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woods (e.g., cedar) or seeds (e.g., cardamon) and many resinous exudations.
The utility of essential oils to the plant itself is obscure. The characteristic aroma and flavor
they impart to flowers, fruits and seeds probably attract insects and other animals, which play
an important role in pollination and/or in the dispersal of fruits and seeds. When essential oils
are present in high concentrations, the unpleasant odor may serve to repel enemies like para-
sites, animals and insects. The essential oils may have antiseptic and bactericidal properties
Table VI
Differences between essential and fatty (fixed) oils
Essential oils Fatty (fixed) oils
They evaporate or volatilize in contact with airand hence are called “volatile oils”
They do not evaporate or become volatile whenthey come into contact with air and hence arecalled “nonvolatile oils”
They can be readily removed from the plant tis-sues without any change in their compositionand hence are called “distilled oils”
They cannot be distilled without being decom-posed and hence are called “expressed oils”
They possess a pleasant taste, have a strong, aro-matic odor and may be colored
They do not possess a strong taste or odor andare colorless
They are typically liquids At normal (room) or high temperatures they areeither liquids or fluids and are called “oils”;at normal or cold temperatures they may besolids or semisolids and are called “fats.”Quite obviously, what is an oil in a warmclimate may be a fat in a cold climate.
They are very complex in their chemical compo-sition. The two principal groups are terpenes,which are hydrocarbons, and oxygenated andsulphuretted oils.
Chemically these vegetable fatty oils are close toanimal fats. They consist of glycerine andfatty acid, which is an oleic acid if it is an oilbut stearic or palmatic acid if it is a fat.
They have antiseptic qualities They generally do not possess antiseptic proper-ties
They are used for diverse purposes, but not asfood
Most of them are edible and are available as foodfor humans
Soap is not formed when they are treated with analkali
When a fat is boiled with an alkali, it decom-poses and the fatty acid unites with an alkalito form soap. If potash or lye is used, a softsoap is obtained; if soda is used, a hard soapis obtained.
They can be obtained by distillation, expressionor extraction
They can be obtained by a combination of ex-pression and extraction, but not by distilla-tion
342 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
and may thus act as a wound fluid. They affect transpiration and other physiological processes
by minimizing the effect of heat on transpiration. They play a vital role as hydrogen donors in
oxido-reduction reactions as potential sources of energy.
Because of their odor and high volatility, essential oils are also put to a variety of uses by
humans. They are extensively used in the manufacture of perfumes, sachets, soaps and other
toilet preparations. The perfumes are stored in closed, compactly filled containers since they
deteriorate due to oxidation and polymerization when they come into contact with air. In
confectionary and aerated waters they are used as flavoring materials or essences for ice creams,
candies, cordials, liqueurs, nonalcoholic beverages, tobacco, etc. They are very valuable in
medicine, dentistry and pharmaceuticals because of their therapeutic, antiseptic and bacteri-
cidal properties. They are used as insecticides and deodorants, as solvents in paint and varnish
industries and in the manufacture of several synthetic odors and flavors, such as attars and
scents. Some of the essential oils (e.g., clove oil) are used as clearing or cleaning agents in
histological work. They are also used in such diversified products as chewing gum, toothpaste,
dhoop, agar batis, incense, shoe polish, library paste and fish glue. The important essential oil-
yielding trees are listed in Table VII.
9. Fatty Oils and Vegetable Fats
Vegetable fatty oils are called “fixed oils” or “nonvolatile oils” because they do not evapo-
rate or become volatile like the essential oils. They are also called “nondistilled oils” because
they cannot be distilled without being decomposed.
Chemically, fatty oils consist of glycerin in combination with a fatty acid. The so-called fats or
tallows are solids at ordinary temperatures and contain stearic or palmitic acid. Their iodine num-
ber (the number of grams of iodine absorbed by 100 g of the fats in a medium in which it is soluble)
is below 70. On the other hand, oils are liquids at ordinary temperatures and contain oleic acid.
Oils are of three types: drying, semidrying and nondrying. The drying oils are able to absorb
oxygen and, on exposure, dry into thin elastic film. They are used mainly in the paint and
varnish industry. Their iodine number is higher than 150. The semidrying oils absorb oxygen
slowly and only in limited amounts. They form a soft film only after long exposure. Their
iodine number is between 100 and 150. The nondrying oils remain liquid at ordinary tempera-
tures and do not form a film. Their iodine number is between 70 and 100.
The fatty oils are insoluble in water but soluble in various organic solvents. When a fat is
boiled with an alkali, it decomposes, and the fatty acid unites with the alkali to form soap. If
soda is used, a hard soap is obtained; and if potash or lye is used, a soft soap is obtained.
When fats break down, they yield fatty acids and glycerin, of which they are composed, and
usually develop a rancid odor and taste. The fatty oils are bland (balmy) and lack the strong
taste, odor and antiseptic qualities of essential oils. Thus they are available as indispensable
articles in human food. Important species that yield fatty oils and vegetable fats are listed in
Table VIII.
10. Waxes
Waxes are quite similar to fats but are esters of monohydric alcohols rather than glycerides.
They are harder than fats and have a high melting point. They are less easily hydrolyzed and do
not become rancid. Waxes are usually found on the epidermis of leaves and fruits. They serve
to prevent excessive loss of water through transpiration, because of their impervious character.
The commercially important waxes obtained from trees are shown in Table IX. Wax is also
obtained from the leaves of the raffia and licuri palms, sugarcane and esparto.
(Text continues on p. 349)
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 343
Ta
ble
VII
Ess
enti
al-o
il-y
ield
ing
tree
s
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Yla
ng
-yla
ng
Ca
na
ng
ao
do
rata
An
no
nac
eae
Oil
isex
trac
ted
fro
mfl
ow
erp
etal
s.C
anan
ga
oil
isu
sed
inso
me
of
the
fin
est
per
fum
ery
crea
tio
ns
inF
ran
ce;
chea
per
gra
des
are
use
din
soap
mak
ing
.
Ner
oli
:tr
ue
oil
of
ner
oli
or
ner
oli
big
arad
eC
itru
sa
ura
nti
um
Ru
tace
aeO
ilis
extr
acte
dfr
om
flo
wer
so
fth
eso
ur
ora
ng
e
Ner
oli
Po
rtu
gal
Cit
rus
sin
ensi
sR
uta
ceae
Oil
isex
trac
ted
fro
mfl
ow
ers
of
the
swee
to
ran
ge
Man
dar
ino
ilC
itru
sre
ticu
lata
Ru
tace
aeO
ilfr
om
pee
lsis
use
din
con
fect
ion
ery,
toil
etp
rod
uct
san
dp
har
mac
euti
cal
pre
par
atio
ns
Pet
itg
rain
oil
Cit
rus
spp
.;in
Ind
ia,
C.
au
ran
tiu
m,
C.
lim
etto
ides
Ru
tace
aeO
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mle
aves
and
twig
sis
use
dto
add
ap
leas
ant
bo
uq
uet
tosc
ents
,co
smet
ics,
skin
crea
ms
and
soap
s
Ora
ng
eo
ilC
itru
ssp
p.;
inIn
dia
,C
.a
ura
nti
foli
,C
.re
ticu
lata
Ru
tace
aeO
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mri
pe
pee
lsis
use
dto
add
ap
leas
ant
bo
uq
uet
tosc
ents
,co
s-m
etic
s,sk
incr
eam
san
dso
aps
Ber
gam
ot
Cit
rus
au
ran
tiu
msu
bsp
.b
erg
am
iaR
uta
ceae
Gre
enis
ho
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mri
pe
pee
lsh
asa
soft
,sw
eet
od
or
and
isu
sed
for
scen
tin
gto
ilet
soap
s,in
mix
edp
erfu
mes
and
asa
clea
rin
gag
ent
Mex
ican
lin
alo
eB
urs
era
pen
icil
lata
,B
.g
lab
rifo
lia
Bu
rser
acea
eV
ery
aro
mat
ico
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mth
ew
oo
dis
wid
ely
use
din
per
fum
es,
soap
s,co
smet
ics,
etc.
and
for
flav
ori
ng
foo
dan
db
ever
ages
My
sore
lin
alo
eB
urs
era
pen
icil
lata
Bu
rser
acea
eV
ery
aro
mat
ico
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mh
usk
so
fb
erri
esis
wid
ely
use
din
per
fum
es,
soap
s,co
smet
ics,
etc.
and
for
flav
ori
ng
foo
dan
db
ever
ages
Cay
enn
eli
nal
oe
An
iba
pa
nu
ren
sis
Lau
race
aeV
ery
aro
mat
ico
ilis
wid
ely
use
din
per
fum
es,
soap
s,co
smet
ics,
etc.
and
for
flav
ori
ng
foo
dan
db
ever
ages
Bra
zili
anb
ois
de
rose
Ari
ba
rosa
eod
ora
var
.a
ma
zon
iaL
aura
ceae
Ver
yar
om
atic
oil
extr
acte
dfr
om
the
wo
od
isw
idel
yu
sed
inp
erfu
mes
,so
aps,
cosm
etic
s,et
c.an
dfo
rfl
avo
rin
gfo
od
and
bev
erag
es
San
dal
wo
od
oil
,v
ern
.sa
fed
chan
dan
Sa
nta
lum
alb
um
and
rela
ted
spp
.S
anta
lace
aeO
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mth
ew
oo
dis
larg
ely
use
das
ap
erfu
me
and
inso
aps,
face
crea
ms
and
toil
etp
ow
der
s.In
med
icin
eit
has
coo
lin
g,
dia
ph
ore
tic,
diu
reti
can
dex
pec
tora
nt
pro
per
ties
.A
nex
cell
ent
fix
ativ
e,it
ism
uch
use
din
ble
nd
s.T
he
swee
t-sc
ente
dw
oo
dis
uti
lize
dfo
rb
ox
esan
dch
ests
.
Ch
amp
aca
oil
Mic
hel
iach
am
pa
caM
agn
oli
acea
eO
ne
of
the
mo
stfa
mo
us
per
fum
eso
fIn
dia
,it
isu
sed
for
var
iou
sp
urp
ose
s
344 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
VII
,co
nti
nu
ed
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Cam
ph
or,
cam
ph
or
gu
m,
mu
shk
apu
r,ca
mp
ho
ro
ilC
inn
am
om
um
cam
ph
ora
Lau
race
aeC
amp
ho
ris
soli
dw
ith
tou
gh
,w
hit
e,tr
ansl
uce
nt
gra
nu
le-l
ike
mas
ses
ato
rdi-
nar
yte
mp
erat
ure
s.E
xtr
acte
dfr
om
the
wo
od
,tw
igs
and
leav
es,
itis
use
din
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fce
llu
loid
,n
itro
cell
ulo
seco
mp
ou
nd
san
dex
pen
siv
ep
er-
fum
esan
din
med
icin
efo
rin
flam
mat
ion
s,rh
eum
atic
pai
ns
and
spra
ins,
asa
card
iac
stim
ula
nt
and
tore
liev
ed
iarr
ho
ea.
Th
eb
y-p
rod
uct
isca
lled
“sa-
fro
le.”
Ced
arw
oo
do
ilJu
nip
eru
svi
rgin
ian
aC
up
ress
acea
eO
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mth
eh
eart
wo
od
isv
alu
able
asa
clea
rin
gag
ent
inth
ep
rep
a-ra
tio
no
fp
erm
anen
tm
icro
sco
pic
mo
un
tsan
dfo
ru
sew
ith
oil
-im
mer
sio
nle
nse
sb
ecau
seo
fit
sh
igh
refr
acto
ryin
dex
.It
isal
sou
sed
inso
aps,
per
-fu
mes
,li
nim
ents
,d
eod
ora
nts
and
clea
nin
gan
dp
oli
shin
gp
rep
arat
ion
san
das
anad
ult
eran
to
fg
eran
ium
and
san
dle
wo
od
oil
s.B
ecau
seo
fit
sin
sect
i-ci
dal
pro
per
ties
itis
uti
lize
das
am
oth
rep
elle
nt
and
infl
ysp
ray
s.
Deo
dar
oil
Ced
rus
deo
da
ra,
Jun
ipe-
rus
ma
cro
po
da
Pin
acea
e,C
up
res-
sace
aeT
he
var
ian
tso
fce
dar
wo
od
oil
use
din
Ind
iaar
eo
bta
ined
fro
mch
ips,
saw
du
sto
rw
oo
do
fC
edru
sd
eod
ara
and
fro
mth
esh
avin
gs
and
saw
du
sto
fJu
nip
e-ru
sm
acr
op
od
a
Clo
ve
oil
,v
ern
.lo
un
g-
ka-
tel
Syz
ygiu
ma
rom
ati
cum
My
rtac
eae
Oil
extr
acte
dfr
om
flo
wer
bu
ds
isu
sed
inp
erfu
mes
,so
aps,
con
fect
ion
ery
and
med
icin
e,as
ast
imu
lan
t,ca
rmin
ativ
ean
din
flat
ule
nce
and
asa
clea
rin
gag
ent
inh
isto
log
ical
wo
rkfo
rm
icro
sco
py
Oil
of
turp
enti
ne,
pin
eo
ilP
inu
ssp
p.
Pin
acea
eO
ilfr
om
resi
ns
isu
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
var
nis
hes
,la
cqu
ers,
dis
infe
c-ta
nts
,p
ain
ts,
lin
ole
um
,se
alin
gw
ax,
oil
clo
th,
lub
rica
tin
gco
mp
ou
nd
s,in
ks,
etc.
Cin
nam
on
oil
Cin
na
mo
mu
mze
yla
nic
um
Lau
race
aeO
ilfr
om
chip
san
dw
aste
bar
kis
use
din
the
pre
par
atio
no
fci
nn
amo
nq
uil
lsan
das
den
itif
rice
san
dp
erfu
mes
Eu
caly
ptu
so
ilE
uca
lyp
tus
citr
iod
ora
,E
.d
ives
,E
.g
lob
ulu
s,et
c.
My
rtac
eae
Oil
fro
mth
ele
aves
and
term
inal
bra
nch
lets
isa
sou
rce
of
citr
on
ella
l,ci
tro
nel
-lo
lan
dm
enth
ol.
Itis
wid
ely
use
din
per
fum
ery,
asa
mo
squ
ito
rep
elle
nt,
ger
mic
ide
and
dis
infe
ctan
tan
din
med
icin
ein
the
trea
tmen
to
fas
thm
aan
db
ron
chit
is.
Nu
tmeg
oil
Myr
isti
cafr
ag
ran
sM
yri
stic
acea
eO
ils
fro
mn
utm
eg(t
he
aro
mat
ick
ern
els)
and
mac
e(t
he
aril
s)o
fth
efr
uit
so
fM
yris
tica
fra
gra
ns
(ver
n.
jaip
hal
)ar
eu
sed
exte
rnal
lyto
trea
trh
eum
atis
man
din
soap
san
dp
erfu
mes
.O
ilo
bta
ined
fro
mth
ele
aves
isu
sed
inth
ep
rep
arat
ion
of
chew
ing
gu
m,
flav
ori
ng
esse
nce
san
dco
smet
ics.
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 345
Mac
assa
ro
ilS
chle
ich
era
trij
ug
aS
apin
dac
eae
Ex
trac
ted
fro
mse
eds
of
the
gu
m-l
actr
ee(v
ern
.g
ausa
m),
the
oil
has
av
alu
able
stim
ula
tin
gan
dcl
ean
sin
gef
fect
on
the
scal
p,
pro
mo
tin
gh
air
gro
wth
.It
isal
sou
sed
tocu
resk
ind
isea
ses,
itch
es,
rheu
mat
ism
and
hea
dac
hes
.
Ag
aro
il,
agar
atta
rA
qu
illa
ria
ag
all
och
aT
hy
mel
aeac
eae
Ag
aro
il,
fro
mre
sin
ou
sp
ort
ion
so
fth
ew
oo
d,
isp
ale
yel
low
tob
row
nis
hy
el-
low
or
dar
kam
ber
inco
lor.
Itis
use
din
per
fum
ery
and
asan
ince
nse
.T
rue
agar
ish
eav
ier
than
wat
er.
Keo
rao
il,
atta
ro
fk
ewd
a,at
tar
keo
ra,
keo
raw
ater
,sa
nd
ali
atta
r,k
ewd
ao
ro
ilk
ewd
a
Pa
nd
an
us
tect
ori
us
(=P.
od
ora
tiss
imu
s)P
and
anac
eae
Scr
ewp
ine
flo
wer
sar
eu
nu
sual
lyla
rge:
asi
ng
lefl
ow
erw
eig
hs
up
to1
50
g.
Th
eo
ilis
use
din
the
pre
par
atio
no
ffr
agra
nt
hai
ro
ils,
per
fum
es,
etc.
Caj
epu
to
ilM
ela
leu
cale
uca
den
dro
nM
yrt
acea
eO
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mfr
esh
leav
esan
dtw
igs
isu
sed
inp
har
mac
euti
cals
asth
roat
loze
ng
es,
gar
gle
s,et
c.an
din
med
icin
eas
are
med
yfo
rco
lds,
thro
atd
is-
ease
s,h
ead
ach
es,
etc.
Ele
ng
io
ilM
imu
sop
sel
eng
iS
apo
tace
aeT
he
esse
nti
alo
il,
fro
mb
ull
etw
oo
dfl
ow
ers,
isa
pal
ey
ello
w,
mo
bil
eli
qu
idw
ith
av
ery
del
icat
e,sw
eet
and
ten
acio
us
flo
ral
od
or.
Itis
use
din
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fp
erfu
mes
.
346 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
VII
I
Fat
ty-o
il-
and
veg
etab
le-f
at-y
ield
ing
tree
s
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Dry
ing
oil
sfr
om
seed
s
Tu
ng
oil
Ale
uri
tes
ford
ii,
A.
mo
nta
na
Eu
ph
orb
iace
aeU
sed
inth
ep
ain
tan
dv
arn
ish
ind
ust
ry;
also
use
dfo
rw
ater
pro
ofi
ng
wo
od
,p
aper
and
fab
rics
,an
dth
eref
ore
val
uab
lefo
ro
utd
oo
rp
ain
ts
Kek
un
a,ca
nd
len
ut,
lum
ban
go
ilA
leu
rite
sm
olu
cca
na
Eu
ph
orb
iace
aeU
sed
inm
akin
gp
ain
t,v
arn
ish
,la
cqu
er,
lin
ole
um
and
soft
soap
Wal
nu
to
ilJu
gla
ns
reg
iaJu
gla
nd
acea
eM
atu
rean
do
ldk
ern
els
yie
lda
dry
ing
oil
.A
ned
ible
oil
,it
isal
sou
sed
for
wh
ite
pai
nt,
arti
sts’
oil
pai
nts
,p
rin
tin
gin
kan
dso
ap.
Lau
relw
oo
do
ilC
alo
ph
yllu
min
op
hyl
lum
Gu
ttif
erae
Use
das
anil
lum
inan
t,fo
rso
apm
akin
gan
dto
trea
trh
eum
atis
m
Mar
go
sao
ilA
zad
ira
chta
ind
ica
Mel
iace
aeU
sed
asan
anti
sep
tic
and
for
bu
rnin
gp
urp
ose
s
Oit
icia
oil
Lic
an
iari
gid
aR
osa
ceae
Use
din
the
pai
nt
and
var
nis
hin
du
stry
;al
sou
sed
inm
akin
gli
no
leu
man
dp
rin
tin
gin
ks
and
for
imp
rov
ing
the
elas
tici
tyo
fru
bb
erp
rod
-u
cts
No
nd
ryin
go
ils
fro
mse
eds
Cas
tor
oil
Ric
inu
sco
mm
un
isE
up
ho
rbia
ceae
Use
das
ap
urg
ativ
e,a
lub
rica
nt
and
anil
lum
inan
t;al
sou
sed
inso
aps,
the
tex
tile
ind
ust
ry,
typ
ewri
ter
ink
s,p
erfu
mes
,v
arn
ish
esan
dp
ain
ts
Oli
ve
oil
Ole
aeu
rop
aea
Ole
acea
eU
sed
mai
nly
assa
lad
and
coo
kin
go
il;
also
use
din
soap
mak
ing
,as
alu
bri
can
tan
din
med
icin
e
Veg
etab
lefa
ts
Co
con
ut
oil
Co
cos
nu
cife
raA
reca
ceae
Dri
edco
con
ut
mea
ty
ield
so
il.
Ref
ined
coco
nu
to
ilis
edib
le.
Use
dfo
rco
ok
ing
,co
nfe
ctio
ner
y,m
akin
gca
nd
yb
ars,
soap
,co
smet
ics,
shav
ing
crea
m,
sham
po
oan
do
ther
toil
etp
rep
arat
ion
san
dal
soas
anil
lum
inan
t.
Pal
mo
il,
pal
m-k
ern
elo
ilE
laei
sg
uin
een
sis
Are
cace
aeE
xtr
acte
dfr
om
the
fib
rou
sp
ulp
of
nu
tsan
dfr
om
ker
nel
s.U
sed
inm
akin
gso
apan
dm
arg
arin
ean
das
afu
elfo
rd
iese
len
gin
es;
also
use
dfo
rm
akin
gg
lyce
rin
,sh
amp
oo
,so
apan
dca
nd
les.
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 347
Mah
ua
oil
,m
ow
rao
rb
assi
afa
t;m
ahu
ao
ril
lip
eb
utt
erM
ad
hu
cain
dic
aS
apo
tace
aeO
ilo
bta
ined
fro
mse
eds
isu
sed
mai
nly
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
lau
n-
dry
soap
and
also
inm
akin
gca
nd
y,in
the
jute
ind
ust
ry,
and
totr
eat
skin
dis
ease
s,rh
eum
atis
m,
hea
dac
he,
con
stip
atio
n,
pil
es,
etc.
Ph
ulw
ara
bu
tter
Dip
lokn
eura
bu
tyra
cea
(=M
ad
hu
cab
uty
race
a)
Sap
ota
ceae
Oil
ob
tain
edfr
om
seed
sis
use
dm
ain
lyin
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fla
un
-d
ryso
apan
dal
soin
mak
ing
can
dy,
inth
eju
tein
du
stry
,an
dto
trea
tsk
ind
isea
ses,
rheu
mat
ism
,h
ead
ach
e,co
nst
ipat
ion
,p
iles
,et
c.
Car
apa
oil
Xyl
oca
rpu
sm
olu
ccen
sis
Mel
iace
aeO
ilo
bta
ined
fro
mse
eds
isu
sed
for
soap
and
asan
illu
min
ant
Nu
tmeg
bu
tter
Myr
isti
cafr
ag
ran
sM
yri
stic
acea
eS
eed
sco
nta
inab
ou
t4
0%
of
ay
ello
wfa
t,u
sed
inso
ap,
oin
tmen
t,p
erfu
mes
and
can
dle
san
dal
soto
trea
trh
eum
atis
m
Po
ng
amo
ilP
on
ga
mia
pin
na
taP
apil
ion
acea
eO
ilo
bta
ined
fro
mse
eds
isu
sed
for
soap
mak
ing
,as
anil
lum
inan
t,an
din
the
trea
tmen
to
fsk
ind
isea
ses
and
rheu
mat
ism
Bab
assu
oil
Orb
ign
yam
art
ian
a,
O.
ole
ifer
aA
reca
ceae
Oil
ob
tain
edfr
om
nu
tsis
use
das
asu
bst
itu
tefo
rco
con
ut
oil
and
for
mak
ing
bu
llet
-pro
of
gla
ss,
exp
losi
ves
and
lub
rica
nts
Co
hu
ne
oil
Orb
ign
yaco
hu
ne
Are
cace
aeO
ilo
bta
ined
fro
mn
uts
isu
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
coco
nu
to
ilan
dfo
rm
akin
gb
ull
et-p
roo
fg
lass
,ex
plo
siv
esan
dlu
bri
can
ts
Lic
uri
oil
Sya
gru
sco
ron
ata
Are
cace
aeO
ilo
bta
ined
fro
mn
uts
isu
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
coco
nu
to
ilan
dfo
rm
akin
gb
ull
et-p
roo
fg
lass
,ex
plo
siv
esan
dlu
bri
can
ts
Mu
rum
uru
oil
Ast
roca
ryu
mm
uru
mu
ru,
A.
tucu
ma
,A
.vu
lga
reA
reca
ceae
Oil
ob
tain
edfr
om
nu
tsis
use
das
asu
bst
itu
tefo
rco
con
ut
oil
and
for
mak
ing
bu
llet
-pro
of
gla
ss,
exp
losi
ves
and
lub
rica
nts
Co
coa
bu
tter
Th
eob
rom
aca
cao
Ste
rcu
liac
eae
Fat
ob
tain
edfr
om
bea
ns
isu
sed
for
cosm
etic
san
dp
erfu
mes
,as
ab
ase
for
oin
tmen
tsan
das
alu
bri
can
tfo
rm
assa
gin
g
Sh
eab
utt
erB
uty
rosp
erm
um
pa
rkii
Sap
ota
ceae
Th
efa
tis
edib
lean
dis
use
das
asu
bst
itu
tefo
rco
coa
bu
tter
and
inm
akin
gso
apan
dca
nd
les
Bo
rneo
tall
ow
Sh
ore
aa
pte
raD
ipte
roca
rpac
eae
Fat
fro
mk
ern
els
isu
sed
for
soap
mak
ing
and
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
co-
coa
bu
tter
Ch
ines
ev
eget
able
tall
ow
Sa
piu
mse
bif
eru
mE
up
ho
rbia
ceae
Ob
tain
edfr
om
ath
ick
lay
ero
fh
ard
,w
hit
efa
to
nse
eds,
itis
use
din
soap
,co
smet
ics
and
can
dle
s.S
eed
sy
ield
dry
ing
oil
,u
sed
for
pai
nts
,v
arn
ish
esan
dp
last
ics
and
asan
illu
min
ant.
Mac
assa
ro
ilS
chle
ich
era
ole
osa
Sap
ind
acea
eO
ilfr
om
seed
sis
use
din
coo
kin
g,
asa
hai
ro
ilan
dfo
ril
lum
inat
ion
Ucu
hu
ba
bu
tter
,o
tob
ab
utt
erV
iro
lasp
p.
My
rist
acea
eU
sed
for
var
iou
sp
urp
ose
s
348 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
IX
Wax
-yie
ldin
gtr
ees
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Car
nau
ba
wax
Co
per
nic
iace
rife
raA
reca
ceae
Th
em
ost
imp
ort
ant
veg
etab
lew
axfr
om
the
wax
pal
mtr
ee(t
he
“tre
eo
fli
fe”
inB
ra-
zil)
,it
occ
urs
asan
exu
dat
ion
on
leav
esan
dis
use
din
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fca
n-
dle
s,so
ap,
hig
h-l
ust
erv
arn
ish
,p
ain
t,ca
rw
ax,
sho
ep
oli
sh,
carb
on
pap
er,
bat
teri
es,
insu
lati
on
,p
ho
no
gra
ph
reco
rds,
salv
e,so
un
dfi
lm,
oin
tmen
t,et
c.
Wax
tree
Cer
oxy
lon
an
dic
ola
Are
cace
aeU
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
carn
aub
aw
ax
My
rtle
wax
Myr
ica
pen
sylv
an
ica
,M
.ce
rife
raM
yri
cace
aeB
erri
esar
eco
ver
edw
ith
thic
kla
yer
of
wax
,u
sed
for
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fso
apan
dca
nd
les
wit
ha
ple
asan
tfr
agra
nce
Jap
anes
ew
axR
hu
ssu
cced
an
eaA
nac
ard
iace
aeB
erri
esy
ield
wax
,u
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
can
dle
s,w
axm
atch
es,
pen
cils
,le
ath
er,
furn
itu
rep
oli
sh,
soap
and
lip
stic
kan
din
the
vu
lcan
izat
ion
of
rub
ber
Ta
ble
X
Sap
on
in-y
ield
ing
tree
s
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
So
apn
ut
or
soap
ber
ries
,v
ern
.ri
tha
Sa
pin
du
sem
arg
ina
tus,
S.
mu
koro
ssi,
S.
sap
on
ari
a
Sap
ind
acea
eU
sed
asa
soap
sub
stit
ute
for
was
hin
gh
air
and
wo
ole
n,
silk
enan
do
ther
del
icat
efa
b-
rics
;al
sou
sed
inth
ep
rep
arat
ion
of
hai
rto
nic
So
apb
ark
Qu
illa
jasa
po
na
ria
Ro
sace
aeD
ried
inn
erb
ark
con
tain
s9
%sa
po
nin
,u
sed
for
was
hin
gd
elic
ate
fab
rics
,cl
ean
ing
len
ses
and
pre
cisi
on
inst
rum
ents
,as
anex
pec
tora
nt
and
emu
lsif
yin
gag
ent
inm
edic
ine
and
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
sham
po
o,
cosm
etic
san
dh
air
ton
ic
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 349
11. Soap Substitutes
Saponins are a group of water-soluble glucosides that yield soap froth in water, form emul-
sions with oils and fats, and are capable of absorbing large amounts of gases such as carbon
dioxide. Because of these properties they are used for cleansing and other purposes, both at
home and in industry. The important saponin-containing trees are listed in Table X.
It may be added here that leaves of a familiar garden plant, bouncing bet or soapwort
(Saponaria officinalis, family Caryophyllaceae), when placed in water, produce a lather that is
utilized for washing and imparting luster to silk and woolen fabrics. Similarly, bulbs of the
Californian soaproot (Chlorogalum pomeridianum, family Liliaceae) yield a good lather, which
is utilized for washing fabrics.
12. Vegetable Ivory
The seeds of Phytelephas macrocarpa, in the family Arecaceae, commonly called “ivory
nut” or “tagua palm tree,” is the chief source of vegetable ivory. It is extensively used as a
substitute for true ivory. It can be carved and used in the manufacture of buttons, chess pieces,
poker chips, dice, knobs, inlays, billiard balls, toys, etc. Metroxylon amicarum, in the Arecaceae
family, can likewise be used for these purposes.
13. Fodder
The leaves of trees and shrubs are rich in calcium and phosphorus. Although considered
inferior to grasses, trees in different parts of India are lopped for fodder, especially when grasses
are scarce. The important fodder-yielding trees are Acacia nilotica (= A. arabica), A. catechu,
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Balsam of perum, Congo copal, copaiba balsam, Peru balsam,tolu balsam
Styracaceae Benzoin
Zygophyllaceae Guiacum
Table XVII
Differences among three main types of resins
Hard resins Oleo resins Gum resins
Little, if any, essential oil Considerable essential oils aswell as resinous materials
Mixture of both true gums andresins, thus contain smallamounts of essential oilsand traces of coloring matter
Usually solid, more or lesstransparent, brittle sub-stances
More or less liquid in nature Occur naturally as milky exuda-tions, collected as tears orirregular masses
No particular odor or taste Distinct aroma and flavor May have an aroma and flavor
Nonvolatile and very poor con-ductors of electricity but be-come negatively electrifiedwhen friction is applied;readily fusible and burn inair with a smoky flame
Volatile essential oil component
Common examples: copals, da-mars
Common examples: balsams,elemis, turpentines
Common examples: anmoni-acum, asafoetida, galbanum
362 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
XV
III
Res
in-y
ield
ing
tree
s
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Har
dre
sin
s
Zan
zib
arco
pal
,M
adag
asca
rco
pal
,M
oza
mb
iqu
eco
pal
Tra
chyl
ob
ium
verr
uco
sum
Fab
acea
eH
ard
est
of
all
cop
als
exce
pt
amb
er;
liv
ing
,se
mif
oss
ilo
rfo
ssil
inn
atu
re;
yel
low
ish
tob
row
nis
hre
d
Inh
amb
ane
cop
alC
op
aif
era
con
jug
ata
Fab
acea
e
Co
ng
oco
pal
,A
ng
ola
cop
alC
op
aif
era
aem
eusi
i,C
.m
op
an
eF
abac
eae
Liv
ing
asw
ell
asfo
ssil
inn
atu
re;
lig
ht
yel
low
Sie
rra
Leo
ne
cop
alC
op
aif
era
cop
all
ifer
a,
C.
sali
kou
nd
aF
abac
eae
Lig
ht
yel
low
Acc
raco
pal
,B
enin
cop
alD
an
iell
ao
gea
Fab
acea
eL
oca
lly
call
ed“o
gea
gu
m”
inL
iber
ia,
Gh
ana
and
Nig
eria
So
uth
Am
eric
anco
pal
,D
emer
ara
cop
al,
Par
áco
pal
Hym
ena
eaco
urb
ari
lF
abac
eae
So
ftes
to
fal
lco
pal
s
Man
ila
cop
alA
ga
this
alb
aA
rau
cari
acea
eL
ivin
g,
sem
ifo
ssil
or
foss
ilin
nat
ure
;y
ello
w
Kau
rico
pal
,k
auri
gu
mA
ga
this
au
stra
lis
Ara
uca
riac
eae
Liv
ing
,se
mif
oss
ilo
rfo
ssil
inn
atu
re;
yel
low
Dam
arm
ata
ku
chin
gH
op
eam
icra
nth
aD
ipte
roca
rpac
eae
Dam
arp
enak
Ba
lan
oca
rpu
sh
eim
iiD
ipte
roca
rpac
eae
Dam
arte
mak
Sh
ore
ah
ypo
chra
Dip
tero
carp
acea
e
Sal
dam
ar,
gu
gg
ald
hu
ma,
ral
dh
um
a,la
ld
hu
ma
Sh
ore
aro
bu
sta
Dip
tero
carp
acea
eU
sed
asan
ing
red
ien
to
f“s
amag
ri,”
wh
ich
isb
urn
edin
reli
gio
us
cere
mo
nie
s
Kal
ad
amar
Sh
ore
atu
mb
ug
ga
iaD
ipte
roca
rpac
eae
Use
das
anin
cen
sean
din
mar
ine
yar
ds
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
pit
ch
Wh
ite
dam
ar,
pin
eyre
sin
,In
dia
nco
pal
,d
hu
pa
Va
teri
ain
dic
aD
ipte
roca
rpac
eae
Use
din
med
icin
eto
trea
tch
ron
icb
ron
chit
is,
dia
rrh
eaan
drh
eum
a-ti
sm
Bla
ckd
amar
Ca
na
riu
mst
rict
um
Bu
rser
acea
eU
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
bu
rgu
nd
yp
itch
inm
edic
alp
last
ers
Bat
avia
nd
amar
Sh
ore
aw
iesn
eri
Dip
tero
carp
acea
e
Ro
ckd
amar
Ho
pea
od
ora
taD
ipte
roca
rpac
eae
Use
din
var
nis
hes
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 363
Am
ber
Pin
us
(=P
init
es)
succ
ini-
fera
(pri
nci
pal
sou
rce)
Pin
acea
eF
oss
iliz
edte
rpen
oid
resi
no
ccu
rrin
go
nth
esh
ore
so
fth
eB
alti
cS
ea,
itis
the
on
lyje
wel
of
pla
nt
ori
gin
.It
isex
ceed
ing
lyh
ard
,b
ritt
le,
yel
low
tob
row
no
rev
enb
lack
,tr
ansp
aren
to
ro
paq
ue
wit
ha
char
acte
rist
icar
om
atic
od
or;
wh
enru
bb
ed,
itta
kes
ah
igh
po
lish
and
bec
om
esn
egat
ivel
ych
arg
ed.
Use
dfo
rb
ead
s,o
rnam
ents
,m
ou
thp
iece
so
fp
ipes
and
ho
lder
sfo
rci
gar
san
dci
gar
ette
s,et
c.S
om
etim
eso
rgan
ism
so
fth
ep
ast
are
emb
edd
edin
it.
Am
ber
Hym
ena
easp
p.,
Co
pa
ifer
asp
p.
(oth
erso
urc
es)
Fab
acea
eF
oss
iliz
edte
rpen
oid
resi
no
ccu
rrin
go
nth
esh
ore
so
fth
eB
alti
cS
ea,
itis
the
on
lyje
wel
of
pla
nt
ori
gin
.It
isex
ceed
ing
lyh
ard
,b
ritt
le,
yel
low
tob
row
no
rev
enb
lack
,tr
ansp
aren
to
ro
paq
ue
wit
ha
char
acte
rist
icar
om
atic
od
or;
wh
enru
bb
ed,
itta
kes
ah
igh
po
lish
and
bec
om
esn
egat
ivel
ych
arg
ed.
Use
dfo
rb
ead
s,o
rnam
ents
,m
ou
thp
iece
so
fp
ipes
and
ho
lder
sfo
rci
gar
san
dci
gar
ette
s,et
c.S
om
etim
eso
rgan
ism
so
fth
ep
ast
are
emb
edd
edin
it.
Lac
qu
erR
hu
sve
rnic
iflu
a,
R.
suc-
ced
an
eaA
nac
ard
iace
aeN
atu
ral
var
nis
hex
ud
edfr
om
Asi
atic
tree
s,it
affo
rds
pro
tect
ion
be-
cau
seit
rem
ain
su
nch
ang
edb
yac
ids,
alk
alis
,al
coh
ol
or
hea
tu
pto
16
0�F
Rh
us
succ
eda
nea
yie
lds
liq
uid
resi
nfr
om
the
mes
oca
rpo
ffr
uit
s,w
hic
his
use
din
oin
tmen
ts,
wax
var
nis
hes
,et
c.
Bu
rmes
ela
cqu
er,
thit
siM
ela
no
rrh
oea
usi
tata
An
acar
dia
ceae
Aff
ord
sp
rote
ctio
nb
ecau
seit
rem
ain
su
nch
ang
edb
yac
ids,
alk
alis
,al
coh
ol
or
hea
tu
pto
16
0�F
Sh
ella
cB
ute
am
on
osp
erm
a,
Ca
jan
us
caja
nP
apil
ion
acea
eN
ot
stri
ctly
ap
lan
tp
rod
uct
bu
ta
resi
no
us
sub
stan
cese
cret
edo
nth
etw
igs
of
man
ytr
ees
by
the
sap
-fee
din
gst
ick
lac
inse
ctTa
cha
r-d
iala
cca
(“la
cca”
isd
eriv
edfr
om
the
San
skri
tw
ord
laks
ha
,m
ean
ing
“lak
h”)
.U
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
ph
on
og
rap
hre
c-o
rds,
hig
h-g
rad
ein
sula
tors
,sp
irit
var
nis
h,
seal
ing
wax
,d
raw
ing
ink
,w
ater
colo
rs,
nit
roce
llu
lose
lacq
uer
san
das
sizi
ng
inp
aper
and
stif
fen
ing
infe
lth
ats.
Sh
ella
cS
chle
ich
era
ole
osa
Sap
ind
acea
eN
ot
stri
ctly
ap
lan
tp
rod
uct
bu
ta
resi
no
us
sub
stan
cese
cret
edo
nth
etw
igs
of
man
ytr
ees
by
the
sap
-fee
din
gst
ick
lac
inse
ctTa
cha
r-d
iala
cca
(“la
cca”
isd
eriv
edfr
om
the
San
skri
tw
ord
laks
ha
,m
ean
ing
“lak
h”)
.U
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
ph
on
og
rap
hre
c-o
rds,
hig
h-g
rad
ein
sula
tors
,sp
irit
var
nis
h,
seal
ing
wax
,d
raw
ing
ink
,w
ater
colo
rs,
nit
roce
llu
lose
lacq
uer
san
das
sizi
ng
inp
aper
and
stif
fen
ing
infe
lth
ats.
364 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
XV
III,
con
tin
ued
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Har
dre
sin
s,co
nti
nu
ed
Sh
ella
cZ
izyp
hu
sxy
lop
yru
sR
ham
nac
eae
No
tst
rict
lya
pla
nt
pro
du
ctb
ut
are
sin
ou
ssu
bst
ance
secr
eted
on
the
twig
so
fm
any
tree
sb
yth
esa
p-f
eed
ing
stic
kla
cin
sect
Ta
cha
r-d
iala
cca
(“la
cca”
isd
eriv
edfr
om
the
San
skri
tw
ord
laks
ha
,m
ean
ing
“lak
h”)
.U
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
ph
on
og
rap
hre
c-o
rds,
hig
h-g
rad
ein
sula
tors
,sp
irit
var
nis
h,
seal
ing
wax
,d
raw
ing
ink
,w
ater
colo
rs,
nit
roce
llu
lose
lacq
uer
san
das
sizi
ng
inp
aper
and
stif
fen
ing
infe
lth
ats.
Sh
ella
cF
icu
sre
lig
iosa
Mo
race
aeN
ot
stri
ctly
ap
lan
tp
rod
uct
bu
ta
resi
no
us
sub
stan
cese
cret
edo
nth
etw
igs
of
man
ytr
ees
by
the
sap
-fee
din
gst
ick
lac
inse
ctTa
cha
r-d
iala
cca
(“la
cca”
isd
eriv
edfr
om
the
San
skri
tw
ord
laks
ha
,m
ean
ing
“lak
h”)
.U
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
ph
on
og
rap
hre
c-o
rds,
hig
h-g
rad
ein
sula
tors
,sp
irit
var
nis
h,
seal
ing
wax
,d
raw
ing
ink
,w
ater
colo
rs,
nit
roce
llu
lose
lacq
uer
san
das
sizi
ng
inp
aper
and
stif
fen
ing
infe
lth
ats.
Sh
ella
cA
caci
an
ilo
tica
Mim
osa
ceae
No
tst
rict
lya
pla
nt
pro
du
ctb
ut
are
sin
ou
ssu
bst
ance
secr
eted
on
the
twig
so
fm
any
tree
sb
yth
esa
p-f
eed
ing
stic
kla
cin
sect
Ta
cha
r-d
iala
cca
(“la
cca”
isd
eriv
edfr
om
the
San
skri
tw
ord
laks
ha
,m
ean
ing
“lak
h”)
.U
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
ph
on
og
rap
hre
c-o
rds,
hig
h-g
rad
ein
sula
tors
,sp
irit
var
nis
h,
seal
ing
wax
,d
raw
ing
ink
,w
ater
colo
rs,
nit
roce
llu
lose
lacq
uer
san
das
sizi
ng
inp
aper
and
stif
fen
ing
infe
lth
ats.
Aca
roid
or
gra
ss-t
ree
resi
ns
Xa
nth
orr
ho
eah
ast
ilis
,X
.ta
tea
na
,X
.a
ust
rali
sL
ilia
ceae
Res
inco
llec
ted
aro
un
dth
eb
ases
of
old
leav
esis
yel
low
fro
mth
efi
rst
spec
ies
and
red
fro
mth
eo
ther
spec
ies.
Use
din
mak
ing
seal
ing
wax
and
spir
itv
arn
ish
esan
das
asu
bst
itu
tefo
rro
sin
inp
aper
sizi
ng
and
ink
;al
soas
aso
urc
eo
fp
icri
cac
idan
din
med
i-ci
ne.
San
dar
acTet
racl
inis
art
icu
lata
,C
al-
litr
isq
ua
dri
valv
isC
up
ress
acea
eS
ecre
ted
inth
efo
rmo
fsm
all
tear
so
nth
eb
ark
,it
ish
ard
,w
hit
ean
dra
ther
bri
ttle
.U
sed
for
coat
ing
lab
els,
neg
ativ
es,
card
bo
ard
leat
her
and
met
alan
din
den
tal
cem
ent,
ince
nse
and
fum
igat
ing
po
wd
er.
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 365
Ch
ios
mas
tic
Pis
taci
ale
nti
scu
sP
ista
ciac
eae
Ex
cret
edfr
om
the
bar
kin
the
form
of
lon
g,
ov
oid
,p
ale
yel
low
,b
rit-
tle
tear
s.U
sed
for
coat
ing
met
als
and
bo
tho
ilan
dw
ater
colo
rp
ictu
res;
inth
ep
rep
arat
ion
of
tran
spar
ent
var
nis
hes
and
inch
ewin
gg
um
;al
sou
sed
inp
erfu
mer
y,m
edic
ine,
lith
og
rap
hic
wo
rkan
das
ace
men
tfo
rd
enta
lw
ork
.
Bo
mb
aym
asti
cP
ista
cia
cab
uli
caP
ista
ciac
eae
Du
ll,
mil
k-c
olo
red
resi
n.
Use
dfo
rco
atin
gm
etal
san
db
oth
oil
and
wat
erco
lor
pic
ture
s;in
the
pre
par
atio
no
ftr
ansp
aren
tv
arn
ish
esan
din
chew
ing
gu
m;
also
use
din
per
fum
ery,
med
icin
e,li
tho
-g
rap
hic
wo
rkan
das
ace
men
tfo
rd
enta
lw
ork
.
Mal
bar
,g
um
or
Ind
ian
kin
oP
tero
carp
us
ma
rsu
piu
mF
abac
eae
Use
din
med
icin
efo
rth
roat
tro
ub
les
and
inta
nn
ing
Wes
tA
fric
ank
ino
Pte
roca
rpu
ser
ina
ceu
sF
abac
eae
Red
resi
n,
use
din
med
icin
efo
rth
roat
tro
ub
les
and
inta
nn
ing
Ben
gal
kin
oB
ute
am
on
osp
erm
aF
abac
eae
Use
din
med
icin
efo
rth
roat
tro
ub
les
and
inta
nn
ing
Gu
mk
ino
Eu
caly
ptu
sca
ma
ldu
len
sis
My
rtac
eae
Sec
rete
db
etw
een
the
wo
od
and
the
bar
k
Gu
mk
ino
Dip
tery
xo
do
rata
,C
oc-
colo
ba
uvi
fera
Po
lyg
on
acea
eS
ecre
ted
bet
wee
nth
ew
oo
dan
dth
eb
ark
Les
chA
nti
ari
sto
xica
ria
Mo
race
aeW
hit
ere
sin
,u
sed
for
po
iso
nin
gar
row
san
din
med
icin
e
Ole
ore
sin
s
Tu
rpen
tin
e,b
irja
,b
iro
ja,
lish
a,la
ssa
Pin
us
au
stra
lis,
P.
cari
-b
aea
,P.
po
nd
ero
sa(i
nA
mer
ica)
;P.
rox-
bu
rgh
ii,
P.
wa
llic
hia
na
,P.
mer
kusi
i,P.
insu
-la
ris,
P.
kesi
ya(i
nIn
-d
ia);
P.
pin
ast
er,
P.
ma
riti
ma
(in
Fra
nce
);P.
pin
ast
er,
P.
ha
lep
ensi
s,P.
nig
ra,
P.
pin
ea(i
nS
pai
n);
P.
pin
ast
er,
P.
pin
ea(i
nP
ort
ug
al);
P.
ha
lep
ensi
s(i
nG
reec
e);
P.
sylv
es-
tris
(in
Ru
ssia
,P
ola
nd
and
Ger
man
y)
Pin
acea
eE
xu
ded
fro
mco
nif
ero
us
tree
sas
av
isco
us,
ho
ney
-lik
eli
qu
ido
ra
soft
,st
ick
ysu
bst
ance
call
ed“p
itch
.”O
nd
isti
llat
ion
ity
ield
ses
sen
tial
oil
(cal
led
“oil
”o
r“s
pir
ito
ftu
rpen
tin
e”)
and
rosi
n(t
he
resi
du
e).
Th
eo
ilis
use
din
the
pai
nt
and
var
nis
hin
du
stry
,in
pri
nti
ng
cott
on
and
wo
ol,
asa
solv
ent
for
rub
ber
and
gu
tta-
per
cha,
inm
edic
ine
and
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
pin
eo
il,
terp
i-n
eol,
cam
ph
or,
pin
eta
r,v
orm
eol,
vo
neo
lac
etat
ean
do
ther
chem
ical
s.T
he
rosi
n,
or
colo
ph
on
y,is
ab
ritt
le,
fria
ble
,fa
intl
yar
om
atic
,so
lid
use
din
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fso
ap,
var
nis
h,
pai
nt,
oil
clo
th,
lin
ole
um
,se
alin
gw
ax,
adh
esiv
es,
pri
nte
rs’
ink
,fl
oo
ran
dro
of
cov
erin
gs,
rub
ber
s,d
rug
s,p
last
ics,
etc.
and
asa
sizi
ng
mat
eria
lfo
rp
aper
.R
osi
no
ilis
use
das
gre
ase,
alu
bri
can
tan
da
solv
ent.
366 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
XV
III,
con
tin
ued
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Ole
ore
sin
s,co
nti
nu
ed
Ven
etia
ntu
rpen
tin
eL
ari
xd
ecid
ua
Pin
acea
eU
sed
inh
isto
log
y,li
tho
gra
ph
icw
ork
,v
arn
ish
esan
dv
eter
inar
ym
edic
ine;
yel
low
ish
or
gre
enis
hli
qu
idw
ith
ach
arac
teri
stic
tast
ean
do
do
r
Bo
rdea
ux
turp
enti
ne
Pin
us
pin
ast
erP
inac
eae
Th
ere
sid
ue,
call
ed“B
urg
un
dy
pit
ch,”
isa
stim
ula
nt
and
cou
nte
rirr
i-ta
nt
and
isu
sed
inp
last
ics,
oin
tmen
tsan
dp
har
mac
euti
cals
Str
asb
ou
rgtu
rpen
tin
eA
bie
sa
lba
Pin
acea
eT
he
resi
du
e,ca
lled
“Bu
rgu
nd
yp
itch
,”is
ast
imu
lan
tan
dco
un
teri
rri-
tan
tan
dis
use
din
pla
stic
s,o
intm
ents
and
ph
arm
aceu
tica
ls
Jura
turp
enti
ne
Pic
eaa
bie
sP
inac
eae
Can
ada
bal
sam
Ab
ies
ba
lsa
mea
Pin
acea
eT
rue
turp
enti
ne
(ole
ore
sin
)fr
om
the
bal
sam
fir,
itis
av
isci
d,
yel
-lo
wis
ho
rg
reen
ish
sub
stan
ceu
sed
asa
mo
un
tin
gm
ediu
mfo
rm
icro
sco
pic
wo
rkan
da
cem
ent
for
op
tica
lle
nse
s;al
sou
sed
asan
irri
tan
t,st
imu
lan
tan
dan
tise
pti
c,as
aco
mp
on
ent
inco
llo
dio
nan
dm
any
pla
ster
san
das
afi
xat
ive
for
soap
and
per
fum
es.
Tec
hn
ical
ly,
bal
sam
sar
ear
om
atic
ole
ore
sin
sth
atco
nta
inb
en-
zoic
or
cin
nam
icac
idan
dar
ele
ssv
isco
us
and
con
tain
less
oil
than
turp
enti
nes
.O
nd
isti
llat
ion
bal
sam
sy
ield
esse
nti
alo
ils
that
are
use
din
med
icin
ean
das
fix
ativ
esin
the
per
fum
ein
du
stry
.
Ore
go
nb
alsa
mP
seu
do
tsu
ga
taxi
foli
aP
inac
eae
Av
isci
d,
yel
low
ish
or
gre
enis
hsu
bst
ance
use
das
am
ou
nti
ng
me-
diu
mfo
rm
icro
sco
pic
wo
rkan
da
cem
ent
for
op
tica
lle
nse
s;al
sou
sed
asan
irri
tan
t,st
imu
lan
tan
dan
tise
pti
c,as
aco
mp
on
ent
inco
llo
dio
nan
dm
any
pla
ster
san
das
afi
xat
ive
for
soap
and
per
-fu
mes
Sp
ruce
gu
mP
icea
rub
ens
Pin
acea
eO
bta
ined
fro
mw
oo
dan
db
ark
,th
eo
leo
resi
nis
thin
,cl
ean
,b
itte
ran
dst
ick
y,h
ard
ens
on
exp
osu
reto
air
and
has
ap
leas
ing
,re
sin
ou
sta
ste.
Use
das
am
asti
cato
ryb
ecau
seit
soft
ens
inth
em
ou
than
db
eco
mes
red
dis
h.
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 367
Bal
sam
of
Per
uM
yro
xylo
np
erei
rae
Fab
acea
eA
dar
k,
red
dis
hb
row
n,
thic
k,
vis
cou
s,sy
rup
yli
qu
ido
bta
ined
by
wo
un
din
gth
etr
ee.
Use
din
med
icin
efo
rtr
eati
ng
slo
w-h
eali
ng
wo
un
ds
and
skin
dis
ease
s(e
spec
iall
yd
uri
ng
Wo
rld
War
II)
and
,b
ecau
seo
fit
sst
imu
lati
ng
and
anti
sep
tic
effe
cto
nm
uco
us
mem
-b
ran
es,
for
trea
tin
gco
ug
hs,
bro
nch
itis
,et
c.;
also
use
das
asu
b-
stit
ute
for
van
illa
,as
afi
xat
ive
inp
erfu
mes
and
inth
eso
apin
du
stry
.T
he
com
mo
nn
ame
isa
mis
no
mer
bec
ause
the
tree
gro
ws
inC
entr
alA
mer
ica,
no
tin
Per
u.
Bal
sam
of
To
luM
yro
xylo
nb
als
am
um
Pap
ilio
nac
eae
Ab
row
no
ry
ello
wis
hb
row
n,
pla
stic
sub
stan
cew
ith
ap
leas
ant
aro
-m
atic
tast
ean
do
do
r;u
sed
for
alm
ost
the
sam
ep
urp
ose
sas
bal
-sa
mo
fP
eru
Lev
ant
sty
rax
or
sto
rax
Liq
uid
am
ber
ori
enta
lis
Ham
amel
idac
eae
Ase
mil
iqu
id,
stic
ky,
gra
yis
hb
row
n,
op
aqu
e,ar
om
atic
sub
stan
ceo
bta
ined
fro
min
ner
bar
kb
yw
ou
nd
ing
the
tree
;u
sed
inco
smet
-ic
s,so
ap,
adh
esiv
es,
lacq
uer
san
din
cen
seas
afi
xat
ive,
inp
er-
fum
esan
din
med
icin
efo
rth
etr
eatm
ent
of
cou
gh
san
dsc
abie
s
Am
eric
anst
yra
xL
iqu
ida
mb
erst
yra
cifl
ua
Ham
amel
idac
eae
Acl
ear,
thic
k,
bro
wn
ish
yel
low
sem
iso
lid
or
soli
dsu
bst
ance
ob
-ta
ined
fro
min
ner
bar
kb
yw
ou
nd
ing
the
tree
;u
sed
inco
smet
ics,
soap
,ad
hes
ives
,la
cqu
ers
and
ince
nse
;as
afi
xat
ive
inp
erfu
mes
;an
din
med
icin
efo
rth
etr
eatm
ent
of
cou
gh
san
dsc
abie
s.In
dia
imp
ort
sit
fro
mF
ran
ce.
Sia
mb
enzo
in,
bal
sam
icre
sin
Sty
rax
ben
zoid
es,
S.
tan
k-in
ense
Sty
race
aeY
ello
wis
ho
rb
row
nis
h,
peb
ble
-lik
eh
ard
and
bri
ttle
tear
sw
ith
am
ilk
yw
hit
ece
nte
ran
da
stro
ng
,v
anil
la-l
ike
aro
ma;
use
das
in-
cen
sean
din
med
icin
eas
ast
imu
lan
t,d
iure
tic,
carm
inat
ive
and
exp
ecto
ran
t;in
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fp
erfu
me,
soap
,to
ilet
wat
er,
loti
on
,to
oth
po
wd
eran
dfu
mig
atin
gm
ater
ials
;a
sou
rce
of
ben
-zo
icac
id
Su
mat
rab
enzo
inSty
rax
ben
zoin
Sty
race
aeR
edd
ish
or
gra
yis
hb
row
nte
ars
that
agg
reg
ate
tofo
rmb
lock
so
rlu
mp
s;u
sed
asin
cen
sean
din
med
icin
eas
ast
imu
lan
t,d
iure
tic,
carm
inat
ive
and
exp
ecto
ran
t;in
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fp
erfu
me,
soap
,to
ilet
wat
er,
loti
on
,to
oth
po
wd
eran
dfu
mig
atin
gm
ater
i-al
s;a
sou
rce
of
ben
zoic
acid
368 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
XV
III,
con
tin
ued
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Ole
ore
sin
s,co
nti
nu
ed
Co
pai
ba,
Co
pai
ba
bal
sam
,ca
pai
va
Co
pa
ifer
asp
p.,
esp
e-ci
ally
C.
off
icin
ali
s,C
.re
ticu
lata
Fab
acea
eO
bta
ined
by
bo
rin
gh
ole
sin
toh
eart
wo
od
,it
isa
thin
,cl
ear,
colo
r-le
ssli
qu
idth
attu
rns
yel
low
and
vis
cid
wit
hag
e,is
aro
mat
ican
dh
asa
bit
ter
tast
e;u
sed
inm
akin
gla
cqu
er,
var
nis
han
dtr
acin
gp
aper
,as
afi
xat
ive
inp
erfu
me
and
soap
;in
ph
oto
gra
ph
yfo
rh
alf-
ton
esan
dsh
ado
ws
and
inm
edic
ine
asa
lax
ativ
e,d
isin
fec-
tan
t,d
iure
tic
and
mil
dst
imu
lan
t
Gu
rjan
bal
sam
Dip
tero
carp
us
ala
tus,
D.
ind
icu
s,D
.tu
rbin
tus
Dip
tero
carp
acea
eT
hic
k,
op
aqu
ean
dg
ray
ish
,it
isu
sed
inm
edic
ine
and
for
cau
lkin
gan
dv
arn
ish
ing
bo
ats
Illu
rin
bal
sam
,A
fric
anco
pai
ba,
Sie
rra
Leo
ne
fran
kin
cen
seD
an
iell
ao
live
ri,
D.
thu
rife
raF
abac
eae
Th
ick
,v
ery
frag
ran
t,p
un
gen
t,p
epp
er-l
ike
ole
ore
sin
Man
ila
elem
iC
an
ari
um
luzo
nic
um
Bu
rser
acea
eO
oze
sfr
om
tru
nk
bar
kin
frag
ran
t,w
hit
em
asse
so
ntr
eetr
un
ks;
use
dlo
call
yfo
rto
rch
es,
for
cau
lkin
gb
oat
s,in
lith
og
rap
hic
wo
rk,
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
cem
ents
,ad
hes
ives
and
ink
,in
per
-fu
me,
inm
edic
ine,
inp
last
ics
and
oin
tmen
ts,
and
inth
ev
arn
ish
ind
ust
ryto
mak
ep
rod
uct
sto
ug
han
del
asti
c
Afr
ican
elem
iB
osw
elli
afr
erea
na
Bu
rser
acea
e
Mex
ican
elem
iA
myr
isb
als
am
ifer
a,
A.
elem
ifer
aR
uta
ceae
Bra
zili
anel
emi
Bu
rser
ag
um
mif
era
,P
roti
um
hep
tap
hyl
-lu
m
Bu
rser
acea
e
Mec
cab
alsa
mC
om
mip
ho
rao
pa
ba
l-sa
mu
mB
urs
erac
eae
Ag
reen
ish
,tu
rbid
ole
ore
sin
wit
han
od
or
of
rose
mar
y;
use
din
ince
nse
,p
erfu
mes
and
med
icin
e
Mex
ican
lin
alo
eB
urs
era
pen
icil
lata
Bu
rser
acea
eO
bta
ined
fro
mth
ear
om
atic
fru
its;
use
din
per
fum
e
Sal
aig
um
,In
dia
no
lib
anu
mB
osw
elli
ase
rra
ta:
Bu
rser
acea
eU
sed
asan
ince
nse
,in
med
icin
efo
rrh
eum
atis
m,
ner
vo
us
dis
ease
san
do
intm
ents
and
asa
fire
lig
hte
r
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 369
Gu
mre
sin
s
Am
mo
nia
cum
Do
rem
aa
mm
on
iacu
mA
pia
ceae
Ex
ud
esfr
om
stem
san
dfl
ow
erin
gb
ran
ches
asa
mil
ky
juic
eth
ath
ard
ens
on
exp
osu
reto
form
bri
ttle
,b
row
nis
hy
ello
wte
ars,
wh
ich
occ
ur
sin
gly
or
inm
asse
s;u
sed
inp
erfu
mer
yan
din
med
icin
eas
aci
rcu
lato
ryst
imu
lan
t
Her
abo
lm
yrr
hC
om
mip
ho
ram
yrrh
aB
urs
erac
eae
Oo
zes
fro
mst
ems
asa
pal
ey
ello
wli
qu
idth
ath
ard
ens
tofo
rmb
row
no
rb
lack
tear
s;u
sed
inp
erfu
mer
y,as
aco
nst
itu
ent
of
mo
uth
was
han
dd
enti
fric
esan
din
med
icin
eas
ato
nic
,st
imu
lan
tan
dan
tise
pti
c
Bis
abo
l,sw
eet
my
rrh
Co
mm
iph
ora
eryt
hra
eaB
urs
erac
eae
Use
din
ince
nse
,p
erfu
mes
and
emb
alm
ing
and
asa
con
stit
uen
to
fC
hin
ese
joss
stic
ks
Gu
mre
sin
Co
mm
iph
ora
cau
da
taB
urs
erac
eae
Ap
ale
yel
low
liq
uid
that
gra
du
ally
soli
dif
ies
and
turn
sb
row
no
rb
lack
;u
sed
inm
edic
ine,
asin
cen
sean
dfo
rem
bal
min
g
Fra
nk
ince
nse
of
oli
ban
um
Bo
swel
lia
cart
eri
Bu
rser
acea
eE
xu
des
fro
mb
ark
asa
clea
r,y
ello
wre
sin
that
har
den
sin
tosm
all
yel
low
gra
ins;
use
din
ince
nse
and
per
fum
esan
das
afi
xat
ive
for
face
po
wd
ers,
pas
till
esan
dfu
mig
atin
gp
ow
der
s
Ind
ian
fran
kin
cen
se,
lub
anB
osw
elli
ase
rra
taB
urs
erac
eae
Ob
tain
edfr
om
bar
k,
the
ole
o-g
um
-res
inco
nta
ins:
oil
y,tu
rpen
tin
icli
qu
id,
use
das
asu
bst
itu
tefo
rtu
rpen
tin
eo
il;
aro
sin
-lik
ere
sin
,u
sed
inth
eso
apin
du
stry
;an
dg
um
,u
sed
inp
rin
tin
gca
lico
Op
op
anax
Co
mm
iph
ora
kata
fB
urs
erac
eae
Use
din
per
fum
ery
and
inm
edic
ine
Op
op
anax
Op
op
an
ax
chir
on
ium
Ap
iace
aeA
nh
erb
use
din
per
fum
ery
and
inm
edic
ine
Cey
lon
gam
bo
se,
Ind
ian
gam
bo
ge
Ga
rcin
iah
an
bu
ryi,
G.
mo
rell
aG
utt
ifer
aeY
ello
wem
uls
ion
ob
tain
edfr
om
the
pit
h,
leav
es,
flo
wer
san
dfr
uit
s;u
sed
inp
rep
arin
gw
ater
colo
rsan
dg
old
-co
lore
dsp
irit
var
nis
hes
and
inm
edic
ine
asa
vio
len
tca
thar
tic
Mad
arC
alo
tro
pis
gig
an
tea
,C
.h
am
ilto
nii
Asc
lep
iad
acea
eU
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
gu
tta-
per
cha
370 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Resins are very important in industry. Two types are used in manufacturing varnishes and
lacquers. The first type comprises resins that, after melting, can be combined with linseed oil or
turpentine and utilized for forming amber, copal and other oil varnishes. Oil varnishes are
superior but costly.
The word “copal” is of Mexican origin. In England many of the harder copals are known as
“animes.” The copals are resins of recent semifossil or fossil tropical and subtropical tree spe-
cies. They contain almost no oil and yield a hard, elastic varnish, which is much used for
outdoor work.
The second type of resins comprises those that dissolve in alcohol, turpentine or other
volatile solvents. They are utilized for forming spirit varnishes, such as rosin, damar, sandarac,
mastic and elemis. Spirit varnishes are less expensive and more easily prepared and applied.
They produce brilliant, transparent finishes. All damars are used chiefly in spirit varnishes and
in the manufacture of nitrocellulose lacquers. Damar varnishes are softer, less durable and
adhere better. They are used mainly for varnishing paper because of their luster and light color.
They are also used for indoor work and in histology. “Elemi” is a collective name for several
oleoresins of different origin that exude as clear, pale liquids. Most tend to harden on exposure,
but some may remain soft.
Resinous substances have been used for waterproof coatings and also for decorative coat-
ings for ages. The ancient Egyptians varnished their mummy cases, and the Incas utilized resins
in their embalming mixtures. Resins are also used in the preparation of soap—they dissolve in
alkali to form soap—and in medicine, for sizing paper, as a stiffening material for mats, in the