and

ten

acio

us

flo

ral

od

or.

Itis

use

din

the

man

ufa

ctu

reo

fp

erfu

mes

.

Page 26: Economic Value of Trees (2)

346 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

VII

I

Fat

ty-o

il-

and

veg

etab

le-f

at-y

ield

ing

tree

s

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Dry

ing

oil

sfr

om

seed

s

Tu

ng

oil

Ale

uri

tes

ford

ii,

A.

mo

nta

na

Eu

ph

orb

iace

aeU

sed

inth

ep

ain

tan

dv

arn

ish

ind

ust

ry;

also

use

dfo

rw

ater

pro

ofi

ng

wo

od

,p

aper

and

fab

rics

,an

dth

eref

ore

val

uab

lefo

ro

utd

oo

rp

ain

ts

Kek

un

a,ca

nd

len

ut,

lum

ban

go

ilA

leu

rite

sm

olu

cca

na

Eu

ph

orb

iace

aeU

sed

inm

akin

gp

ain

t,v

arn

ish

,la

cqu

er,

lin

ole

um

and

soft

soap

Wal

nu

to

ilJu

gla

ns

reg

iaJu

gla

nd

acea

eM

atu

rean

do

ldk

ern

els

yie

lda

dry

ing

oil

.A

ned

ible

oil

,it

isal

sou

sed

for

wh

ite

pai

nt,

arti

sts’

oil

pai

nts

,p

rin

tin

gin

kan

dso

ap.

Lau

relw

oo

do

ilC

alo

ph

yllu

min

op

hyl

lum

Gu

ttif

erae

Use

das

anil

lum

inan

t,fo

rso

apm

akin

gan

dto

trea

trh

eum

atis

m

Mar

go

sao

ilA

zad

ira

chta

ind

ica

Mel

iace

aeU

sed

asan

anti

sep

tic

and

for

bu

rnin

gp

urp

ose

s

Oit

icia

oil

Lic

an

iari

gid

aR

osa

ceae

Use

din

the

pai

nt

and

var

nis

hin

du

stry

;al

sou

sed

inm

akin

gli

no

leu

man

dp

rin

tin

gin

ks

and

for

imp

rov

ing

the

elas

tici

tyo

fru

bb

erp

rod

-u

cts

No

nd

ryin

go

ils

fro

mse

eds

Cas

tor

oil

Ric

inu

sco

mm

un

isE

up

ho

rbia

ceae

Use

das

ap

urg

ativ

e,a

lub

rica

nt

and

anil

lum

inan

t;al

sou

sed

inso

aps,

the

tex

tile

ind

ust

ry,

typ

ewri

ter

ink

s,p

erfu

mes

,v

arn

ish

esan

dp

ain

ts

Oli

ve

oil

Ole

aeu

rop

aea

Ole

acea

eU

sed

mai

nly

assa

lad

and

coo

kin

go

il;

also

use

din

soap

mak

ing

,as

alu

bri

can

tan

din

med

icin

e

Veg

etab

lefa

ts

Co

con

ut

oil

Co

cos

nu

cife

raA

reca

ceae

Dri

edco

con

ut

mea

ty

ield

so

il.

Ref

ined

coco

nu

to

ilis

edib

le.

Use

dfo

rco

ok

ing

,co

nfe

ctio

ner

y,m

akin

gca

nd

yb

ars,

soap

,co

smet

ics,

shav

ing

crea

m,

sham

po

oan

do

ther

toil

etp

rep

arat

ion

san

dal

soas

anil

lum

inan

t.

Pal

mo

il,

pal

m-k

ern

elo

ilE

laei

sg

uin

een

sis

Are

cace

aeE

xtr

acte

dfr

om

the

fib

rou

sp

ulp

of

nu

tsan

dfr

om

ker

nel

s.U

sed

inm

akin

gso

apan

dm

arg

arin

ean

das

afu

elfo

rd

iese

len

gin

es;

also

use

dfo

rm

akin

gg

lyce

rin

,sh

amp

oo

,so

apan

dca

nd

les.

Page 27: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 347

Mah

ua

oil

,m

ow

rao

rb

assi

afa

t;m

ahu

ao

ril

lip

eb

utt

erM

ad

hu

cain

dic

aS

apo

tace

aeO

ilo

bta

ined

fro

mse

eds

isu

sed

mai

nly

inth

em

anu

fact

ure

of

lau

n-

dry

soap

and

also

inm

akin

gca

nd

y,in

the

jute

ind

ust

ry,

and

totr

eat

skin

dis

ease

s,rh

eum

atis

m,

hea

dac

he,

con

stip

atio

n,

pil

es,

etc.

Ph

ulw

ara

bu

tter

Dip

lokn

eura

bu

tyra

cea

(=M

ad

hu

cab

uty

race

a)

Sap

ota

ceae

Oil

ob

tain

edfr

om

seed

sis

use

dm

ain

lyin

the

man

ufa

ctu

reo

fla

un

-d

ryso

apan

dal

soin

mak

ing

can

dy,

inth

eju

tein

du

stry

,an

dto

trea

tsk

ind

isea

ses,

rheu

mat

ism

,h

ead

ach

e,co

nst

ipat

ion

,p

iles

,et

c.

Car

apa

oil

Xyl

oca

rpu

sm

olu

ccen

sis

Mel

iace

aeO

ilo

bta

ined

fro

mse

eds

isu

sed

for

soap

and

asan

illu

min

ant

Nu

tmeg

bu

tter

Myr

isti

cafr

ag

ran

sM

yri

stic

acea

eS

eed

sco

nta

inab

ou

t4

0%

of

ay

ello

wfa

t,u

sed

inso

ap,

oin

tmen

t,p

erfu

mes

and

can

dle

san

dal

soto

trea

trh

eum

atis

m

Po

ng

amo

ilP

on

ga

mia

pin

na

taP

apil

ion

acea

eO

ilo

bta

ined

fro

mse

eds

isu

sed

for

soap

mak

ing

,as

anil

lum

inan

t,an

din

the

trea

tmen

to

fsk

ind

isea

ses

and

rheu

mat

ism

Bab

assu

oil

Orb

ign

yam

art

ian

a,

O.

ole

ifer

aA

reca

ceae

Oil

ob

tain

edfr

om

nu

tsis

use

das

asu

bst

itu

tefo

rco

con

ut

oil

and

for

mak

ing

bu

llet

-pro

of

gla

ss,

exp

losi

ves

and

lub

rica

nts

Co

hu

ne

oil

Orb

ign

yaco

hu

ne

Are

cace

aeO

ilo

bta

ined

fro

mn

uts

isu

sed

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

coco

nu

to

ilan

dfo

rm

akin

gb

ull

et-p

roo

fg

lass

,ex

plo

siv

esan

dlu

bri

can

ts

Lic

uri

oil

Sya

gru

sco

ron

ata

Are

cace

aeO

ilo

bta

ined

fro

mn

uts

isu

sed

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

coco

nu

to

ilan

dfo

rm

akin

gb

ull

et-p

roo

fg

lass

,ex

plo

siv

esan

dlu

bri

can

ts

Mu

rum

uru

oil

Ast

roca

ryu

mm

uru

mu

ru,

A.

tucu

ma

,A

.vu

lga

reA

reca

ceae

Oil

ob

tain

edfr

om

nu

tsis

use

das

asu

bst

itu

tefo

rco

con

ut

oil

and

for

mak

ing

bu

llet

-pro

of

gla

ss,

exp

losi

ves

and

lub

rica

nts

Co

coa

bu

tter

Th

eob

rom

aca

cao

Ste

rcu

liac

eae

Fat

ob

tain

edfr

om

bea

ns

isu

sed

for

cosm

etic

san

dp

erfu

mes

,as

ab

ase

for

oin

tmen

tsan

das

alu

bri

can

tfo

rm

assa

gin

g

Sh

eab

utt

erB

uty

rosp

erm

um

pa

rkii

Sap

ota

ceae

Th

efa

tis

edib

lean

dis

use

das

asu

bst

itu

tefo

rco

coa

bu

tter

and

inm

akin

gso

apan

dca

nd

les

Bo

rneo

tall

ow

Sh

ore

aa

pte

raD

ipte

roca

rpac

eae

Fat

fro

mk

ern

els

isu

sed

for

soap

mak

ing

and

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

co-

coa

bu

tter

Ch

ines

ev

eget

able

tall

ow

Sa

piu

mse

bif

eru

mE

up

ho

rbia

ceae

Ob

tain

edfr

om

ath

ick

lay

ero

fh

ard

,w

hit

efa

to

nse

eds,

itis

use

din

soap

,co

smet

ics

and

can

dle

s.S

eed

sy

ield

dry

ing

oil

,u

sed

for

pai

nts

,v

arn

ish

esan

dp

last

ics

and

asan

illu

min

ant.

Mac

assa

ro

ilS

chle

ich

era

ole

osa

Sap

ind

acea

eO

ilfr

om

seed

sis

use

din

coo

kin

g,

asa

hai

ro

ilan

dfo

ril

lum

inat

ion

Ucu

hu

ba

bu

tter

,o

tob

ab

utt

erV

iro

lasp

p.

My

rist

acea

eU

sed

for

var

iou

sp

urp

ose

s

Page 28: Economic Value of Trees (2)

348 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

IX

Wax

-yie

ldin

gtr

ees

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Car

nau

ba

wax

Co

per

nic

iace

rife

raA

reca

ceae

Th

em

ost

imp

ort

ant

veg

etab

lew

axfr

om

the

wax

pal

mtr

ee(t

he

“tre

eo

fli

fe”

inB

ra-

zil)

,it

occ

urs

asan

exu

dat

ion

on

leav

esan

dis

use

din

the

man

ufa

ctu

reo

fca

n-

dle

s,so

ap,

hig

h-l

ust

erv

arn

ish

,p

ain

t,ca

rw

ax,

sho

ep

oli

sh,

carb

on

pap

er,

bat

teri

es,

insu

lati

on

,p

ho

no

gra

ph

reco

rds,

salv

e,so

un

dfi

lm,

oin

tmen

t,et

c.

Wax

tree

Cer

oxy

lon

an

dic

ola

Are

cace

aeU

sed

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

carn

aub

aw

ax

My

rtle

wax

Myr

ica

pen

sylv

an

ica

,M

.ce

rife

raM

yri

cace

aeB

erri

esar

eco

ver

edw

ith

thic

kla

yer

of

wax

,u

sed

for

the

man

ufa

ctu

reo

fso

apan

dca

nd

les

wit

ha

ple

asan

tfr

agra

nce

Jap

anes

ew

axR

hu

ssu

cced

an

eaA

nac

ard

iace

aeB

erri

esy

ield

wax

,u

sed

inth

em

anu

fact

ure

of

can

dle

s,w

axm

atch

es,

pen

cils

,le

ath

er,

furn

itu

rep

oli

sh,

soap

and

lip

stic

kan

din

the

vu

lcan

izat

ion

of

rub

ber

Ta

ble

X

Sap

on

in-y

ield

ing

tree

s

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

So

apn

ut

or

soap

ber

ries

,v

ern

.ri

tha

Sa

pin

du

sem

arg

ina

tus,

S.

mu

koro

ssi,

S.

sap

on

ari

a

Sap

ind

acea

eU

sed

asa

soap

sub

stit

ute

for

was

hin

gh

air

and

wo

ole

n,

silk

enan

do

ther

del

icat

efa

b-

rics

;al

sou

sed

inth

ep

rep

arat

ion

of

hai

rto

nic

So

apb

ark

Qu

illa

jasa

po

na

ria

Ro

sace

aeD

ried

inn

erb

ark

con

tain

s9

%sa

po

nin

,u

sed

for

was

hin

gd

elic

ate

fab

rics

,cl

ean

ing

len

ses

and

pre

cisi

on

inst

rum

ents

,as

anex

pec

tora

nt

and

emu

lsif

yin

gag

ent

inm

edic

ine

and

inth

em

anu

fact

ure

of

sham

po

o,

cosm

etic

san

dh

air

ton

ic

Page 29: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 349

11. Soap Substitutes

Saponins are a group of water-soluble glucosides that yield soap froth in water, form emul-

sions with oils and fats, and are capable of absorbing large amounts of gases such as carbon

dioxide. Because of these properties they are used for cleansing and other purposes, both at

home and in industry. The important saponin-containing trees are listed in Table X.

It may be added here that leaves of a familiar garden plant, bouncing bet or soapwort

(Saponaria officinalis, family Caryophyllaceae), when placed in water, produce a lather that is

utilized for washing and imparting luster to silk and woolen fabrics. Similarly, bulbs of the

Californian soaproot (Chlorogalum pomeridianum, family Liliaceae) yield a good lather, which

is utilized for washing fabrics.

12. Vegetable Ivory

The seeds of Phytelephas macrocarpa, in the family Arecaceae, commonly called “ivory

nut” or “tagua palm tree,” is the chief source of vegetable ivory. It is extensively used as a

substitute for true ivory. It can be carved and used in the manufacture of buttons, chess pieces,

poker chips, dice, knobs, inlays, billiard balls, toys, etc. Metroxylon amicarum, in the Arecaceae

family, can likewise be used for these purposes.

13. Fodder

The leaves of trees and shrubs are rich in calcium and phosphorus. Although considered

inferior to grasses, trees in different parts of India are lopped for fodder, especially when grasses

are scarce. The important fodder-yielding trees are Acacia nilotica (= A. arabica), A. catechu,

Acer spp., Aegle marmelos, Bauhinia variegata, Celtis australis, Dendrocalamus strictus, Ficus

glomerata, F. religiosa, Grewia spp., Helicteres isora, Kydia calycina, Leucaena leucocephala,

Melia azedarach, Millettia auriculata, Morus australis, M. serrata, Ougeinia oojeinsis, Populus

ciliata, Quercus glauca, Q. incana, Zizyphus mauritiana and Z. nummularia (Singh, 1982; Anony-

mous, 1983).

14. Fuel, Bioenergy or Biofuel

Bioenergy is the energy available from biological sources, both living and immediate re-

mains. Fuel is any material that burns readily in air. Biofuels are materials of biological origin

that are used for producing heat and other forms of energy. Fuel is a great necessity of modern

life. Wood, peat and coal, which represent three stages in the carbonization of the original

woody plant tissue, are important fuel substances.

Because their moisture content is lower than that of green wood, seasoned or oven-dried

wood makes excellent fuel: 99% of it is combustible, so it leaves only a small amount of ash.

Hardwoods, such as ash, beech, hickory, maple and oak, which burn for a longer time and

provide more uniform heat than does gymnospermic wood, are excellent fuelwoods. The mean

calorific value of oven-dried Indian hardwoods is about 9000 btu. The different forms of en-

ergy that can be obtained from wood are shown in Table XI.

The qualities needed for fuelwood are physical properties of the wood as well as environ-

mental and silvicultural properties of the species. Small-diameter, thornless shrubs and trees,

which are easy to cut with primitive tools and easy to transport, are generally preferred. Like-

wise, fuelwood that is easy to split and either has a low moisture content or dries rapidly is

preferred over other wood, because considerable heat is lost in burning moist wood. Such

wood is also nontoxic and produces less smoke. For health reasons, too, these are important

Page 30: Economic Value of Trees (2)

350 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Table XI

Forms of energy obtained from wood

Process Form of energy

Direct burning Heat, fire

Gasification Producer gas

Carbonization (the process of heating wood andconverting it into carbon)

Charcoal (has twice as much heating power aswood and burns without flame or smoke)

Pyrolysis Charcoal, gas, oil

Hydrolysis, fermentation Ethanol

Gasification, synthesis Methanol

fuelwoods: ventilation is poor in village houses. While burning, wood should neither split nor

spark. Wood density is positively correlated with the calorific value of fuelwood. A negative

correlation also exists between wood density and growth rate, so fast-growing species gener-

ally have inferior burning properties. The best fuelwood species burn slowly and produce good

heat from glowing charcoals. Acacia and Casuarina spp. are regarded as the best fuelwood

species (Singhal & Khanna, 1991).

Some common fuelwood species of India are Acacia catechu, A. leucocephala, A. nilotica

var. cupressiformis, A. nilotica var. indica, Albizia amara, A. lebbek, Anogeissus latifolia,

Azadirachta indica, Borassus flabellifer, Carrissa spinarum, Dalbergia sissoo, Delonix elata,

Eucalyptus spp., Euphorbia spp., Leucaena leucocephala, Mangifera indica, Melia azedarach,

Moringa tinctoria, Morus serrata, Pithecellobium dulce, Prosopis juliflora, P. spicigera, Psidium

guajava, Sesbania sesban, Syzygium cuminii, Tamarix indica, Thespesia populnea, Zizyphus

mauritiana, etc. (Singhal & Khanna, 1991).

15. Fertilizers

Several species of nitrogen-fixing bacteria of Rhizobium, including R. leguminosarum,

R. lupini, R. meliloti and R. phaseoli, live inside the root nodules of leguminous trees. Simi-

larly, Frankia, a nitrogen-fixing mycelial bacterium, is associated symbiotically with the root

nodules of several nonlegume plants, including Alnus, Casuarina, Coriaria, Myrica and Ru-

bus. Both Rhizobium and Frankia are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. When the roots

of these plants decay, they enrich the soil with nitrogen salts.

16. Fibers

Botanically, a fiber is a special type of cell (sclerenchymatous) that has thick walls, a narrow

lumen and tapering ends. Chemically, it is made up of cellulose and lignin. Commercially, a

plant fiber is a strand consisting of one or hundreds of cells that varies in length from a fraction

of a millimeter to 2 meters or more. Depending on how fibers are used, they can be classed as

textile fibers (for fabrics, netting, cordage), brush fibers, plaiting and rough weaving fibers (for

hats, sandals, baskets, chairs, etc.), filling fibers, natural fabrics and papermaking fibers.

The important fiber-yielding woody plants, including trees and shrubs, are Abroma angusta,

Abutilon spp., Acacia leucocephala, Ananas comosus, Antiaris toxicaria, Boehmeria nivea,

Borassus flabellifer, Butea monosperma, Caryota urens (leaves), Cordia dichotoma, C. rothii,

Ficus bengalensis, F. cunia, F. religiosa, Grewia glabra, G. elastica, G. optiva, G. tiliaefolia,

G. vestita, Hardwickia binata, Hibiscus spp., Malachra capitata, Marsdenia volubilis, Panda-

nus spp. (leaves), Sterculia foetida, S. urens, S. villosa, Trema orientalis and Urena lobata.

Page 31: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 351

Most fibers are obtained from the bark of these plants. Silky flosses produced in the fruits of

Bombax ceiba, Ceiba pentandra and Cochlospermum religiosum are also used as fibers for

filling purposes. The well-known coir fiber is obtained from the fibrous mesocarp of the coco-

nut palm, Cocos nucifera. It is coarse, stiff, buoyant and elastic and is therefore used for ship

ropes, mats, brushes, ropes, etc. (Watt, 1889–1893; Anonymous, 1983; Maithani et al., 1991).

17. Pulp and Paper

An important use of fibers is in the manufacture of paper, which is playing an increasingly

important role in modern civilized society. It can be divided into two categories: cultural paper

(printing and writing paper) and industrial paper (packing and wrapping papers and boards).

The word “paper” comes from the Latin papyrus (the name of Cyperus papyrus of the

family Cyperaceae), a sedge plant, the pith of which was used for paper in Egypt as early as

2400 B.C. The Chinese, however, were the first to actually make the paper. In 1799 Louis

Robert of France invented the papermaking machine, which was improved by Henry and Sealy

Fourdrinier of London in 1803.

The important and major raw materials of the pulp and paper industry are wood fibers

(furnishing more than 90% of all the paper produced in the world), cotton and linen rags

(yielding fine grades of paper, because of their high cellulose content), agricultural residues

(bamboo, bagasse, straw, etc.) and waste paper (for recycled paper). Raw materials of minor

importance are esparto grass (Stipa tebnacissima, family Poaccae), textile fibers (jute, hemp,

coir, ramie, sisal hemp, sunn hemp, etc.), bast fibers of paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera,

family Moraceae) and fibers of papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), baobab (Adansonia digitata) and

Daphne cannabina. Chinese and Japanese rice paper is made from Tetrapanax papyriferum,

Edgeworthia tomentosa and Wickstroemia canescens.

Generally, softwood tracheids are preferred over hardwood fibers for papermaking because

the tracheids of conifers are longer (about 2–4 mm) than are hardwood fibers (0.5–1.5 mm).

Spruce wood is the most important raw material for pulp. Its fibers are long and strong, with a

maximum content of cellulose. Almost free of resins, gums and tannins, it is light colored,

sound and usually free of defects. The important species used are Picea rubens (red spruce),

P. glauca (white spruce), P. sitchensis (sitka spruce), etc.

The other important raw materials for pulp are pines, other conifers and hardwoods, like

Pinus australis (yellow pine), P. banksiana (jack pine), Tsuga canadensis (eastern hemlock),

T. heterophylla (western hemlock), Abies balsamea (balsam fir), A. concolor (white fir), Larix

laricina (tamarack), Populus tremuloides and P. grandidentata (aspens), Fagus grandifolia

(beech), Acer saccharum (sugar maple) and Betula lutea (birch).

Although ancient Indian written records are on the leaves of the tree called “bhojpatra”

(Betula alnoides, family Betulaceae), the art of papermaking in India started with the installa-

tion of first papermaking machine at Serampore in West Bengal in 1830. The main fibrous raw

materials for papermaking are Bambusa arundinacea, Boswellia serrata, Dendrocalamus

strictus, Eulaliopsis binata (Sabai grass) and Pinus roxburghii. These are followed by Abies

pindrow, Adansonia digitata, Agave americana, Arundo donax, Bambusa polymorpha, B. tulda,

Broussonetia papyrifera, Daphne papyracea, Dendrocalamus giganteus, D. hamiltonii, Euca-

lyptus citriodora, E. globulus, Ochlandra travancorica and Populus ciliata. The following

Indian hardwood species are used for making bleachable pulp: Albizia lebbeck, Anogeissus

latifolia, Chloroxylon swietenia, Gmelina arborea, Lannea coromandelica, Prosopis chilensis,

Pterocarpus marsupium, Sesbania grandiflora, Sterculia urens, Tectona grandis and Terminalia

bellerica.

Page 32: Economic Value of Trees (2)

352 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

(Text continues on p. 357)

18. Tannins

Tannins are soluble, astringent, bitter and complex phenolic substances of plant origin.

These are glycosidal in nature and acidic in reactions. They may be hydrolizable or condensed

in nature. Whereas hydrolyzable tannins are easily split into alcohols and acids by water, con-

densed tannins are not, for they are made up of polymers of cyclic compounds. Tannins may be

present in individual cells or in special containers known as “tannin sacs.” In individual cells,

tannins are found in the cell sap or are impregnated in the cell’s walls, often accumulating in

large quantities in dead tissues such as cork or present in bark, wood, leaves, roots, fruits and

galls.

The biological functions of tannins are not very clear. It is thought that tannins protect the

protoplast against desiccation, decay and injury by animals. It may be concerned with the

formation of cork or with protection of the plant. Economically, tannins are important in vari-

ous ways. They have the ability to unite with certain types of proteins, such as those in animal

skins (hides), to form a strong, flexible, resistant and insoluble substance known as “leather.”

The process and art of converting raw hides and skins of animals into leather, usually through

the use of certain chemicals, is called “tanning.” Tannins react with salts of iron to form dark

blue, blue-black or greenish black compounds, which are the basis of tannin or writing inks.

Tannins are also useful in medicine, because of their astringent nature. Tanning materials are

often utilized in oil drilling to reduce the viscosity of the drill without reducing the specific

gravity. Tannins may be obtained from the different parts of the trees, as shown in Table XII.

19. Dyes

Dyes are colored compounds (pigments) that are capable of being fixed to fabrics perma-

nently; i.e., they neither fade on exposure to light nor wash out with soap. Therefore, a colored

organic substance is not necessarily a dye. For example, trinitrotoluene, which is yellow in

color, cannot fix to a cloth and therefore is not a dye. On the other hand, picric acid, which is

also yellow in color, can fix to a cloth and therefore is a dye. A large number of plants secrete or

contain pigments, but only about 150 are commercially important. In addition, synthetic or

aniline dyes are now obtained from coal-tar products. These are cheaper, brighter, more perma-

nent and easier to use, and they offer a wider range of colors. Among the chief uses of dyes is

in coloring fabrics in the textile industry, where they are used with weak salt solutions of

various metals like iron, chromium, aluminum or tin. A fine layer of metallic oxide, which

forms an insoluble compound with the dye, is deposited on the cloth. Such salts of metals that

increase the adherence of various dyes to the fabrics are called “mordants.” These actually form

a chemical bridge between the fiber molecules and the dye. Dyes are also used for coloring

paints, varnishes, leather, ink, paper, wood, furs, food, cosmetics and medicines. A partial list

of important dye-yielding trees in given in Table XIII.

20. Rubber and Other Latex Products

Rubber is obtained from the milky juice or latex of various tropical or subtropical woody

plants. Latex is a gummy white liquid full of minute globules, a mixture of water, hydrocar-

bons, resins, oils, proteins, acids, salts, sugars and caoutchoue, a substance used as a source of

rubber. Rubber is a polyterpene consisting of a long chain of thousands of isoprene (hydrocar-

bon) units. The tissue containing latex is called “laticiferous tissue.” It consists of latex cells or

latex coenocytes and latex vessels, the latter being formed by the fusion of many latex cells.

Laticifers occur in bark, leaves and other softer parts of trees.

Page 33: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 353

Ta

ble

XII

Tan

nin

-yie

ldin

gtr

ees

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Tan

nin

so

bta

ined

fro

mb

ark

Man

gro

ve

Aeg

icer

as

corn

icu

latu

m,

Bru

gu

iera

con

-ju

ga

ta,

B.

cyli

nd

rica

,B

.p

arv

iflo

ra,

Rh

izo

ph

ora

can

del

ari

a

Rh

izo

ph

ora

ceae

Bar

kis

ver

yh

ard

and

hea

vy

and

con

tain

s2

2–

33

%ta

nn

in;

extr

act

isth

ech

eap

est

sou

rce

of

tan

nin

gm

ater

ial

Wat

tle

Aca

cia

dea

lba

ta,

A.

dec

urr

ens,

A.

leu

co-

cep

ha

la,

A.

mea

rnsi

i,A

.m

oll

is,

A.

nil

oti

ca,

A.

po

lya

can

tha

Mim

osa

ceae

Wat

tles

con

tain

40

–5

0%

tan

nin

.B

ark

,re

mo

ved

wh

entr

ees

are

5–

15

yea

rso

ld,

isg

rou

nd

toa

po

wd

er.

Po

ds

also

con

-ta

inta

nn

in.

Wat

tles

yie

lda

ver

yfi

rm,

pin

kle

ath

er,

use

dfo

rso

les.

Av

aram

Ca

ssia

au

ricu

lata

Cae

salp

inia

ceae

Co

nta

ins

18

–2

3%

tan

nin

;u

sed

for

tan

nin

g

Ko

nn

aib

ark

Ca

ssia

fist

ula

Cae

salp

inia

ceae

Co

nta

ins

10

–1

2%

tan

nin

;u

sed

for

tan

nin

g

Su

mac

Rh

us

mys

ure

nsi

sA

nac

ard

iace

aeU

sed

for

tan

nin

g

Arj

un

Ter

min

ali

aa

rju

na

Co

mb

reta

ceae

Co

nta

ins

20

–2

4%

tan

nin

;u

sed

for

tan

nin

g

Ind

ian

alm

on

dTer

min

ali

aca

tap

pa

Co

mb

reta

ceae

Use

dfo

rta

nn

ing

Juju

be

Ziz

yph

us

ma

uri

tia

na

,Z

.n

um

mu

lari

a,

Z.

oen

op

hli

aR

ham

nac

eae

Use

dfo

rta

nn

ing

Cer

iop

sC

erio

ps

roxb

urg

hia

na

Rh

izo

ph

ora

ceae

Bar

kco

nta

ins

20

–3

7%

tan

nin

;le

aves

,9

–1

5%

Cu

dd

aph

alm

on

dB

uch

an

an

iala

nza

nA

nac

ard

iace

aeU

sed

for

tan

nin

g

Cas

uar

ina

Ca

sua

rin

aeq

uis

etif

oli

a,

C.

sub

ero

saC

asu

arin

acea

eU

sed

for

tan

nin

g

Sal

Sh

ore

aro

bu

sta

Dip

tero

carp

acea

eB

ark

con

tain

s3

–9

%ta

nn

in;

use

dfo

rta

nn

ing

Po

meg

ran

ate

Pu

nic

ag

ran

atu

mP

un

icac

eae

Bar

kan

dfr

uit

use

dfo

rta

nn

ing

Ho

gp

lum

Sp

on

dia

sp

inn

ata

An

acar

dia

ceae

Use

dfo

rta

nn

ing

Oak

Lit

ho

carp

us

den

sifl

ora

,Q

uer

cus

alb

a,

Q.

bo

rea

lis,

Q.

infe

cto

rea

,Q

.le

uco

-tr

ich

op

ho

ra,

Q.

mo

nta

na

,Q

.ve

luti

na

Fag

acea

eB

ark

con

tain

s6

–3

0%

tan

nin

;u

sed

for

tan

nin

g

Mal

let

Eu

caly

ptu

so

ccid

enta

lis

My

rtac

eae

Bar

kco

nta

ins

35

–5

0%

tan

nin

Hem

lock

Tsu

ga

can

ad

ensi

s,T.

het

ero

ph

ylla

Pin

acea

eB

ark

con

tain

8–

30

%ta

nn

in;

use

dfo

rta

nn

ing

Eu

rop

ean

larc

hL

ari

xd

ecid

ua

Pin

acea

e

No

rway

spru

ceP

icea

ab

ies

Pin

acea

e

Tan

ekah

ab

ark

Ph

yllo

cla

du

str

ich

om

an

oid

esP

od

oca

rpac

eae

Page 34: Economic Value of Trees (2)

354 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

XII

,co

nti

nu

ed

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Tan

nin

so

bta

ined

fro

mw

oo

d

Ch

estn

ut

Ca

sta

nea

den

tata

,C

.sa

tiva

Fag

acea

eW

oo

dco

nta

ins

30

–4

0%

tan

nin

Qu

ebra

cho

Sch

ino

psi

sb

ala

nsa

e,S

.lo

ren

tzii

An

acar

dia

ceae

Wo

od

,k

no

wn

as“a

xe

bre

aker

,”is

on

eo

fth

eh

ard

est

kn

ow

nw

oo

ds;

its

spec

ific

gra

vit

yis

1.3

0–

1.4

0.

Wo

od

con

tain

s4

0–

60

%ta

nn

in;

use

dfo

rta

nn

ing

.

Tan

nin

so

bta

ined

fro

mle

aves

Su

mac

Rh

us

cop

all

ina

,R

.g

lab

ra,

R.

mys

ure

nsi

s,R

.p

un

jab

ensi

s,R

.su

cced

an

ea,

R.

ty-

ph

ina

An

acar

dia

ceae

10

–2

5%

tan

nin

inle

aves

/le

afg

alls

;u

sed

for

tan

nin

g

Sm

ok

etr

ee,

Ind

ian

sum

acC

oti

nu

sco

gg

yria

An

acar

dca

ceae

Use

dfo

rta

nn

ing

Gu

mg

hat

ti,

dh

awa

sum

acA

no

gei

ssu

sla

tifo

lia

Co

mb

reta

ceae

Lea

ves

con

tain

32

–3

9%

tan

nin

;u

sed

for

tan

nin

g

Sic

ilia

nsu

mac

Rh

us

cori

ari

aA

nac

ard

iace

aeL

eav

esco

nta

in2

0–

35

%ta

nn

in

Tan

nin

so

bta

ined

fro

mfr

uit

s

My

rob

alan

Ter

min

ali

ab

elle

rica

,T.

cata

pp

a,

T.

che-

bu

la,

T.

citr

ina

,T.

tom

ento

saC

om

bre

tace

aeN

uts

con

tain

30

–4

0%

tan

nin

;u

sed

for

tan

nin

g

Em

bli

cm

yro

bal

anE

mb

lica

off

icin

ali

sE

up

ho

rbia

ceae

Tan

nin

con

ten

t2

8%

infr

uit

,2

1%

intw

igs,

8–

9%

inst

ems,

22

%in

leav

es

Div

id

ivi

Ca

esa

lpin

iaco

ria

ria

,C

.d

igyn

aC

aesa

lpin

iace

aeP

od

sco

nta

in4

0–

50

%ta

nn

in;

use

dfo

rta

nn

ing

Wil

dju

jub

eZ

izyp

hu

sxy

loca

rpa

Rh

amn

acea

eU

sed

for

tan

nin

g

Po

meg

ran

ate

Pu

nic

ag

ran

atu

mP

un

icac

eae

Fru

itsh

ells

and

bar

ku

sed

for

tan

nin

g

To

raC

aes

alp

inia

spin

osa

Cae

salp

inia

ceae

Fru

its

con

tain

43

–5

1%

tan

nin

;u

sed

for

tan

nin

gan

dm

akin

gin

kan

das

ab

lack

dy

e

Alg

aro

bil

laC

aes

alp

inia

bre

vifo

lia

Cae

salp

inia

ceae

Use

dfo

rta

nn

ing

Val

on

iaQ

uer

cus

ma

cro

lep

sis

Fag

acea

eS

un

-dri

edac

orn

cup

sco

nta

in4

5%

tan

nin

;u

sed

for

tan

nin

g

Tan

nin

so

bta

ined

fro

mro

ots

Pal

met

toS

ab

al

pa

lmet

toA

reca

ceae

Tan

nin

con

ten

tin

roo

tsis

low

(10

%)

Page 35: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 355

Ta

ble

XII

I

Dy

e-y

ield

ing

tree

s

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Dy

eso

bta

ined

fro

mw

oo

d

Lo

gw

oo

dH

aem

ato

xylo

nca

mp

ech

ian

um

Cae

salp

inia

ceae

Hea

rtw

oo

dco

nta

ins

pu

rpli

shre

dd

ye;

wit

hir

on

salt

sit

be-

com

esb

lack

;u

sed

for

mak

ing

ink

san

din

his

tolo

gic

alw

ork

asa

stai

n;

also

use

dfo

rd

yei

ng

Cu

tch

Aca

cia

cate

chu

,A

.ca

tech

uo

ides

,A

.su

nd

raM

imo

sace

aeH

eart

wo

od

con

tain

s4

4–

69

%ca

tech

in;

use

das

ad

yei

ng

stu

ff,

asa

mas

tica

tory

and

inm

edic

ine;

cutc

his

the

by

-p

rod

uct

Sap

pan

wo

od

,B

razi

lw

oo

d,

Bra

zili

ne

Ca

esa

lpin

iaec

hin

ata

,C

.sa

pp

an

Cae

salp

inia

ceae

Hea

rtw

oo

dy

ield

sa

red

dy

e;u

sed

for

dy

ein

gco

tto

nan

dw

oo

lan

dfo

rp

rep

arin

gre

din

k

Red

san

dal

wo

od

,re

dsa

nd

ersw

oo

d,

san

tali

ne

Pte

roca

rpu

ssa

nta

lin

us

Pap

ilio

nac

eae

Hea

rtw

oo

dy

ield

sa

red

dy

e;u

sed

for

dy

ein

gco

tto

nan

dw

oo

lan

dfo

rp

rep

arin

gre

din

k

Fu

stic

Ch

loro

ph

ora

tin

cto

ria

Mo

race

aeN

atu

ral

yel

low

,b

row

nan

do

liv

ed

yes

ob

tain

edfr

om

hea

rt-

wo

od

are

use

dfo

rd

yei

ng

Osa

ge

ora

ng

eM

acl

ura

po

mif

era

Mo

race

aeB

rig

ht

ora

ng

ew

oo

dy

ield

so

ran

ge-

yel

low

,g

old

and

gre

end

yes

Cam

wo

od

Ba

ph

ian

itid

aF

abac

eae

Red

wo

od

dy

eis

ob

tain

ed

Bar

wo

od

Pte

roca

rpu

ser

ina

ceo

us,

P.

soya

uxi

iP

apil

ion

acea

eY

ield

ssh

ades

of

bro

wn

,re

dan

dv

iole

td

yes

Art

oca

rpu

sA

rto

carp

us

het

ero

ph

yllu

s,A

.la

koo

cha

Mo

race

aeY

ield

sb

rig

ht

yel

low

dy

e;u

sed

by

Bu

dd

his

tm

on

ks

Dy

eso

bta

ined

fro

mle

aves

Lo

dh

Sym

plo

cos

cra

taeg

oid

esS

ym

plo

cace

aeY

ello

wd

ye

iso

bta

ined

Ch

loro

ph

yll

a(C

55H

72O

5N

4M

g),

Ch

loro

ph

yll

b(C

55H

70O

6N

4M

g);

all

gre

enp

lan

ts

Use

dfo

rco

lori

ng

foo

d,

soap

and

sim

ilar

pro

du

cts

Dy

eso

bta

ined

fro

mro

ots

and

tub

ers

Ind

ian

mu

lber

ryM

ori

nd

aa

ng

ust

ifo

lia

,M

.b

rac-

tea

ta,

M.

citr

ifo

lia

,M

.ti

nct

ori

aR

ub

iace

aeR

oo

tsy

ield

red

and

yel

low

dy

es

Page 36: Economic Value of Trees (2)

356 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

XII

I,co

nti

nu

ed

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Dy

eso

bta

ined

fro

mb

ark

Bis

ho

pw

oo

dB

isch

ofi

aja

van

ica

Eu

ph

orb

iace

aeR

edan

dta

nd

yes

are

ob

tain

ed

Tea

kTec

ton

ag

ran

dis

Ver

ben

acea

eY

ield

sy

ello

wd

ye

for

colo

rin

gb

ask

ets

Qu

erci

tro

nQ

uer

cus

velu

tin

aF

agac

eae

Yie

lds

bri

gh

ty

ello

wd

ye

use

dfo

rd

yei

ng

Lo

kao

,b

uck

tho

rnR

ha

mn

us

glo

bo

sa,

R.

uti

lis

Rh

amn

acea

eY

ield

sg

reen

dy

eu

sed

for

dy

ein

gsi

lks

and

cott

on

s

Dy

eso

bta

ined

fro

mfl

ow

ers

Fla

me

of

the

fore

st,

dh

akB

ute

am

on

osp

erm

aP

apil

ion

acea

eY

ield

sy

ello

wd

ye

use

din

Ho

life

stiv

als

Tre

eo

fso

rro

wN

ycta

nth

esa

rbo

r-tr

isti

sO

leac

eae

Yie

lds

ora

ng

ed

ye

use

dfo

rco

lori

ng

silk

and

cott

on

Sw

eet

ind

raja

oW

rig

hti

ati

nct

ori

aA

po

cyan

acea

eY

ield

sb

lue

dy

e

Red

ced

arTo

on

aci

lia

taM

elia

ceae

Yie

lds

yel

low

ish

red

dy

eu

sed

for

dy

ein

gco

tto

n

Dy

eso

bta

ined

fro

mfr

uit

s

Kam

la,

kam

ela

Ma

llo

tus

ph

ilip

pin

ensi

sE

up

ho

rbia

ceae

Yie

lds

red

dy

eu

sed

for

dy

ein

gsi

lk

Dy

eso

bta

ined

fro

mse

eds

An

nat

toB

ixa

ore

lla

na

Bix

acea

eU

sed

for

colo

rin

gfo

od

stu

ffs

asw

ell

asw

oo

ls,

pai

nts

,v

ar-

nis

hes

and

soap

s

Dh

arau

liW

rig

hti

ato

men

tosa

Ap

ocy

anac

eae

Yie

lds

yel

low

dy

e

Dy

eso

bta

ined

fro

md

iffe

ren

tp

arts

Gu

mre

sin

,g

amb

og

eG

arc

inia

cam

bo

gia

,G

.co

wa

,G

.h

an

bu

ryi,

G.

mo

rell

a,

G.

xan

tho

chym

us

Gu

ttif

erae

Pit

h,

flo

wer

s,le

aves

and

fru

its

yie

lda

yel

low

emu

lsio

nu

sed

for

mak

ing

wat

erco

lors

and

go

ld-c

olo

red

spir

itv

arn

ish

esfo

rm

etal

s

Page 37: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 357

Laticifers are not known in gymnosperms. They are present in a large number of species and

genera belonging to about 20 families, mostly dicotyledonous. Important rubber plants belong

to Apocyanaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Moraceae.

Latex performs five functions in plants: healing of wounds; protection (warding off the

attack of animals) because of the presence of bitter or poisonous alkaloids; storage of food

reserve (for nutrition); formation and storage of excretory products; and transport of materials

(conduction or translocation or as a fluid reservoir).

Joseph Priestley, the discoverer of oxygen, coined the term “rubber,” owing to the fact that

it could be used for removing pencil marks. In 1839 Charles Goodyear discovered the vulcani-

zation process, in which sulphur is added to rubber to cross-link the molecules of isoprene

chains. This process makes the latex impervious to weather conditions and improves its elastic-

ity. Rubber is one of the best insulating and dielectric materials available. The important rub-

ber-yielding woody plants are shown in Table XIV.

21. Gums

Gums contain large amounts of sugars and are closely allied to pectins. They are colloidal in

nature and have the ability to dissolve in water and form a viscid solution (viscous liquids) or

to absorb water and swell to form a gelatinous paste. On exposure to air these pastes dry to

hard, clear, glassy masses by losing their water. Gums are insoluble in alcohol and ether.

Gums exude naturally or in response to wounding from the stems and are formed by disin-

tegration of internal tissues, mostly from the decomposition of cellulose through a process

known as “gummosis.” They are mostly obtained from bark or secondary phloem.

Gums are used in a variety of ways. The finer grades are utilized in finishing silk, clarifying

liqueurs and preparing high-quality watercolors. The intermediate grades are used in printing

inks, in sizing, finishing and dyeing textile fabrics, in confectionery and in the pharmaceutical

industry. The cheaper grades are used as adhesives, in calico printing, in sizing of paper and in

the paint industry. In the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries gums act as emollients or

demulcents or serve to bind or emulsify mixtures in lotions, ointments and creams. They may

add body and bulk to foodstuffs like commercial ice creams.

Commercial gums are dried exudations of dry-region plants belonging to the Anacardiaceae,

Combretaceae, Fabaceae, Meliaceae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae. One hundred or more species of

Acacia alone are known to yield gum. The important gum-yielding trees are shown in Table XV.

22. Resins

Although resins resemble gum in superficial appearance, they differ in origin and chemical

composition. Some resins are sticky, viscous liquids; others are hard, brittle, amorphous solids,

generally clear or transparent but sometimes opaque. Important resin-yielding families, differ-

ences among three main types of resins and resin-yielding trees are presented in Tables XVI,

XVII and XVIII, respectively.

Resins represent oxidation products of various essential oils. They are complex and varied

in their chemical composition. Chemically, they are polymerized terpenes that are usually mixed

with volatile oils. Unlike gums, resins are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol, ether,

turpentine, spirit, carbon disulphide and other solvents. The latter property is utilized to form

varnishes; when applied in thin films, the solvent evaporates, leaving behind a hard, water-

proof layer of resin. Resins are fusible; that is, when heated they first soften and then melt to a

more or less clear, sticky fluid. They are resistant to most reagents and to decay but, when

ignited, burn with a smoky flame.

(Text continues on p. 370)

Page 38: Economic Value of Trees (2)

358 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

XIV

Ru

bb

er-y

ield

ing

tree

s

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Ela

stic

rub

ber

Hev

eao

rP

ará

rub

ber

Hev

eab

rasi

lien

sis

Eu

ph

orb

iace

ae9

8%

of

the

wo

rld

’sru

bb

erco

mes

fro

mth

istr

ee,

wh

ich

isn

ativ

eto

Am

azo

-n

ia;

inIn

dia

itis

ap

lan

tati

on

cro

pin

Ker

ala,

Tam

ilN

adu

and

Kar

nat

aka

Cas

till

ao

rP

anam

aru

bb

erC

ast

illa

ela

stic

aM

ora

ceae

Nat

ive

toM

exic

oan

dC

entr

alA

mer

ica

Cau

cho

rub

ber

Ca

stil

lau

lei

Mo

race

aeN

ativ

eto

Am

azo

nia

Cea

ráo

rM

anic

ob

aru

bb

erM

an

iho

tg

lazi

ovi

iE

up

ho

rbia

ceae

Nat

ive

toB

razi

l;al

sog

row

nin

Ind

ia

Ass

amo

rIn

dia

rub

ber

Fic

us

ela

stic

aM

ora

ceae

Nat

ive

ton

ort

her

nIn

dia

and

Mal

aysi

a;o

flo

wg

rad

ean

dli

ttle

com

mer

cial

val

ue

Man

gab

eira

Ha

nco

rnia

spec

iosa

Ap

ocy

anac

eae

Nat

ive

toB

oli

via

,B

razi

lan

dP

arag

uay

Ch

ilte

rub

ber

Cn

ido

sceo

lus

spp

.E

up

ho

rbia

ceae

No

nel

asti

cru

bb

er

Gu

tta-

per

cha

Pel

aq

uiu

mel

lip

ticu

m,

P.

gu

tta

,P.

po

lya

n-

thu

m

Sap

ota

ceae

Ob

tain

edfr

om

gra

yis

hw

hit

ela

tex

of

this

Mal

aysi

antr

ee;

late

x,

pre

sen

tin

sacs

that

occ

ur

inth

eco

rtex

,p

hlo

em,

pit

han

dle

aves

,is

use

dfo

rin

sula

-ti

on

,su

bm

arin

eca

ble

s,g

olf

bal

ls,

wat

erp

roo

fin

gan

dad

hes

ives

and

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

chic

le

Bal

ata

Ma

nil

kara

bid

enta

taS

apo

tace

aeN

ativ

eto

Tri

nid

adan

dS

ou

thA

mer

ica;

use

dfo

rin

sula

tio

n,

sub

mar

ine

ca-

ble

s,g

olf

bal

ls,

wat

erp

roo

fin

gan

dad

hes

ives

and

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

chic

le

Jelu

ton

gD

yera

cost

ula

taA

po

cyan

acea

eA

Mal

ayas

ian

tree

;u

sed

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

chic

le

Ch

icle

,sa

po

dil

la,

nas

eber

ryM

an

ilka

raa

chra

sS

apo

tace

aeN

ativ

eto

the

Yu

catá

nP

enin

sula

,cu

ltiv

ated

inIn

dia

;la

tex

con

tain

s2

0–

25

%g

utt

a-p

erch

a–li

ke

gu

mca

lled

“ch

icle

,”w

hic

his

the

bas

iso

fth

ech

ewin

gg

um

ind

ust

ry;

also

use

din

mak

ing

surg

ical

tap

ean

dd

enta

lsu

pp

lies

So

rva,

lech

eca

spe

Co

um

am

acr

oca

rpa

Ap

ocy

anae

aeA

larg

eA

maz

on

ian

tree

;u

sed

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

chic

le

Page 39: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 359

Ta

ble

XV

Gu

m-y

ield

ing

tree

s

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Gu

mar

abic

,k

um

taA

caci

ase

neg

al

Mim

osa

ceae

Gu

mo

bta

ined

fro

mb

ark

;u

sed

for

all

pu

rpo

ses

men

tio

ned

inth

ete

xt

Kh

air

Aca

cia

cate

chu

Mim

osa

ceae

Gu

mo

bta

ined

fro

mb

ark

;u

sed

for

all

pu

rpo

ses

men

tio

ned

inth

ete

xt

Bab

ul,

acac

ia,

kik

arA

caci

an

ilo

tica

Mim

osa

ceae

Gu

mo

bta

ined

fro

mb

ark

;u

sed

inco

nfe

ctio

ner

y

Aca

cia

Aca

cia

mo

des

taM

imo

sace

aeU

sed

inm

edic

ine

and

inp

rin

tin

gca

lico

So

nk

hai

r,k

aig

erA

caci

afe

rru

gin

eaM

imo

sace

aeG

um

ob

tain

edfr

om

bar

k;

use

dfo

ral

lp

urp

ose

sm

enti

on

edin

the

tex

t

Kar

aya,

kan

dy

a,k

atir

a,k

ute

era,

kat

illo

,k

ull

o,

Ind

iao

rst

ercu

lia

gu

m

Ste

rcu

lia

ure

ns,

S.

vill

osa

Ste

rcu

liac

eae

Gu

mo

bta

ined

fro

mh

eart

wo

od

;u

sed

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

gu

mtr

agac

anth

,al

soin

the

cosm

etic

and

cig

arin

du

stri

esin

sev

eral

emu

lsio

ns,

loti

on

s,p

aste

san

das

ala

xat

ive;

form

sa

stro

ng

adh

esiv

eg

elw

ith

ali

ttle

wa-

ter

Gu

mg

hat

tiA

no

gei

ssu

sla

tifo

lia

Co

mb

reta

ceae

Use

das

asu

bst

itu

tefo

rg

um

arab

ic;

also

use

din

cera

mic

s,fo

od

san

dth

ep

etro

leu

min

du

stry

,as

ad

rill

ing

mu

dco

nd

itio

ner

,an

din

the

exp

lo-

siv

esin

du

stry

Gu

mlo

cust

,ca

rob

Cer

ato

nia

sili

qu

aC

aesa

lpin

iace

aeN

ot

atr

ue

gu

mb

ecau

seit

iso

bta

ined

no

tfr

om

wo

un

ded

wo

od

yti

ssu

esb

ut

fro

mth

een

do

sper

mo

fse

eds;

was

use

db

yE

gy

pti

ans

asan

adh

e-si

ve

for

bin

din

gm

um

mie

s,n

ow

use

din

the

foo

din

du

stry

and

for

oth

erp

urp

ose

sm

enti

on

edin

the

tex

t

Cel

lulo

seg

um

,ca

bo

xy

-m

eth

yl

cell

ulo

seg

um

;g

reen

pla

nts

Pre

par

edb

ym

ixin

gp

uri

fied

cell

ulo

sew

ith

sod

ium

mo

no

chlo

roac

etat

ein

anal

kal

ine

med

ium

;ex

tra

wh

iten

ing

and

bri

gh

ten

ing

of

det

erg

ents

isd

ue

toth

isg

um

;al

sou

sed

inth

ep

aper

,te

xti

le,

foo

dan

dp

ain

tin

du

s-tr

ies

—L

imo

nia

aci

dis

sim

aR

uta

ceae

Su

bst

itu

tefo

rg

um

arab

ic

Ho

gg

um

Co

chlo

sper

mu

mre

lig

iosu

mC

oh

losp

erm

acea

eS

ub

stit

ute

for

gu

mar

abic

;is

edib

le

Cy

cas

gu

mC

yca

sci

rcin

ali

sC

yca

dac

eae

Lar

chg

um

La

rix

occ

iden

tali

sP

inac

eae

Gu

mo

bta

ined

fro

mw

oo

dch

ips;

use

das

asu

bst

itu

tefo

rg

um

arab

ic

Mes

qu

ite

gu

m,

kab

uli

kik

arP

roso

pis

chil

ensi

s,P

gla

nd

u-

losa

,P.

juli

flo

raM

imo

sace

aeG

um

ob

tain

edfr

om

stem

s;u

sed

for

pri

nti

ng

cali

co

Ch

erry

gu

mP

run

us

cera

soid

es,

P.

cera

sus

Ro

sace

aeU

sed

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

gu

mar

abic

Page 40: Economic Value of Trees (2)

360 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

XV

,co

nti

nu

ed

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Eas

tIn

dia

nco

pal

Ca

na

riu

mb

eng

ale

nse

Bu

rser

acea

eG

um

ob

tain

edfr

om

stem

s;u

sed

asa

har

d-d

ryin

gv

arn

ish

Gu

mb

enzo

in,

ben

jam

inSty

rax

ben

zoin

Sty

raca

ceae

So

urc

eo

fb

enzo

icac

id

Jhin

gan

gu

mL

an

nea

coro

ma

nd

elic

aA

nac

ard

iace

aeU

sed

inp

rin

tin

gca

lico

and

assi

zin

gin

the

pap

eran

dte

xti

lein

du

stri

es

Mal

abar

kin

og

um

Pte

roca

rpu

sm

ars

up

ium

Pap

ilio

nac

eae

Val

uab

lem

edic

ine

ind

iarr

hea

and

dy

sen

tery

Ben

gal

kin

oB

ute

am

on

osp

erm

aP

apil

ion

acea

eV

alu

able

med

icin

ein

dia

rrh

eaan

dd

yse

nte

ry

—A

stra

ga

lus

pro

lixu

sP

apil

ion

acea

eG

um

ob

tain

edfr

om

stem

s;u

sed

inco

smet

ics,

pri

nti

ng

cali

coan

dco

nfe

c-ti

on

ery

Gar

mez

uA

stra

ga

lus

stro

bil

ifer

us

Pap

ilio

nac

eae

Gu

mo

bta

ined

fro

mst

ems;

use

din

con

fect

ion

ery

Gu

mn

eem

Aza

dir

ach

tain

dic

aM

elia

ceae

Wo

od

app

le,

ku

tb

elF

ero

nia

lim

on

iaR

uta

ceae

Gu

mo

bta

ined

fro

mtr

un

kan

db

ran

ches

;u

sed

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

gu

mar

abic

Bia

lam

An

iso

pte

rasc

ap

hu

laD

ipte

roca

rpac

eae

Co

wa

Ga

rcin

iaco

wa

Gu

ttif

erae

Gu

mo

bta

ined

fro

mtr

un

kan

db

ran

ches

;u

sed

for

pre

par

ing

yel

low

var

-n

ish

Sem

lag

on

dB

au

hin

iare

tusa

Mim

osa

ceae

Su

bst

itu

tefo

rg

um

arab

ic;

use

dfo

rsi

zin

gcl

oth

and

pap

eran

dfo

rw

ater

-p

roo

fin

gte

rrac

edro

ofs

Alb

izia

gu

ms

Alb

izia

chin

ensi

s,A

.le

bb

ek,

A.

od

ora

tiss

ima

,A

.p

roce

raM

imo

sace

aeU

sed

for

var

iou

sp

urp

ose

s

Bau

hin

iag

um

sB

au

hin

iap

urp

ure

a,

B.

race

-m

osa

,B

.va

rieg

ata

Mim

osa

ceae

—C

hlo

roxy

lon

swie

ten

iaR

uta

ceae

Yie

lds

amb

ero

rre

dd

ish

bro

wn

gu

m

Man

go

Ma

ng

ifer

ain

dic

aA

nac

ard

iace

aeS

ub

stit

ute

for

gu

mar

abic

—Ter

min

ali

ab

elle

rica

Co

mb

reta

ceae

Co

nta

ins

cry

stal

so

fca

lciu

mca

rbo

nat

e

—Ter

min

ali

ato

men

tosa

Co

mb

reta

ceae

Use

das

ince

nse

Page 41: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 361

Table XVI

Resin-yielding families

Family Resin

Gymnosperms

Pinaceae Calophony, balsam, Canada balsam, kauri-resin, manil copal,oleo-resin, sandarac

Fossil conifers Amber (from Pinus succinifera)

Angiosperms

Anacardiaceae Mastic

Apiaceae Ammoniacum, asafoetida, galbanum

Berberidaceae Podophyllum

Burseraceae Elemi, frankincense, myrrh

Caesalpiniaceae Copal

Convolvulaceae Jalap, seamony

Dipterocarpaceae Dammars

Guttiferae Gamboge

Hamamelidaceae Storax

Liliaceae Acaroid resin, aloes, dragons blood

Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Balsam of perum, Congo copal, copaiba balsam, Peru balsam,tolu balsam

Styracaceae Benzoin

Zygophyllaceae Guiacum

Table XVII

Differences among three main types of resins

Hard resins Oleo resins Gum resins

Little, if any, essential oil Considerable essential oils aswell as resinous materials

Mixture of both true gums andresins, thus contain smallamounts of essential oilsand traces of coloring matter

Usually solid, more or lesstransparent, brittle sub-stances

More or less liquid in nature Occur naturally as milky exuda-tions, collected as tears orirregular masses

No particular odor or taste Distinct aroma and flavor May have an aroma and flavor

Nonvolatile and very poor con-ductors of electricity but be-come negatively electrifiedwhen friction is applied;readily fusible and burn inair with a smoky flame

Volatile essential oil component

Common examples: copals, da-mars

Common examples: balsams,elemis, turpentines

Common examples: anmoni-acum, asafoetida, galbanum

Page 42: Economic Value of Trees (2)

362 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

XV

III

Res

in-y

ield

ing

tree

s

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Har

dre

sin

s

Zan

zib

arco

pal

,M

adag

asca

rco

pal

,M

oza

mb

iqu

eco

pal

Tra

chyl

ob

ium

verr

uco

sum

Fab

acea

eH

ard

est

of

all

cop

als

exce

pt

amb

er;

liv

ing

,se

mif

oss

ilo

rfo

ssil

inn

atu

re;

yel

low

ish

tob

row

nis

hre

d

Inh

amb

ane

cop

alC

op

aif

era

con

jug

ata

Fab

acea

e

Co

ng

oco

pal

,A

ng

ola

cop

alC

op

aif

era

aem

eusi

i,C

.m

op

an

eF

abac

eae

Liv

ing

asw

ell

asfo

ssil

inn

atu

re;

lig

ht

yel

low

Sie

rra

Leo

ne

cop

alC

op

aif

era

cop

all

ifer

a,

C.

sali

kou

nd

aF

abac

eae

Lig

ht

yel

low

Acc

raco

pal

,B

enin

cop

alD

an

iell

ao

gea

Fab

acea

eL

oca

lly

call

ed“o

gea

gu

m”

inL

iber

ia,

Gh

ana

and

Nig

eria

So

uth

Am

eric

anco

pal

,D

emer

ara

cop

al,

Par

áco

pal

Hym

ena

eaco

urb

ari

lF

abac

eae

So

ftes

to

fal

lco

pal

s

Man

ila

cop

alA

ga

this

alb

aA

rau

cari

acea

eL

ivin

g,

sem

ifo

ssil

or

foss

ilin

nat

ure

;y

ello

w

Kau

rico

pal

,k

auri

gu

mA

ga

this

au

stra

lis

Ara

uca

riac

eae

Liv

ing

,se

mif

oss

ilo

rfo

ssil

inn

atu

re;

yel

low

Dam

arm

ata

ku

chin

gH

op

eam

icra

nth

aD

ipte

roca

rpac

eae

Dam

arp

enak

Ba

lan

oca

rpu

sh

eim

iiD

ipte

roca

rpac

eae

Dam

arte

mak

Sh

ore

ah

ypo

chra

Dip

tero

carp

acea

e

Sal

dam

ar,

gu

gg

ald

hu

ma,

ral

dh

um

a,la

ld

hu

ma

Sh

ore

aro

bu

sta

Dip

tero

carp

acea

eU

sed

asan

ing

red

ien

to

f“s

amag

ri,”

wh

ich

isb

urn

edin

reli

gio

us

cere

mo

nie

s

Kal

ad

amar

Sh

ore

atu

mb

ug

ga

iaD

ipte

roca

rpac

eae

Use

das

anin

cen

sean

din

mar

ine

yar

ds

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

pit

ch

Wh

ite

dam

ar,

pin

eyre

sin

,In

dia

nco

pal

,d

hu

pa

Va

teri

ain

dic

aD

ipte

roca

rpac

eae

Use

din

med

icin

eto

trea

tch

ron

icb

ron

chit

is,

dia

rrh

eaan

drh

eum

a-ti

sm

Bla

ckd

amar

Ca

na

riu

mst

rict

um

Bu

rser

acea

eU

sed

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

bu

rgu

nd

yp

itch

inm

edic

alp

last

ers

Bat

avia

nd

amar

Sh

ore

aw

iesn

eri

Dip

tero

carp

acea

e

Ro

ckd

amar

Ho

pea

od

ora

taD

ipte

roca

rpac

eae

Use

din

var

nis

hes

Page 43: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 363

Am

ber

Pin

us

(=P

init

es)

succ

ini-

fera

(pri

nci

pal

sou

rce)

Pin

acea

eF

oss

iliz

edte

rpen

oid

resi

no

ccu

rrin

go

nth

esh

ore

so

fth

eB

alti

cS

ea,

itis

the

on

lyje

wel

of

pla

nt

ori

gin

.It

isex

ceed

ing

lyh

ard

,b

ritt

le,

yel

low

tob

row

no

rev

enb

lack

,tr

ansp

aren

to

ro

paq

ue

wit

ha

char

acte

rist

icar

om

atic

od

or;

wh

enru

bb

ed,

itta

kes

ah

igh

po

lish

and

bec

om

esn

egat

ivel

ych

arg

ed.

Use

dfo

rb

ead

s,o

rnam

ents

,m

ou

thp

iece

so

fp

ipes

and

ho

lder

sfo

rci

gar

san

dci

gar

ette

s,et

c.S

om

etim

eso

rgan

ism

so

fth

ep

ast

are

emb

edd

edin

it.

Am

ber

Hym

ena

easp

p.,

Co

pa

ifer

asp

p.

(oth

erso

urc

es)

Fab

acea

eF

oss

iliz

edte

rpen

oid

resi

no

ccu

rrin

go

nth

esh

ore

so

fth

eB

alti

cS

ea,

itis

the

on

lyje

wel

of

pla

nt

ori

gin

.It

isex

ceed

ing

lyh

ard

,b

ritt

le,

yel

low

tob

row

no

rev

enb

lack

,tr

ansp

aren

to

ro

paq

ue

wit

ha

char

acte

rist

icar

om

atic

od

or;

wh

enru

bb

ed,

itta

kes

ah

igh

po

lish

and

bec

om

esn

egat

ivel

ych

arg

ed.

Use

dfo

rb

ead

s,o

rnam

ents

,m

ou

thp

iece

so

fp

ipes

and

ho

lder

sfo

rci

gar

san

dci

gar

ette

s,et

c.S

om

etim

eso

rgan

ism

so

fth

ep

ast

are

emb

edd

edin

it.

Lac

qu

erR

hu

sve

rnic

iflu

a,

R.

suc-

ced

an

eaA

nac

ard

iace

aeN

atu

ral

var

nis

hex

ud

edfr

om

Asi

atic

tree

s,it

affo

rds

pro

tect

ion

be-

cau

seit

rem

ain

su

nch

ang

edb

yac

ids,

alk

alis

,al

coh

ol

or

hea

tu

pto

16

0�F

Rh

us

succ

eda

nea

yie

lds

liq

uid

resi

nfr

om

the

mes

oca

rpo

ffr

uit

s,w

hic

his

use

din

oin

tmen

ts,

wax

var

nis

hes

,et

c.

Bu

rmes

ela

cqu

er,

thit

siM

ela

no

rrh

oea

usi

tata

An

acar

dia

ceae

Aff

ord

sp

rote

ctio

nb

ecau

seit

rem

ain

su

nch

ang

edb

yac

ids,

alk

alis

,al

coh

ol

or

hea

tu

pto

16

0�F

Sh

ella

cB

ute

am

on

osp

erm

a,

Ca

jan

us

caja

nP

apil

ion

acea

eN

ot

stri

ctly

ap

lan

tp

rod

uct

bu

ta

resi

no

us

sub

stan

cese

cret

edo

nth

etw

igs

of

man

ytr

ees

by

the

sap

-fee

din

gst

ick

lac

inse

ctTa

cha

r-d

iala

cca

(“la

cca”

isd

eriv

edfr

om

the

San

skri

tw

ord

laks

ha

,m

ean

ing

“lak

h”)

.U

sed

inth

em

anu

fact

ure

of

ph

on

og

rap

hre

c-o

rds,

hig

h-g

rad

ein

sula

tors

,sp

irit

var

nis

h,

seal

ing

wax

,d

raw

ing

ink

,w

ater

colo

rs,

nit

roce

llu

lose

lacq

uer

san

das

sizi

ng

inp

aper

and

stif

fen

ing

infe

lth

ats.

Sh

ella

cS

chle

ich

era

ole

osa

Sap

ind

acea

eN

ot

stri

ctly

ap

lan

tp

rod

uct

bu

ta

resi

no

us

sub

stan

cese

cret

edo

nth

etw

igs

of

man

ytr

ees

by

the

sap

-fee

din

gst

ick

lac

inse

ctTa

cha

r-d

iala

cca

(“la

cca”

isd

eriv

edfr

om

the

San

skri

tw

ord

laks

ha

,m

ean

ing

“lak

h”)

.U

sed

inth

em

anu

fact

ure

of

ph

on

og

rap

hre

c-o

rds,

hig

h-g

rad

ein

sula

tors

,sp

irit

var

nis

h,

seal

ing

wax

,d

raw

ing

ink

,w

ater

colo

rs,

nit

roce

llu

lose

lacq

uer

san

das

sizi

ng

inp

aper

and

stif

fen

ing

infe

lth

ats.

Page 44: Economic Value of Trees (2)

364 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

XV

III,

con

tin

ued

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Har

dre

sin

s,co

nti

nu

ed

Sh

ella

cZ

izyp

hu

sxy

lop

yru

sR

ham

nac

eae

No

tst

rict

lya

pla

nt

pro

du

ctb

ut

are

sin

ou

ssu

bst

ance

secr

eted

on

the

twig

so

fm

any

tree

sb

yth

esa

p-f

eed

ing

stic

kla

cin

sect

Ta

cha

r-d

iala

cca

(“la

cca”

isd

eriv

edfr

om

the

San

skri

tw

ord

laks

ha

,m

ean

ing

“lak

h”)

.U

sed

inth

em

anu

fact

ure

of

ph

on

og

rap

hre

c-o

rds,

hig

h-g

rad

ein

sula

tors

,sp

irit

var

nis

h,

seal

ing

wax

,d

raw

ing

ink

,w

ater

colo

rs,

nit

roce

llu

lose

lacq

uer

san

das

sizi

ng

inp

aper

and

stif

fen

ing

infe

lth

ats.

Sh

ella

cF

icu

sre

lig

iosa

Mo

race

aeN

ot

stri

ctly

ap

lan

tp

rod

uct

bu

ta

resi

no

us

sub

stan

cese

cret

edo

nth

etw

igs

of

man

ytr

ees

by

the

sap

-fee

din

gst

ick

lac

inse

ctTa

cha

r-d

iala

cca

(“la

cca”

isd

eriv

edfr

om

the

San

skri

tw

ord

laks

ha

,m

ean

ing

“lak

h”)

.U

sed

inth

em

anu

fact

ure

of

ph

on

og

rap

hre

c-o

rds,

hig

h-g

rad

ein

sula

tors

,sp

irit

var

nis

h,

seal

ing

wax

,d

raw

ing

ink

,w

ater

colo

rs,

nit

roce

llu

lose

lacq

uer

san

das

sizi

ng

inp

aper

and

stif

fen

ing

infe

lth

ats.

Sh

ella

cA

caci

an

ilo

tica

Mim

osa

ceae

No

tst

rict

lya

pla

nt

pro

du

ctb

ut

are

sin

ou

ssu

bst

ance

secr

eted

on

the

twig

so

fm

any

tree

sb

yth

esa

p-f

eed

ing

stic

kla

cin

sect

Ta

cha

r-d

iala

cca

(“la

cca”

isd

eriv

edfr

om

the

San

skri

tw

ord

laks

ha

,m

ean

ing

“lak

h”)

.U

sed

inth

em

anu

fact

ure

of

ph

on

og

rap

hre

c-o

rds,

hig

h-g

rad

ein

sula

tors

,sp

irit

var

nis

h,

seal

ing

wax

,d

raw

ing

ink

,w

ater

colo

rs,

nit

roce

llu

lose

lacq

uer

san

das

sizi

ng

inp

aper

and

stif

fen

ing

infe

lth

ats.

Aca

roid

or

gra

ss-t

ree

resi

ns

Xa

nth

orr

ho

eah

ast

ilis

,X

.ta

tea

na

,X

.a

ust

rali

sL

ilia

ceae

Res

inco

llec

ted

aro

un

dth

eb

ases

of

old

leav

esis

yel

low

fro

mth

efi

rst

spec

ies

and

red

fro

mth

eo

ther

spec

ies.

Use

din

mak

ing

seal

ing

wax

and

spir

itv

arn

ish

esan

das

asu

bst

itu

tefo

rro

sin

inp

aper

sizi

ng

and

ink

;al

soas

aso

urc

eo

fp

icri

cac

idan

din

med

i-ci

ne.

San

dar

acTet

racl

inis

art

icu

lata

,C

al-

litr

isq

ua

dri

valv

isC

up

ress

acea

eS

ecre

ted

inth

efo

rmo

fsm

all

tear

so

nth

eb

ark

,it

ish

ard

,w

hit

ean

dra

ther

bri

ttle

.U

sed

for

coat

ing

lab

els,

neg

ativ

es,

card

bo

ard

leat

her

and

met

alan

din

den

tal

cem

ent,

ince

nse

and

fum

igat

ing

po

wd

er.

Page 45: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 365

Ch

ios

mas

tic

Pis

taci

ale

nti

scu

sP

ista

ciac

eae

Ex

cret

edfr

om

the

bar

kin

the

form

of

lon

g,

ov

oid

,p

ale

yel

low

,b

rit-

tle

tear

s.U

sed

for

coat

ing

met

als

and

bo

tho

ilan

dw

ater

colo

rp

ictu

res;

inth

ep

rep

arat

ion

of

tran

spar

ent

var

nis

hes

and

inch

ewin

gg

um

;al

sou

sed

inp

erfu

mer

y,m

edic

ine,

lith

og

rap

hic

wo

rkan

das

ace

men

tfo

rd

enta

lw

ork

.

Bo

mb

aym

asti

cP

ista

cia

cab

uli

caP

ista

ciac

eae

Du

ll,

mil

k-c

olo

red

resi

n.

Use

dfo

rco

atin

gm

etal

san

db

oth

oil

and

wat

erco

lor

pic

ture

s;in

the

pre

par

atio

no

ftr

ansp

aren

tv

arn

ish

esan

din

chew

ing

gu

m;

also

use

din

per

fum

ery,

med

icin

e,li

tho

-g

rap

hic

wo

rkan

das

ace

men

tfo

rd

enta

lw

ork

.

Mal

bar

,g

um

or

Ind

ian

kin

oP

tero

carp

us

ma

rsu

piu

mF

abac

eae

Use

din

med

icin

efo

rth

roat

tro

ub

les

and

inta

nn

ing

Wes

tA

fric

ank

ino

Pte

roca

rpu

ser

ina

ceu

sF

abac

eae

Red

resi

n,

use

din

med

icin

efo

rth

roat

tro

ub

les

and

inta

nn

ing

Ben

gal

kin

oB

ute

am

on

osp

erm

aF

abac

eae

Use

din

med

icin

efo

rth

roat

tro

ub

les

and

inta

nn

ing

Gu

mk

ino

Eu

caly

ptu

sca

ma

ldu

len

sis

My

rtac

eae

Sec

rete

db

etw

een

the

wo

od

and

the

bar

k

Gu

mk

ino

Dip

tery

xo

do

rata

,C

oc-

colo

ba

uvi

fera

Po

lyg

on

acea

eS

ecre

ted

bet

wee

nth

ew

oo

dan

dth

eb

ark

Les

chA

nti

ari

sto

xica

ria

Mo

race

aeW

hit

ere

sin

,u

sed

for

po

iso

nin

gar

row

san

din

med

icin

e

Ole

ore

sin

s

Tu

rpen

tin

e,b

irja

,b

iro

ja,

lish

a,la

ssa

Pin

us

au

stra

lis,

P.

cari

-b

aea

,P.

po

nd

ero

sa(i

nA

mer

ica)

;P.

rox-

bu

rgh

ii,

P.

wa

llic

hia

na

,P.

mer

kusi

i,P.

insu

-la

ris,

P.

kesi

ya(i

nIn

-d

ia);

P.

pin

ast

er,

P.

ma

riti

ma

(in

Fra

nce

);P.

pin

ast

er,

P.

ha

lep

ensi

s,P.

nig

ra,

P.

pin

ea(i

nS

pai

n);

P.

pin

ast

er,

P.

pin

ea(i

nP

ort

ug

al);

P.

ha

lep

ensi

s(i

nG

reec

e);

P.

sylv

es-

tris

(in

Ru

ssia

,P

ola

nd

and

Ger

man

y)

Pin

acea

eE

xu

ded

fro

mco

nif

ero

us

tree

sas

av

isco

us,

ho

ney

-lik

eli

qu

ido

ra

soft

,st

ick

ysu

bst

ance

call

ed“p

itch

.”O

nd

isti

llat

ion

ity

ield

ses

sen

tial

oil

(cal

led

“oil

”o

r“s

pir

ito

ftu

rpen

tin

e”)

and

rosi

n(t

he

resi

du

e).

Th

eo

ilis

use

din

the

pai

nt

and

var

nis

hin

du

stry

,in

pri

nti

ng

cott

on

and

wo

ol,

asa

solv

ent

for

rub

ber

and

gu

tta-

per

cha,

inm

edic

ine

and

inth

em

anu

fact

ure

of

pin

eo

il,

terp

i-n

eol,

cam

ph

or,

pin

eta

r,v

orm

eol,

vo

neo

lac

etat

ean

do

ther

chem

ical

s.T

he

rosi

n,

or

colo

ph

on

y,is

ab

ritt

le,

fria

ble

,fa

intl

yar

om

atic

,so

lid

use

din

the

man

ufa

ctu

reo

fso

ap,

var

nis

h,

pai

nt,

oil

clo

th,

lin

ole

um

,se

alin

gw

ax,

adh

esiv

es,

pri

nte

rs’

ink

,fl

oo

ran

dro

of

cov

erin

gs,

rub

ber

s,d

rug

s,p

last

ics,

etc.

and

asa

sizi

ng

mat

eria

lfo

rp

aper

.R

osi

no

ilis

use

das

gre

ase,

alu

bri

can

tan

da

solv

ent.

Page 46: Economic Value of Trees (2)

366 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

XV

III,

con

tin

ued

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Ole

ore

sin

s,co

nti

nu

ed

Ven

etia

ntu

rpen

tin

eL

ari

xd

ecid

ua

Pin

acea

eU

sed

inh

isto

log

y,li

tho

gra

ph

icw

ork

,v

arn

ish

esan

dv

eter

inar

ym

edic

ine;

yel

low

ish

or

gre

enis

hli

qu

idw

ith

ach

arac

teri

stic

tast

ean

do

do

r

Bo

rdea

ux

turp

enti

ne

Pin

us

pin

ast

erP

inac

eae

Th

ere

sid

ue,

call

ed“B

urg

un

dy

pit

ch,”

isa

stim

ula

nt

and

cou

nte

rirr

i-ta

nt

and

isu

sed

inp

last

ics,

oin

tmen

tsan

dp

har

mac

euti

cals

Str

asb

ou

rgtu

rpen

tin

eA

bie

sa

lba

Pin

acea

eT

he

resi

du

e,ca

lled

“Bu

rgu

nd

yp

itch

,”is

ast

imu

lan

tan

dco

un

teri

rri-

tan

tan

dis

use

din

pla

stic

s,o

intm

ents

and

ph

arm

aceu

tica

ls

Jura

turp

enti

ne

Pic

eaa

bie

sP

inac

eae

Can

ada

bal

sam

Ab

ies

ba

lsa

mea

Pin

acea

eT

rue

turp

enti

ne

(ole

ore

sin

)fr

om

the

bal

sam

fir,

itis

av

isci

d,

yel

-lo

wis

ho

rg

reen

ish

sub

stan

ceu

sed

asa

mo

un

tin

gm

ediu

mfo

rm

icro

sco

pic

wo

rkan

da

cem

ent

for

op

tica

lle

nse

s;al

sou

sed

asan

irri

tan

t,st

imu

lan

tan

dan

tise

pti

c,as

aco

mp

on

ent

inco

llo

dio

nan

dm

any

pla

ster

san

das

afi

xat

ive

for

soap

and

per

fum

es.

Tec

hn

ical

ly,

bal

sam

sar

ear

om

atic

ole

ore

sin

sth

atco

nta

inb

en-

zoic

or

cin

nam

icac

idan

dar

ele

ssv

isco

us

and

con

tain

less

oil

than

turp

enti

nes

.O

nd

isti

llat

ion

bal

sam

sy

ield

esse

nti

alo

ils

that

are

use

din

med

icin

ean

das

fix

ativ

esin

the

per

fum

ein

du

stry

.

Ore

go

nb

alsa

mP

seu

do

tsu

ga

taxi

foli

aP

inac

eae

Av

isci

d,

yel

low

ish

or

gre

enis

hsu

bst

ance

use

das

am

ou

nti

ng

me-

diu

mfo

rm

icro

sco

pic

wo

rkan

da

cem

ent

for

op

tica

lle

nse

s;al

sou

sed

asan

irri

tan

t,st

imu

lan

tan

dan

tise

pti

c,as

aco

mp

on

ent

inco

llo

dio

nan

dm

any

pla

ster

san

das

afi

xat

ive

for

soap

and

per

-fu

mes

Sp

ruce

gu

mP

icea

rub

ens

Pin

acea

eO

bta

ined

fro

mw

oo

dan

db

ark

,th

eo

leo

resi

nis

thin

,cl

ean

,b

itte

ran

dst

ick

y,h

ard

ens

on

exp

osu

reto

air

and

has

ap

leas

ing

,re

sin

ou

sta

ste.

Use

das

am

asti

cato

ryb

ecau

seit

soft

ens

inth

em

ou

than

db

eco

mes

red

dis

h.

Page 47: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 367

Bal

sam

of

Per

uM

yro

xylo

np

erei

rae

Fab

acea

eA

dar

k,

red

dis

hb

row

n,

thic

k,

vis

cou

s,sy

rup

yli

qu

ido

bta

ined

by

wo

un

din

gth

etr

ee.

Use

din

med

icin

efo

rtr

eati

ng

slo

w-h

eali

ng

wo

un

ds

and

skin

dis

ease

s(e

spec

iall

yd

uri

ng

Wo

rld

War

II)

and

,b

ecau

seo

fit

sst

imu

lati

ng

and

anti

sep

tic

effe

cto

nm

uco

us

mem

-b

ran

es,

for

trea

tin

gco

ug

hs,

bro

nch

itis

,et

c.;

also

use

das

asu

b-

stit

ute

for

van

illa

,as

afi

xat

ive

inp

erfu

mes

and

inth

eso

apin

du

stry

.T

he

com

mo

nn

ame

isa

mis

no

mer

bec

ause

the

tree

gro

ws

inC

entr

alA

mer

ica,

no

tin

Per

u.

Bal

sam

of

To

luM

yro

xylo

nb

als

am

um

Pap

ilio

nac

eae

Ab

row

no

ry

ello

wis

hb

row

n,

pla

stic

sub

stan

cew

ith

ap

leas

ant

aro

-m

atic

tast

ean

do

do

r;u

sed

for

alm

ost

the

sam

ep

urp

ose

sas

bal

-sa

mo

fP

eru

Lev

ant

sty

rax

or

sto

rax

Liq

uid

am

ber

ori

enta

lis

Ham

amel

idac

eae

Ase

mil

iqu

id,

stic

ky,

gra

yis

hb

row

n,

op

aqu

e,ar

om

atic

sub

stan

ceo

bta

ined

fro

min

ner

bar

kb

yw

ou

nd

ing

the

tree

;u

sed

inco

smet

-ic

s,so

ap,

adh

esiv

es,

lacq

uer

san

din

cen

seas

afi

xat

ive,

inp

er-

fum

esan

din

med

icin

efo

rth

etr

eatm

ent

of

cou

gh

san

dsc

abie

s

Am

eric

anst

yra

xL

iqu

ida

mb

erst

yra

cifl

ua

Ham

amel

idac

eae

Acl

ear,

thic

k,

bro

wn

ish

yel

low

sem

iso

lid

or

soli

dsu

bst

ance

ob

-ta

ined

fro

min

ner

bar

kb

yw

ou

nd

ing

the

tree

;u

sed

inco

smet

ics,

soap

,ad

hes

ives

,la

cqu

ers

and

ince

nse

;as

afi

xat

ive

inp

erfu

mes

;an

din

med

icin

efo

rth

etr

eatm

ent

of

cou

gh

san

dsc

abie

s.In

dia

imp

ort

sit

fro

mF

ran

ce.

Sia

mb

enzo

in,

bal

sam

icre

sin

Sty

rax

ben

zoid

es,

S.

tan

k-in

ense

Sty

race

aeY

ello

wis

ho

rb

row

nis

h,

peb

ble

-lik

eh

ard

and

bri

ttle

tear

sw

ith

am

ilk

yw

hit

ece

nte

ran

da

stro

ng

,v

anil

la-l

ike

aro

ma;

use

das

in-

cen

sean

din

med

icin

eas

ast

imu

lan

t,d

iure

tic,

carm

inat

ive

and

exp

ecto

ran

t;in

the

man

ufa

ctu

reo

fp

erfu

me,

soap

,to

ilet

wat

er,

loti

on

,to

oth

po

wd

eran

dfu

mig

atin

gm

ater

ials

;a

sou

rce

of

ben

-zo

icac

id

Su

mat

rab

enzo

inSty

rax

ben

zoin

Sty

race

aeR

edd

ish

or

gra

yis

hb

row

nte

ars

that

agg

reg

ate

tofo

rmb

lock

so

rlu

mp

s;u

sed

asin

cen

sean

din

med

icin

eas

ast

imu

lan

t,d

iure

tic,

carm

inat

ive

and

exp

ecto

ran

t;in

the

man

ufa

ctu

reo

fp

erfu

me,

soap

,to

ilet

wat

er,

loti

on

,to

oth

po

wd

eran

dfu

mig

atin

gm

ater

i-al

s;a

sou

rce

of

ben

zoic

acid

Page 48: Economic Value of Trees (2)

368 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Ta

ble

XV

III,

con

tin

ued

Co

mm

on

nam

eG

enu

san

dsp

ecie

sF

amil

yR

emar

ks

Ole

ore

sin

s,co

nti

nu

ed

Co

pai

ba,

Co

pai

ba

bal

sam

,ca

pai

va

Co

pa

ifer

asp

p.,

esp

e-ci

ally

C.

off

icin

ali

s,C

.re

ticu

lata

Fab

acea

eO

bta

ined

by

bo

rin

gh

ole

sin

toh

eart

wo

od

,it

isa

thin

,cl

ear,

colo

r-le

ssli

qu

idth

attu

rns

yel

low

and

vis

cid

wit

hag

e,is

aro

mat

ican

dh

asa

bit

ter

tast

e;u

sed

inm

akin

gla

cqu

er,

var

nis

han

dtr

acin

gp

aper

,as

afi

xat

ive

inp

erfu

me

and

soap

;in

ph

oto

gra

ph

yfo

rh

alf-

ton

esan

dsh

ado

ws

and

inm

edic

ine

asa

lax

ativ

e,d

isin

fec-

tan

t,d

iure

tic

and

mil

dst

imu

lan

t

Gu

rjan

bal

sam

Dip

tero

carp

us

ala

tus,

D.

ind

icu

s,D

.tu

rbin

tus

Dip

tero

carp

acea

eT

hic

k,

op

aqu

ean

dg

ray

ish

,it

isu

sed

inm

edic

ine

and

for

cau

lkin

gan

dv

arn

ish

ing

bo

ats

Illu

rin

bal

sam

,A

fric

anco

pai

ba,

Sie

rra

Leo

ne

fran

kin

cen

seD

an

iell

ao

live

ri,

D.

thu

rife

raF

abac

eae

Th

ick

,v

ery

frag

ran

t,p

un

gen

t,p

epp

er-l

ike

ole

ore

sin

Man

ila

elem

iC

an

ari

um

luzo

nic

um

Bu

rser

acea

eO

oze

sfr

om

tru

nk

bar

kin

frag

ran

t,w

hit

em

asse

so

ntr

eetr

un

ks;

use

dlo

call

yfo

rto

rch

es,

for

cau

lkin

gb

oat

s,in

lith

og

rap

hic

wo

rk,

inth

em

anu

fact

ure

of

cem

ents

,ad

hes

ives

and

ink

,in

per

-fu

me,

inm

edic

ine,

inp

last

ics

and

oin

tmen

ts,

and

inth

ev

arn

ish

ind

ust

ryto

mak

ep

rod

uct

sto

ug

han

del

asti

c

Afr

ican

elem

iB

osw

elli

afr

erea

na

Bu

rser

acea

e

Mex

ican

elem

iA

myr

isb

als

am

ifer

a,

A.

elem

ifer

aR

uta

ceae

Bra

zili

anel

emi

Bu

rser

ag

um

mif

era

,P

roti

um

hep

tap

hyl

-lu

m

Bu

rser

acea

e

Mec

cab

alsa

mC

om

mip

ho

rao

pa

ba

l-sa

mu

mB

urs

erac

eae

Ag

reen

ish

,tu

rbid

ole

ore

sin

wit

han

od

or

of

rose

mar

y;

use

din

ince

nse

,p

erfu

mes

and

med

icin

e

Mex

ican

lin

alo

eB

urs

era

pen

icil

lata

Bu

rser

acea

eO

bta

ined

fro

mth

ear

om

atic

fru

its;

use

din

per

fum

e

Sal

aig

um

,In

dia

no

lib

anu

mB

osw

elli

ase

rra

ta:

Bu

rser

acea

eU

sed

asan

ince

nse

,in

med

icin

efo

rrh

eum

atis

m,

ner

vo

us

dis

ease

san

do

intm

ents

and

asa

fire

lig

hte

r

Page 49: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 369

Gu

mre

sin

s

Am

mo

nia

cum

Do

rem

aa

mm

on

iacu

mA

pia

ceae

Ex

ud

esfr

om

stem

san

dfl

ow

erin

gb

ran

ches

asa

mil

ky

juic

eth

ath

ard

ens

on

exp

osu

reto

form

bri

ttle

,b

row

nis

hy

ello

wte

ars,

wh

ich

occ

ur

sin

gly

or

inm

asse

s;u

sed

inp

erfu

mer

yan

din

med

icin

eas

aci

rcu

lato

ryst

imu

lan

t

Her

abo

lm

yrr

hC

om

mip

ho

ram

yrrh

aB

urs

erac

eae

Oo

zes

fro

mst

ems

asa

pal

ey

ello

wli

qu

idth

ath

ard

ens

tofo

rmb

row

no

rb

lack

tear

s;u

sed

inp

erfu

mer

y,as

aco

nst

itu

ent

of

mo

uth

was

han

dd

enti

fric

esan

din

med

icin

eas

ato

nic

,st

imu

lan

tan

dan

tise

pti

c

Bis

abo

l,sw

eet

my

rrh

Co

mm

iph

ora

eryt

hra

eaB

urs

erac

eae

Use

din

ince

nse

,p

erfu

mes

and

emb

alm

ing

and

asa

con

stit

uen

to

fC

hin

ese

joss

stic

ks

Gu

mre

sin

Co

mm

iph

ora

cau

da

taB

urs

erac

eae

Ap

ale

yel

low

liq

uid

that

gra

du

ally

soli

dif

ies

and

turn

sb

row

no

rb

lack

;u

sed

inm

edic

ine,

asin

cen

sean

dfo

rem

bal

min

g

Fra

nk

ince

nse

of

oli

ban

um

Bo

swel

lia

cart

eri

Bu

rser

acea

eE

xu

des

fro

mb

ark

asa

clea

r,y

ello

wre

sin

that

har

den

sin

tosm

all

yel

low

gra

ins;

use

din

ince

nse

and

per

fum

esan

das

afi

xat

ive

for

face

po

wd

ers,

pas

till

esan

dfu

mig

atin

gp

ow

der

s

Ind

ian

fran

kin

cen

se,

lub

anB

osw

elli

ase

rra

taB

urs

erac

eae

Ob

tain

edfr

om

bar

k,

the

ole

o-g

um

-res

inco

nta

ins:

oil

y,tu

rpen

tin

icli

qu

id,

use

das

asu

bst

itu

tefo

rtu

rpen

tin

eo

il;

aro

sin

-lik

ere

sin

,u

sed

inth

eso

apin

du

stry

;an

dg

um

,u

sed

inp

rin

tin

gca

lico

Op

op

anax

Co

mm

iph

ora

kata

fB

urs

erac

eae

Use

din

per

fum

ery

and

inm

edic

ine

Op

op

anax

Op

op

an

ax

chir

on

ium

Ap

iace

aeA

nh

erb

use

din

per

fum

ery

and

inm

edic

ine

Cey

lon

gam

bo

se,

Ind

ian

gam

bo

ge

Ga

rcin

iah

an

bu

ryi,

G.

mo

rell

aG

utt

ifer

aeY

ello

wem

uls

ion

ob

tain

edfr

om

the

pit

h,

leav

es,

flo

wer

san

dfr

uit

s;u

sed

inp

rep

arin

gw

ater

colo

rsan

dg

old

-co

lore

dsp

irit

var

nis

hes

and

inm

edic

ine

asa

vio

len

tca

thar

tic

Mad

arC

alo

tro

pis

gig

an

tea

,C

.h

am

ilto

nii

Asc

lep

iad

acea

eU

sed

asa

sub

stit

ute

for

gu

tta-

per

cha

Page 50: Economic Value of Trees (2)

370 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Resins are very important in industry. Two types are used in manufacturing varnishes and

lacquers. The first type comprises resins that, after melting, can be combined with linseed oil or

turpentine and utilized for forming amber, copal and other oil varnishes. Oil varnishes are

superior but costly.

The word “copal” is of Mexican origin. In England many of the harder copals are known as

“animes.” The copals are resins of recent semifossil or fossil tropical and subtropical tree spe-

cies. They contain almost no oil and yield a hard, elastic varnish, which is much used for

outdoor work.

The second type of resins comprises those that dissolve in alcohol, turpentine or other

volatile solvents. They are utilized for forming spirit varnishes, such as rosin, damar, sandarac,

mastic and elemis. Spirit varnishes are less expensive and more easily prepared and applied.

They produce brilliant, transparent finishes. All damars are used chiefly in spirit varnishes and

in the manufacture of nitrocellulose lacquers. Damar varnishes are softer, less durable and

adhere better. They are used mainly for varnishing paper because of their luster and light color.

They are also used for indoor work and in histology. “Elemi” is a collective name for several

oleoresins of different origin that exude as clear, pale liquids. Most tend to harden on exposure,

but some may remain soft.

Resinous substances have been used for waterproof coatings and also for decorative coat-

ings for ages. The ancient Egyptians varnished their mummy cases, and the Incas utilized resins

in their embalming mixtures. Resins are also used in the preparation of soap—they dissolve in

alkali to form soap—and in medicine, for sizing paper, as a stiffening material for mats, in the

preparation of fixatives, incenses, perfumes, tobacco flavorings, sealing wax, plastics, lino-

leum, oilcloth, printers’ ink, adhesives, etc. Their combustible properties are utilized for mak-

ing torches; their waterproofing qualities, for making boats.

Resins tend to lessen the amount of water lost from the tissues of plants. Because of their antisep-

tic properties, resins prevent decay, and, when present in wood, add strength and durability.

Resin is secreted in plant tissues in specialized canals or cavities called “resin ducts,” which

are lined with a special layer of secretory cells, called the “epithelial layer,” that secrete resin

into the cavity through a thin cuticular layer. Resin ducts may be present in leaves, wood and

bark of stems. They normally ooze out through the bark and harden on exposure to air. Com-

mercial resins, however, are extracted from artificial wounds or fossil materials.

23. Cork

Commercial cork is obtained from the outer bark (phellem) of cork oak, Quercus suber, an

evergreen tree of the family Fagaceae. It is native to the western Mediterranean region: about

70% of the world’s commercial cork comes from Portugal alone. Cork is nothing more than

thin-walled but strong cellulosic cell walls, which are heavily coated with suberin, a substance

that is impervious to water. Cell lumens, which represent nearly 53% of the total cork volume,

are filled with air, thus making cork very light—its specific gravity is 0.15–0.25.

Cork is buoyant, light and highly compressible, but it is resilient, chemically inert to mois-

ture and common liquids, resistant to deterioration, an excellent insulator, a nonconductor of

electricity, a low thermal conductor and impervious to water and other liquids. It imparts no

flavor or odor to substances, is slow to catch fire, absorbs sound and vibrations and has a high

coefficient of friction. All of these properties render commercial cork invaluable in the world

market, and it is used either as natural cork or as composition cork, the latter as linoleum,

linotiles, binder-coated cork and cork (insulation) boards. Cork is used in the preparation of

stoppers, hats and helmets, tips for cigarettes, carburetor floats, fishing-net floats, golf-club

handles, penholders, fishing rods, life preservers, floats and life jackets, surf balls, seals for

Page 51: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 371

jars, sealing liners, shoe insoles, sporting goods, picture frames, small cork balls in referees’

whistles, etc.

24. Food for Silkworms

Mulberry silk accounts for 95% of the world’s silk production. It is produced by Bombyx

mori L., which feeds on the leaves of mulberry plants. Morus is the Latin word for “mulberry”

(French: muries; Italian: gelso; Japanese: lewwa). It belongs to the family Moraceae, of the

order Unisexuales or Urticales. The following species of Morus are known in the world: acidosa,

arabica, atropurpurea, australis, bombycis, boninensis, cathayama, celtidifolia, cordatifelia,

indica, glabrata, insignis, japonica, kagayamae, laevigata, latifolia, lhou, macroura, micro-

phylla, miyabean, mizuho, mollis, mongolica, mosozygia, multicaulis, nigra, nigriformis,

notabilis, pabularia, philippinensis, rotundifolia, rubra, serrata, sinensis, tiliaefolia and

yoshimurai (Seth & Lal, 2002).

Tasar silk is the product of the secretion from the silk glands of Antheraea proylei and

A. mylitta, the temperate and tropical tasar silkworms, respectively. Although Antheraea spe-

cies are polyphagous in nature, the food plants of first choice are known as “primary” and

others, as “secondary.” The three main food plants of tropical tasar silkworms are: Terminalia

alata, syn. T. tomentosa, vern. asan; Terminatia arjuna, vern. arjun; and Shorea robusta, vern.

sal. In addition to the three main food plants, the tasar silkworm may feed on the following

(Seth, 2000a):

• Anogeissus latifolia; axlewood, vern. dhawa, dhaura, dhaunta; family Combretaceae,

order Myrtales

• Bauhinia variegata; vern. kachnar; family Caesalpiniaceae, order Rosales

• Bombax ceiba, syn. Salmalia malabarica, Bombax malabaricum, Gossampinus mala-

barica; silk cotton tree, vern. semul, shembal, raket-senbal, kaanti sembal, pagun; fam-

ily Bombacaceae, order Malvales

• Canthium dicoccum, syn. C. didymum, Plectronia didyma; vern. rangruri; family Rubi-

aceae, order Rubiales

• Capadessa fruiticosa: vern. nalbali; family Meliaceae, order Geraniales

• Careya arborea; kumbi, vern. kumbi; family Lecythidaceae, order Myrtales

• Carissa carundus; karunda, vern. karumcha, karaunda; family Apocynaceae, order

Gentianales

• Celastrus paniculatus; vern. malkangni; family Celastraceae, order Celastrales

• Chloroxylon swietenia; East Indian satinwood, vern. bhirra, girya; family Rutaceae, or-

der Geraniales

• Dodonaea viscosa; vern. aliar, sinatha; family Sapindaceae, order Sapindales

• Ficus benjamina; family Moraceae, order Unisexuales or Urticales

• Ficus religiosa; peepal, vern. pipal, pipli; family Moraceae, order Unisexuales or Urticales

• Ficus retusa; vern. kamrup, chilkan; family Moraceae, order Unisexuales or Urticales

• Ficus tsiela; vern. jari; family Moraceae, order Unisexuales or Urticales

• Ficus tsjakela; family Moraceae, order Unisexuales or Urticales

• Hardwickia binata; anjan, vern. anjan; family Caesalpiniaceae, order Rosales

• Lagerstroemia indica; common crape myrtle, vern. saoni; family Lythraceae, order

Myrtales

• Lagerstroemia parviflora; landau, vern. Sida, dhaura, Bali, Sidi; family Lythraceae, or-

der Myrtales

• Madhuca indica, syn. M. latifolia, Bassia latifolia; mahua, mowra, illipe, butter tree,

vern. mahua, mohwa, mauwa; family Sapotaceae, order Sapindales

Page 52: Economic Value of Trees (2)

372 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

• Melastoma malabathricum; vern. phutki; family Melastomataceae, order Myrtales

• Ricinus communis; castor, castor seed, vern. erandi, bharenda; family Euphorbiaceae,

order Euphorbiales

• Shorea roxburghii, syn. S. talura; lac tree of South India; family Dipterocarpaceae, or-

der Parietales

• Syzygium cuminii, syn. Eugenia jambolana, E. cuminii; jaman, jambolan, blackplum,

java plum, vern. jamun, jam; family Myrtaceae, order Myrtales

• Tectona grandis; teak, vern. sagun, sagwan; family Verbenaceae, order Lamiales

• Terminalia bellerica; belleric myrobalan, bahera, vern. bahera; family Combretaceae,

order Myrtales

• Terminalia catappa; Indian almond tree, vern. deshibadam; family Combretaceae, order

Myrtales

• Terminalia chebula; chebulic myrobalan, vern. haritaki, harar; family Combretaceae,

order Myrtales

• Terminalia coriacea, syn. T. tomentosa var. coriacea; leathery murdah, vern. tani; fam-

ily Combretaceae, order Myrtales

• Terminalia crenulata, syn. T. tomentosa var. crenulata; vern. karu maruthu, tehmbava;

family Combretaceae, order Myrtales

• Terminalia paniculata; flowering murdah, kindal, vern. kinjal; family Combretaceae,

order Myrtales

• Zizyphus jujuba, syn. Z. sativa, Z. vulgaris; vern. pitni ber, ban ber, beri; family Rham-

naceae, order Celastrales

• Zizyphus mauritiana, syn. Z. jujuba; Indian jujube, common jujube, vern. ber, hevi;

family Rhamnaceae, order Celastrales

• Zizyphus rugosa, vern. bhand, churna; family Rhamnaceae, order Celastrales

• Zizyphus xylopyra, including Z. glaberrima santapau; katber, kathber, ghont; family

Rhamnaceae, order Celastrales

The introduction of two oak tasar silkworms, Antheraea proylei and A. pernyi, has enabled

India to produce oak tasar silk. The main food plants of oak tasar silkworms belong to Quercus

species, the oaks of the family Fagaceae, order Fagales. The other food plants of temperate

tasar belong to genera like Castanopsis and Lithocarpus, of the family Fagaceae, order Fagales,

and Salix, of the family Salicaceae, order Salicales. The different species of these food plants

are (Seth, 2000b):

• Castanopsis hystrix, syn. C. rufescens; vern. katus, hingori

• Castanopsis indica; Indian chestnut, vern. bank katus, serang

• Lithocarpus dealbatus, syn. Quercus dealbata

• Quercus aegilops; valonia oak

• Quercus acutissima, syn. Q. serrata

• Quercus borealis; American red oak

• Quercus castaneaefolia; chestnut-leaved oak

• Quercus cerris; turkey oak

• Quercus coccinea; scarlet oak

• Quercus crispula

• Quercus dentata

• Quercus dilatata; green oak, moru oak, vern. moru, tilonj

• Quercus floribunda

• Quercus frainetto; Hungarian oak

• Quercus glauca; blue Japanese oak, vern. bran, siri, inai

Page 53: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 373

• Quercus griffithii; vern. dingim

• Quercus hispanica var. lucombeana; lucombe oak

• Quercus ilex; evergreen oak, holly or holm oak, vern. bechur, iri

• Quercus infectoria; gall oak, Dyer’s oak, vern. majuphal, mazu, muphal

• Quercus lamellosa; vern. buk, shalshi

• Quercus lanata, syn. Q. lanuginosa; woolly oak, vern. ranj, kiani

• Quercus lanceaefolia, syn. Castanopsis lanceaefolia; vern. siri, shingra

• Quercus leucotrichophora, syn. Q. incana; ban oak, gray oak, vern. ban, rin, vari, iri

• Quercus libani; Lebanon oak

• Quercus lineata; vern. phalut

• Quercus lusitanica; Lusitanian oak

• Quercus mongolica

• Quercus myrsinaefolia

• Quercus palustris; pin oak

• Quercus petraea; sessile oak

• Quercus prinus

• Quercus reticulatum; net leaf oak

• Quercus robur; English oak

• Quercus rubra

• Quercus semecarpifolia; brown oak of Himalaya, kharsu oak, vern. karshu, kharshu

• Quercus semiserrata; vern. schop

• Quercus suber; cork oak

• Quercus undulata

• Salix viminalis; English willow, osier, basket willow, vern. bibsu, kumanta

Eri silk, also known as “errandi” or “endi,” is produced by the eri silkworm Samia ricini,

syn. Philosamia ricini, Attacus ricini. It belongs to the family Saturniidae, order Lepidoptera.

Being polyphagous, it may feed on the leaves of a large number of plants (Seth, 2000c):

• Ricinus communis; castor, castor seed, vern. erandi; family Euphorbiaceae, order Eu-

phorbiales

• Ailanthus altissima, syn. A. glandulosa; ailanto, tree of Heaven, vern. barkessuru, barpat;

family Simaroubaceae, order Geraniales

• Ailanthus excelsa; vern. maharuk, barkessuru; family Simaroubaceae, order Geraniales

• Ailanthus grandis; family Simaroubaceae, order Geraniales

• Ailanthus triphysa, syn. A. malabarica; vern. guggal dhup, family Simaroubaceae, or-

der Geraniales

• Carica papaya; papaya, papaw tree, vern. papeeta; family Caricaceae, order Geraniales

• Cinnamomum cecidodaphne; family Lauraceae, order Laurales

• Coriaria nepalensis; vern. masuri, makola; family Coriariaceae, order Sapindales

• Evodia fraxinifolia; vern. payam; family Rutaceae, order Geraniales

• Gmelina arborea; gumhar, vern. gambhar, gumbhar, kambhari; family Verbenaceae, or-

der Lamiales

• Heteropanax fragrans; vern. kesseru, tarla; family Araliaceae, order Umbellales

• Hodgsonia heteroclita; vern. thebow; family Cucurbitaceae, order Passiflorales

• Jatropha curcas; physic nut, purging nut, vern. botera, bagbherenda, jangliarandi,

safedarand; family Euphorbiaceae, order Euphorbiales

• Jatropha multifida; coral plant, vern. bhotera; family Euphorbiaceae, order Euphorbiales

• Manihot esculenta, syn. M. utilissima, M. aipi, M. dulcis, M. palmata; cassava, manioc,

tapioca, vern. simul-alu; family Euphorbiaceae, order Euphorbiales

Page 54: Economic Value of Trees (2)

374 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

• Ricinus virdia; family Euphorbiaceae, order Euphorbiales

• Sapium eugeniifolium; vern. korha, family Euphorbiaceae, order Euphorbiales

• Sapium sebiferum; Chinese tallow tree, vern. pippal-yang, vilayati-shisham, pahari-

shisham; family Euphorbiaceae, order Euphorbiales

• Zanthoxylum armatum, syn. Z. alatum; vern. darmar, Nepali dhaniya, tejphal, tumru;

family Rutaceae, order Geraniales

• Zanthoxylum limonella, syn. Z. budrunga, Z. rhetsa; vern. bazramani; family Rutaceae,

order Geraniales

• Zizyphus mauritiana, syn. Z. jujuba; Indian jujube, common jujube, vern. baer, ber;

family Rhamnaceae, order Rhamnales

Muga silk is produced by the muga silkworm Antheraea assama Westwood, syn. A. asamensis

Helf., A. mejankari Moore. It belongs to the phylum Arthropoda, class Insecta, order Lepi-

doptera and family Saturniidae. The muga silkworm is polyphagous (Seth, 2000d). Its primary

food plants are:

• Machilus bombycina; vern. som; family Lauraceae, order Laurales

• Litsaea monopetala, syn. L. polyantha; vern. soalu, meda, ketmarra, patoia, kakuri;

family Lauraceae, order Laurales

Its secondary food plants are:

• Actinodaphne angustifolia, syn. A. hookeri; pisa, vern. petarichawa; family Lauraceae,

order Laurales

• Cinnamomum glanduliferum; cinnamon, vern. dieng-puin-waith, dieng-sing, gonhorai,

gonhorai-arong, gonsalu, gonsarai, malligiri, marisgiri; family Lauraceae, order Laurales

• Cinnamomum obtusifolium, syn. Actinodaphne obovata; vern. patichanda, patihanda;

family Lauraceae, order Laurales

• Gmelina arboraea; gumhar, vern. bambari; family Verbenaceae, order Lamiales

• Litsaea cubeba, syn. L. citrata; vern. mezankari, sittimbar; family Lauraceae, order Laurales

• Litsaea nitida, vern. kothalua; family Lauraceae, order Laurales

• Litsaea salicifolia; vern. dighleti, digloti; family Lauraceae, order Laurales

• Magnolia pterocarpa, syn. M. sphenocarpa; vern. panchapa; family Magnoliaceae, or-

der Magnoliales

• Michelia champaca; champak; family Magnoliaceae, order Magnoliales

• Michelia oblonga; family Magnoliaceae, order Magnoliales

• Machilus odoratissima; machilus, vern. kawala; family Lauraceae, order Laurales

• Symplocos grandiflora; family Symplocaceae, order Ebenales

• Symplocus paniculata, syn. S. crataegoides; sapphire berry, sweet leaf, vern. ludh; fam-

ily Symplocaceae, order Ebenales

• Symplocos ramosissima; vern. lodh; family Symplocaceae, order Ebenales

• Zanthoxylum armatum, syn. Z. alatum and its var. planispinum, Z. planispinum; vern.

darmar, Nepali dhaniya, tejphal, tumru; family Rutaceae, order Geraniales

• Zanthoxylum limonella, syn. Z. budrunga, Z. rhetsa; vern. bazramani; family Rutaceae,

order Geraniales

• Zizyphus jujuba, syn. Z. sativa, Z. vulgaris; vern. ber, pitni ber; family Rhamnaceae,

order Rhamnales

• Zizyphus mauritiana, syn. Z. jujuba; Indian jujube, common jujube, vern. bear, ber;

family Rhamnaceae, order Rhamnales

A large number of wild silkworms are known in nature. They, too, produce silk by feeding

on the leaves of a number of plants. However, the silk they produce is not of good quality. The

Page 55: Economic Value of Trees (2)

TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 375

food plants of these wild silkworms are: Acer campbellii, A. caudatum, Actinodaphne sikkimensis,

Anacardium occidentale, Ardisia species, Artemisia vulgaris, Bischofia javanica, Careya arbo-

rea, Cedrella serrata, C. toona, Clerodendron infortunatum, Coriaria nepalensis, Cydonia

oblonga syn. C. vulgaris, Dalbergia sissoo, Dillenia indica, D. pentagyna syn. D. pentagynia,

Emblica officinalis syn. Phyllanthus emblica, Eugenia fruiticosa, Glochidion hohenackeri syn.

G. lanceolarium, G. velutinum, Juglans rigia, Lagerstroemia speciosa syn. L. flos reginae,

Lannea coromandelica syn. Odina wodier, Leucosceptrum canum, Litsaea glutinosa syn.

L. sebifera, Lyonia ovalifolia syn. Pieris ovalifolia, Machilus odoratissima, Mangifera indica,

Melastoma malabathricum, Meyna laxiflora syn. Vangueria spinosa, Microcos paniculata syn.

Grewia microcos, Mimusops elengi, Mitragyna rotundifolia syn. Stephegyne diversifolia, Oci-

mum spp., Phyllanthus lanceolaria, Prunus cerasoides syn. P. puddum, Pterospermum semi-

sagittatum, Pyrus communis, P. pashia, Salix babylonica, S. tetrasperma, Sapium insigne,

Schleichera oleosa, syn. S. trijuga, Symplocos paniculata, syn. S. crataegoides, S. racemosa,

Syzygium cuminii syn. Eugenia jambolana, Terminalia alata syn. T. tomentosa, Turpinia

nepalensis, T. pomifera, Wendlandia thyrsoidea syn. W. notonia, Zanthoxylum acanthopodium

and Z. armatum syn. Z. alatum (Seth, 2000e).

IV. Conclusions

As discussed above, trees are of great importance to people, not only economically and

ecologically but also ornamentally and bioaesthetically. Because trees meet the needs of hu-

mans, the primary objective of any afforestation, biodiversity, ecodevelopment, bioaesthetic or

landscape plan must be both to protect native tree–growing areas from further destruction and

to plant trees in large areas. For any society, planting and care of trees serve as important

endeavors and symbolize hope for the future. Multipurpose trees and shrubs have the capacity

to provide for a variety of end uses while reversing the process of land degradation.

Most of our environmental problems can be solved to a great extent if we grow more trees,

especially in urbanized localities and cities. Because people in different parts of the world have

become aware of the needs of trees and forests, many countries have started celebrating annual

“Forest Festivals” or “Tree Festivals” or “Greening Weeks” or “Arbor Days.” In India, too, tree

planting has been adopted as a national policy. The first successful tree-planting week was

celebrated in Delhi in July 1947, with the participation of national leaders like Jawaharlal

Nehru, Rajendra Prasad and Abdul Kalam Azad, among many others (Randhawa, 1961, 1965–

1983). In 1950 the celebration was renamed “Vana Mahotsava” (Grand Festival of Forests [or

Trees]) (Seth et al., 1962).

V. Literature Cited

Anonymous. 1970–1972, 1983. Indian forest utilization. Comp. & ed. Forest Research Institute and

Colleges, Dehra Dun. 2 vols. Manager of Publications, Delhi.

———. 1983. Forests of Himachal Pradesh. Department of Forests, Farming and Conservation, Himachal

Pradesh, Kunihar, India.

———. 1986. The useful plants of India. CSIR, New Delhi.

Bennet, S. S. R., P. C. Gupta & R. V. Rao. 1992. Venerated plants. Indian Council of Forestry Research

and Education, New Forest, Dehra Dun, India.

Chakraverty, R. K. & S. K. Jain. 1984. Beautiful trees and shrubs of Calcutta. Botanical Survey of

India, Howrah, India.

Cowen, D. V. 1950. Flowering trees and shrubs in India. Thacker & Co., Bombay.

Dwivedi, B. 2000. Environmental vaastu. Diamond Pocket Books, New Delhi.

Hawkins, R. 1986. Encyclopedia of Indian natural history: Centenary publication of the Bombay Natural

History Society, 1883–1983. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Page 56: Economic Value of Trees (2)

376 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW

Kohli, R. K. 1996. Needs and planning for avenue trees in cities: A Chandigarh experience. Pp. 39–50 in

P. K. Khosla, D. K. Uppal, R. K. Sharma, R. K. Kohli & Y. C. Jain (eds.), Ecofriendly trees for urban

beautification. Indian Society of Tree Scientists, Solan and National Horticultural Board, Gurgaon,

India.

Lunardi, C. 1987. Simon & Schuster’s guide to shrubs and vines and other small ornamentals. Simon &

Schuster, New York, London.

Maithani, G. P., V. K. Bahuguna, J. D. S. Negi & S Nautiyal. 1991. Handbook of some important

Himalayan shrubs. ICFRE–1, FRI, Dehra Dun, India.

Panshin, A. J. & C. de Zeeuw. 1980. Textbook of wood technology: Structure, identification, properties,

and uses of the commercial woods of the United States and Canada. Ed. 4. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Randhawa, M. S. 1961. Beautiful trees and gardens. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New

Delhi.

———. 1965–1983. Flowering trees. National Book Trust, New Delhi.

Schubert, T. H. 1979. Trees for urban use in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. U.S. Department of

Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station, [New Orleans, LA].

Seth, M. K. 2000a. Food plants of tasar silkworms. Pp. 761–777 in H. O. Agrawal & M. K. Seth (eds.),

Sericulture in India, vol. 4. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India.

———. 2000b. Food plants of oak tasar silkworms. Pp. 835–842 in H. O. Agrawal & M. K. Seth (eds.),

Sericulture in India, vol. 4. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India.

———. 2000c. Primary and secondary food plants of eri silkworms. Pp. 879–885 in H. O. Agrawal &

M. K. Seth (eds.), Sericulture in India, vol. 4. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India.

———. 2000d. Food plants of muga silkworms. Pp. 887–893 in H. O. Agrawal & M. K. Seth (eds.),

Sericulture in India, vol. 4. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India.

———. 2000e. Food plants of wild silkworms. Pp. 913–914 in H. O. Agrawal & M. K. Seth (eds.),

Sericulture in India, vol. 4. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India.

———. 2002. The logical meaning of shrubs and trees. The Botanica. Communicated.

——— & C. Lal. 2000. Food plants of mulberry silkworms with particular reference to the morphology

and wood anatomy of Morus serrata Roxb. Pp. 349–371 in H. O. Agrawal & M. K. Seth (eds.),

Sericulture in India, vol. 4. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India.

———, M. B. Raizada & M. A. Waheed Khan. 1962. Trees for Van Mahotsava. Forest Research Insti-

tute and Colleges, Dehra Dun, India.

———, S. Sharma & R. Thakur. 2002. Pictorial guide to some common shrubs of Himachal Pradesh,

vol. 1. Communicated.

Singh, R. V. 1982. Fodder trees of India. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi.

Singhal, R. M. & P. Khanna. 1991. Multipurpose trees and shrubs. ICFRE–16, FRI, Dehra Dun, India.

Trivedi, P. P. 1983, 1987, 1996. Home gardening. ICAR, New Delhi.

———. 1990. Beautiful shrubs. ICAR, New Delhi.

Trotter, H. 1940. Manual of Indian forest utilization. Oxford University Press, London.

———. 1940, 1944 (reprinted 1958–1960). The common commercial timbers of India and their uses.

Manager of Publications, Delhi.

Venkatesh, C. S. 1976. Our tree neighbours. National Council of Educational Research and Training,

New Delhi.

Watt, G. 1889–1893. A dictionary of economic products of India, vols. 1–4. Cosmo Publications, Delhi.