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Title: DryFarming

Author: John A. Widtsoe

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EBOOK, DRYFARMING ***

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DRYFARMING

A SYSTEM OF AGRICULTURE FORCOUNTRIES UNDER LOW RAINFALL

BY JOHN A. WIDTSOE, A.M., Ph. D

PRESIDENT OF THE AGRICULTURALCOLLEGE OF UTAH

NEW YORK

1920

TO

LEAH

THIS BOOK IS INSCRIBED

JUNE 1, 1910

PREFACE

Nearly six tenths of the earth’s landsurface receive an annual rainfall of lessthan twenty inches, and can be reclaimedfor agricultural purposes only byirrigation and dryfarming. A perfectedworld-system of irrigation will convertabout one tenth of this vast area into anincomparably fruitful garden, leavingabout one half of the earth’s land surface tobe reclaimed, if at all, by the methods ofdryfarming. The noble system of modernagriculture has been constructed almostwholly in countries of abundant rainfall,and its applications are those demanded forthe agricultural development of humidregions. Until recently irrigation wasgiven scant attention, and dryfarming,with its world problem of conquering onehalf of the earth, was not considered. Thesefacts furnish the apology for the writing ofthis book.

One volume, only , in this world of manybooks, and that less than a year old, isdevoted to the exposition of the accepteddryfarm practices of to-day .

The book now offered is the first attempt toassemble and organize the known facts ofscience in their relation to the productionof plants, without irrigation, in regions oflimited rainfall. The needs of the actualfarmer, who must understand theprinciples before his practices can bewholly satisfactory , have been kept inview primarily ; but it is hoped that theenlarging group of dry farm investigatorswill also be helped by this presentation ofthe principles of dry farming. The subject isnow growing so rapidly that there will soonbe room for two classes of treatment: onefor the farmer, and one for the technical

student.

This book has been written far from largelibraries, and the material has been drawnfrom the available sources. Specificreferences are not given in the text, butthe names of investigators or institutionsare found with nearly all statements offact. The files of the Experiment StationRecord and Der Jahresbericht derAgrikultur Chemie have taken the place ofthe more desirable original publications.Free use has been made of the publicationsof the experiment stations and the UnitedStates Department of Agriculture.Inspiration and suggestions have beensought and found constantly in the worksof the princes of American soilinvestigation, Hilgard of California andKing of Wisconsin. I am under deepobligation, for assistance rendered, tonumerous friends in all parts of the

country , especially to Professor L. A.Merrill, with whom I have collaborated formany years in the study of the possibilitiesof dry farming in Western America.

The possibilities of dry farming arestupendous. In the strength of youth wemay have felt envious of the great ones ofold; of Columbus looking upon the shadowof the greatest continent; of Balboashouting greetings to the resting Pacific; ofFather Escalante, pondering upon themystery of the world, alone, near theshores of America’s Dead Sea. We needharbor no such envyings, for in theconquest of the nonirrigated andnonirrigable desert are offered as fineopportunities as the world has known tothe makers and shakers of empires. Westand before an undiscovered land;through the restless, ascending currents ofheated desert air the v ision comes and

goes. With striv ing eyes the desert is seencovered with blossoming fields, withchurches and homes and schools, and, inthe distance, with the v ision is heard thelaughter of happy children.

The desert will be conquered.

JOHN A. WIDTSOE.

June 1 , 1910.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

DRYFARMING DEFINED

Dryfarming, as at present understood, isthe profitable production of useful crops,without irrigation, on lands that receiveannually a rainfall of 20 inches or less. Indistricts of torrential rains, high winds,unfavorable distribution of the rainfall, orother water-dissipating factors, the term“dryfarming” is also properly applied tofarming without irrigation under anannual precipitation of 25 or even 30inches. There is no sharp demarcationbetween dry-and humid-farming.

When the annual precipitation is under 20inches, the methods of dry farming areusually indispensable. When it is over 30inches, the methods of humid-farming areemployed; in places where the annualprecipitation is between 20 and 30 inches,the methods to be used depend chiefly onlocal conditions affecting the conservationof soil moisture. Dryfarming, however,always implies farming under acomparatively small annual rainfall.

The term “dryfarming” is, of course, amisnomer. In reality it is farming underdrier conditions than those prevailing inthe countries in which scientificagriculture originated. Many suggestionsfor a better name have been made.“Scientific agriculture” has-been proposed,but all agriculture should be scientific, andagriculture without irrigation in an aridcountry has no right to lay sole claim to so

general a title. “Dry-land agriculture,”which has also been suggested, is noimprovement over “dryfarming,” as it islonger and also carries with it the idea ofdryness. Instead of the name “dryfarming”it would, perhaps, be better to use thenames, “arid-farming.” “semiarid-farming,”

“humid-farming,” and “irrigation-farming,” according to the climaticconditions prevailing in various parts ofthe world. However, at the present timethe name “dryfarming” is in such generaluse that it would seem unwise to suggestany change. It should be used with thedistinct understanding that as far as theword “dry” is concerned it is a misnomer.When the two words are hyphenated,however, a compound technical term—“dryfarming”—is secured which has ameaning of its own, such as we have justdefined it to be; and “dryfarming,”therefore, becomes an addition to the

lexicon.

Dry-versus humid-farming

Dryfarming, as a distinct branch ofagriculture, has for its purpose thereclamation, for the use of man, of the vastunirrigable “desert” or “semi-desert” areasof the world, which until recently wereconsidered hopelessly barren. The greatunderly ing principles of agriculture arethe same the world over, yet the emphasisto be placed on the different agriculturaltheories and practices must be shifted inaccordance with regional conditions. Theagricultural problem of first importance inhumid regions is the maintenance of soilfertility ; and since modern agriculture wasdeveloped almost wholly under humidconditions, the system of scientific

agriculture has for its central idea themaintenance of soil fertility . In aridregions, on the other hand, theconservation of the natural waterprecipitation for crop production is theimportant problem; and a new system ofagriculture must therefore be constructed,on the basis of the old principles, but withthe conservation of the naturalprecipitation as the central idea. Thesystem of dry farming must marshal andorganize all the established facts of sciencefor the better utilization, in plant growth,of a limited rainfall. The excellentteachings of humid agriculture respectingthe maintenance of soil fertility will be ofhigh value in the development ofdryfarming, and the firm establishment ofright methods of conserving and using thenatural precipitation will undoubtedlyhave a beneficial effect upon the practice ofhumid agriculture.

The problems of dry farming

The dryfarmer, at the outset, should knowwith comparative accuracy the annualrainfall over the area that he intends tocultivate. He must also have a goodacquaintance with the nature of the soil,not only as regards its plant-food content,but as to its power to receive and retain thewater from rain and snow. In fact, aknowledge of the soil is indispensable insuccessful dry farming.

Only by such knowledge of the rainfall andthe soil is he able to adapt the principlesoutlined in this volume to his special needs.

Since, under dryfarm conditions, water isthe limiting factor of production, theprimary problem of dry farming is the

most effective storage in the soil of thenatural precipitation. Only the water,safely stored in the soil within reach of theroots, can be used in crop production. Ofnearly equal importance is the problem ofkeeping the water in the soil until it isneeded by plants. During the growingseason, water may be lost from the soil bydownward drainage or by evaporationfrom the surface. It becomes necessary ,therefore, to determine under whatconditions the natural precipitation storedin the soil moves downward and by whatmeans surface evaporation may beprevented or regulated. The soil-water, ofreal use to plants, is that taken up by theroots and finally evaporated from theleaves. A large part of the water stored inthe soil is thus used. The methods wherebythis direct draft of plants on the soil-moisture may be regulated are, naturally ,of the utmost importance to thedryfarmer, and they constitute another

vital problem of the science of dry farming.

The relation of crops to the prevailingconditions of arid lands offers anothergroup of important dry farm problems.Some plants use much less water thanothers. Some attain maturity quickly , andin that way become desirable fordryfarming. Still other crops, grown underhumid conditions, may easily be adaptedto dryfarming conditions, if the correctmethods are employed, and in a fewseasons may be made valuable dry farmcrops. The indiv idual characteristics ofeach crop should be known as they relatethemselves to a low rainfall and arid soils.

After a crop has been chosen, skill andknowledge are needed in the properseeding, tillage, and harvesting of the crop.

Failures frequently result from the want ofadapting the crop treatment to aridconditions.

After the crop has been gathered andstored, its proper use is another problem forthe dryfarmer. The composition ofdryfarm crops is different from that ofcrops grown with an abundance of water.Usually , dry farm crops are much morenutritious and therefore should commanda higher price in the markets, or should befed to stock in corresponding proportionsand combinations.

The fundamental problems of dry farmingare, then, the storage in the soil of a smallannual rainfall; the retention in the soil ofthe moisture until it is needed by plants;the prevention of the direct evaporation of

soil-moisture during; the growing season;the regulation of the amount of waterdrawn from the soil by plants; the choice ofcrops suitable for growth under aridconditions; the application of suitable croptreatments, and the disposal of dry farmproducts, based upon the superiorcomposition of plants grown with smallamounts of water. Around thesefundamental problems cluster a host ofminor, though also important, problems.When the methods of dry farming areunderstood and practiced, the practice isalways successful; but it requires moreintelligence, more implicit obedience tonature’s laws, and greater v igilance, thanfarming in countries of abundant rainfall.

The chapters that follow will deal almostwholly with the problems above outlinedas they present themselves in theconstruction of a rational system of

farming without irrigation in countries oflimited rainfall.

CHAPTER II

THE THEORETICAL BASIS OFDRYFARMING

The confidence with which scientificinvestigators, familiar with the aridregions, have attacked the problems ofdryfarming rests largely on the knownrelationship of the water requirements ofplants to the natural precipitation of rainand snow. It is a most elementary fact ofplant physiology that no plant can live andgrow unless it has at its disposal a sufficientamount of water.

The water used by plants is almost entirelytaken from the soil by the minute root-hairs radiating from the roots. The water

thus taken into the plants is passed upwardthrough the stem to the leaves, where it isfinally evaporated. There is, therefore, amore or less constant stream of waterpassing through the plant from the roots tothe leaves.

By various methods it is possible tomeasure the water thus taken from thesoil. While this process of taking waterfrom the soil is going on within the plant, acertain amount of soil-moisture is also lostby direct evaporation from the soil surface.In dryfarm sections, soil-moisture is lostonly by these two methods; for whereverthe rainfall is sufficient to cause drainagefrom deep soils, humid conditions prevail.

Water for one pound dry matter

Many experiments have been conducted todetermine the amount of water used in theproduction of one pound of dry plantsubstance.

Generally , the method of the experimentshas been to grow plants in large potscontaining weighed quantities of soil. Asneeded, weighed amounts of water wereadded to the pots. To determine the loss ofwater, the pots were weighed at regularintervals of three days to one week. Atharvest time, the weight of dry matter wascarefully determined for each pot. Sincethe water lost by the pots was also known,the pounds of water used for the productionof every pound of dry matter were readilycalculated.

The first reliable experiments of the kind

were undertaken under humid conditionsin Germany and other European countries.From the mass of results, some have beenselected and presented in the followingtable. The work was done by the famousGerman investigators, Wollny , Hellriegel,and Sorauer, in the early eighties of thelast century . In every case, the numbers inthe table represent the number of poundsof water used for the production of onepound of ripened dry substance: Pounds OfWater For One Pound Of Dry MatterWollny Hellreigel Sorauer Wheat 338 459

Oats 665 376 569

Barley 310 431

Rye 774 353 236

Corn 233

Buckwheat 646 363

Peas 416 273

Horsebeans 282

Red clover 310

Sunflowers 490

Millet 447

It is clear from the above results, obtainedin Germany, that the amount of waterrequired to produce a pound of dry matteris not the same for all plants, nor is it thesame under all conditions for the sameplant. In fact, as will be shown in a laterchapter, the water requirements of anycrop depend upon numerous factors, moreor less controllable. The range of the aboveGerman results is from 233 to 774 pounds,with an average of about 419 pounds ofwater for each pound of dry matterproduced.

During the late eighties and early nineties,King conducted experiments similar to theearlier German experiments, to determinethe water requirements of crops underWisconsin conditions. A summary of theresults of these extensive and carefullyconducted experiments is as follows:—

Oats 385

Barley 464

Corn 271

Peas 477

Clover 576

Potatoes 385

The figures in the above table, averaging

about 446 pounds, indicate that verynearly the same quantity of water isrequired for the production of crops inWisconsin as in Germany. The Wisconsinresults tend to be somewhat higher thanthose obtained in Europe, but thedifference is small.

It is a settled principle of science, as will bemore fully discussed later, that theamount of water evaporated from the soiland transpired by plant leaves increasesmaterially with an increase in the averagetemperature during the growing season,and is much higher under a clear sky andin districts where the atmosphere is dry .Wherever dry farming is likely to bepracticed, a moderately high temperature,a cloudless sky , and a dry atmosphere arethe prevailing conditions. It appearedprobable therefore, that in arid countriesthe amount of water required for the

production of one pound of dry matterwould be higher than in the humid regionsof Germany and Wisconsin. To secureinformation on this subject, Widtsoe andMerrill undertook, in 1900, a series ofexperiments in Utah, which wereconducted upon the plan of the earlierexperimenters. An average statement ofthe results of six years’

experimentation is given in the subjoinedtable, showing the number of pounds ofwater required for one pound of dry matteron fertile soils:—

Wheat 1048

Corn 589

Peas 1118

Sugar Beets 630

These Utah findings support strongly thedoctrine that the amount of water requiredfor the production of each pound of drymatter is very much larger under aridconditions, as in Utah, than under humidconditions, as in Germany or Wisconsin. Itmust be observed, however, that in all ofthese experiments the plants were suppliedwith water in a somewhat wastefulmanner; that is, they were given anabundance of water, and used the largestquantity possible under the prevailingconditions. No attempt of any kind wasmade to economize water. The results,therefore, represent maximum results andcan be safely used as such. Moreover, themethods of dry farming, involv ing thestorage of water in deep soils andsystematic cultivation, were notemployed. The experiments, both inEurope and America, rather representirrigated conditions. There are good

reasons for believ ing that in Germany,Wisconsin, and Utah the amounts abovegiven can be materially reduced by theemployment of proper cultural methods.

The water in the large bottle would berequired to produce the grain in the smallbottle.

In v iew of these findings concerning thewater requirements of crops, it cannot befar from the truth to say that, underaverage cultural conditions,approximately 750 pounds of water arerequired in an arid district for theproduction of one pound of dry matter.

Where the aridity is intense, this figuremay be somewhat low, and in localities ofsub-humid conditions, it will undoubtedly

be too high. As a maximum average,however, for districts interested indryfarming, it can be used with safety .

Crop-producing power of rainfall

If this conclusion, that not more than 750pounds of water are required underordinary dryfarm conditions for theproduction of one pound of dry matter, beaccepted, certain interesting calculationscan be made respecting the possibilities ofdryfarming. For example, the productionof one bushel of wheat will require 60times 750, or 45,000 pounds of water. Thewheat kernels, however, cannot beproduced without a certain amount ofstraw, which under conditions ofdryfarming seldom forms quite one half ofthe weight of the whole plant. Let us say ,

however, that the weights of straw andkernels are equal. Then, to produce onebushel of wheat, with the correspondingquantity of straw, would require 2 times45,000, or 90,000 pounds of water. This isequal to 45 tons of water for each bushel ofwheat. While this is a large figure, yet, inmany localities, it is undoubtedly wellwithin the truth. In comparison with theamounts of water that fall upon the land asrain, it does not seem extraordinarilylarge.

One inch of water over one acre of landweighs approximately 226,875

pounds. or over 113 tons. If this quantity ofwater could be stored in the soil and usedwholly for plant production, it wouldproduce, at the rate of 45 tons of water foreach bushel, about 2-1/2 bushels of wheat.With 10 inches of rainfall, which up to the

present seems to be the lower limit ofsuccessful dry farming, there is amaximum possibility of producing 25bushels of wheat annually .

In the subjoined table, constructed on thebasis of the discussion of this chapter, thewheat-producing powers of various degreesof annual precipitation are shown:—

One acre inch of water will produce 2-1/2bushels of wheat.

Ten acre inches of water will produce 25bushels of wheat.

Fifteen acre inches of water will produce

37-1/2 bushels of wheat.

Twenty acre inches of water will produce50 bushels of wheat.

It must be distinctly remembered,however, that under no known system oftillage can all the water that falls upon asoil be brought into the soil and storedthere for plant use. Neither is it possible totreat a soil so that all the stored soil-moisture may be used for plant production.Some moisture, of necessity , will evaporatedirectly from the soil, and some may belost in many other ways. Yet, even under arainfall of 12 inches, if only one half of thewater can be conserved, whichexperiments have shown to be veryfeasible, there is a possibility of producing30 bushels of wheat per acre every other

year, which insures an excellent intereston the money and labor invested in theproduction of the crop.

It is on the grounds outlined in this chapterthat students of the subject believe thatultimately large areas of the “desert” maybe reclaimed by means of dry farming. Thereal question before the dryfarmer is not,“Is the rainfall sufficient?” but rather, “Isit possible so to conserve and use therainfall as to make it available for theproduction of profitable crops?”

CHAPTER III

DRYFARM AREAS—RAINFALL

The annual precipitation of rain and snowdetermines primarily the location ofdryfarm areas. As the rainfall varies, themethods of dry farming must be variedaccordingly . Rainfall, alone, does not,however, furnish a complete index of thecrop-producing possibilities of a country .

The distribution of the rainfall, theamount of snow, the water-holding powerof the soil, and the various moisture-dissipating causes, such as winds, hightemperature, abundant sunshine, and lowhumidity frequently combine to offset thebenefits of a large annual precipitation.

Nevertheless, no one climatic featurerepresents, on the average, so correctlydryfarming possibilities as does the annualrainfall. Experience has alreadydemonstrated that wherever the annualprecipitation is above 15 inches, there is noneed of crop failures, if the soils are suitableand the methods of dry farming arecorrectly employed. With an annualprecipitation of 10 to 15 inches, there needbe very few failures, if proper culturalprecautions are taken. With our presentmethods, the areas that receive less than10 inches of atmospheric precipitation peryear are not safe for dry farm purposes.What the future will show in thereclamation of these deserts, withoutirrigation, is yet conjectural.

Arid, semiarid, and sub-humid

Before proceeding to an examination of theareas in the United States subject to themethods of dry farming it may be well todefine somewhat more clearly the termsordinarily used in the description of thegreat territory involved in the discussion.

The states ly ing west of the 100thmeridian are loosely spoken of as arid,semiarid, or sub-humid states. Forcommercial purposes no state wants to beclassed as arid and to suffer under thehandicap of advertised aridity . The annualrainfall of these states ranges from about 3to over 30 inches.

In order to arrive at greater definiteness, itmay be well to assign definite rainfallvalues to the ordinarily used descriptiveterms of the region in question. It is

proposed, therefore, that districts receiv ingless than 10 inches of atmosphericprecipitation annually , be designated arid;those receiv ing between 10 and 20 inches,semiarid; those receiv ing between 20 and30 inches, sub-humid, and those receiv ingover 30 inches, humid. It is admitted thateven such a classification is arbitrary ,since aridity does not alone depend uponthe rainfall, and even under such aclassification there is an unavoidableoverlapping. However, no one factor sofully represents vary ing degrees of aridityas the annual precipitation, and there is agreat need for concise definitions of theterms used in describing the parts of thecountry that come under dryfarmingdiscussions. In this volume, the terms“arid,” “semiarid,” “sub-humid” and“humid”

are used as above defined.

Precipitation over the dryfarm territoryNearly one half of the United Statesreceives 20 inches or less rainfallannually ; and that when the stripreceiv ing between 20 and 30 inches isadded, the whole area directly subject toreclamation by irrigation or dry farming isconsiderably more than one half (63

per cent) of the whole area of the UnitedStates.

Eighteen states are included in this area oflow rainfall. The areas of these, as given bythe Census of 1900, grouped according tothe annual precipitation received, areshown below:—

Arid to Semiarid Group

Total Area Land Surface (Sq. Miles)

Arizona 112,920

California 156,172

Colorado 103,645

Idaho 84,290

Nevada 109,740

Utah 82,190

Wyoming 97,545

TOTAL 746,532

Semiarid to Sub-Humid Group

Montana 145,310

Nebraska 76,840

New Mexico 112,460

North Dakota 70,195

Oregon 94,560

South Dakota 76,850

Washington 66,880

TOTAL 653,095

Sub-Humid to Humid Group

Kansas 81,700

Minnesota 79,205

Oklahoma 38,830

Texas 262,290

TOTAL 462,025

GRAND TOTAL 1,861,652

The territory directly interested in thedevelopment of the methods of dry farmingforms 63 per cent of the whole of thecontinental United States, not includingAlaska, and covers an area of 1 ,861,652

square miles, or 1 ,191,457,280 acres. Ifany excuse were needed for the livelyinterest taken in the subject ofdryfarming, it is amply furnished by thesefigures showing the vast extent of thecountry interested in the reclamation ofland by the methods of dry farming.

As will be shown below, nearly every other

large country possesses similar immenseareas under limited rainfall.

Of the one billion, one hundred and ninety-one million, four hundred and fifty -seventhousand, two hundred and eighty acres(1 ,191,457,280) representing the dryfarmterritory of the United States, about 22 percent, or a little more than one fifth, is sub-humid and receives between 20 and 30inches of rainfall, annually ; 61 per cent, ora little more than three fifths, is semiaridand receives between 10 and 20 inches,annually , and about 17 per cent, or a littleless than one fifth, is arid and receives lessthan 10 inches of rainfall, annually .

These calculations are based upon thepublished average rainfall maps of theUnited States Weather Bureau. In the far

West, and especially over the so-called“desert” regions, with their sparsepopulation, meteorological stations are notnumerous, nor is it easy to secure accuratedata from them. It is strongly probablethat as more stations are established, itwill be found that the area receiv ing lessthan 10 inches of rainfall annually isconsiderably smaller than aboveestimated. In fact, the United StatesReclamation Service states that there areonly 70,000,000 acres of desert-like land;that is, land which does not naturallysupport plants suitable for forage. Thisarea is about one third of the lands which,so far as known, at present receive lessthan 10 inches of rainfall, or only about 6per cent of the total dry farming territory .

In any case, the semiarid area is at presentmost v itally interested in dryfarming. Thesub-humid area need seldom suffer from

drouth, if ordinary well-known methodsare employed; the arid area, receiv ing lessthan 10 inches of rainfall, in allprobability , can be reclaimed withoutirrigation only by the development of moresuitable. methods than are known to-day .The semiarid area, which is the specialconsideration of present-day dryfarmingrepresents an area of over 725,000,000acres of land. Moreover, it must beremarked that the full certainty of crops inthe sub-humid regions will come only withthe adoption of dry farming methods; andthat results already obtained on the edge ofthe “deserts” lead to the belief that a largeportion of the area receiv ing less than 10

inches of rainfall, annually , willultimately be reclaimed withoutirrigation.

Naturally , not the whole of the vast area

just discussed could be brought undercultivation, even under the most favorableconditions of rainfall. A very large portionof the territory in question is mountainousand often of so rugged a nature that tofarm it would be an impossibility . It mustnot be forgotten, however, that some of thebest dry farm lands of the West are found inthe small mountain valleys, which usuallyare pockets of most fertile soil, under a goodsupply of rainfall. The foothills of themountains are almost invariably excellentdryfarm lands. Newell estimates that195,000,000 acres of land in the arid tosub-humid sections are covered with amore or less dense growth of timber. Thistimbered area roughly represents themountainous and therefore the nonarableportions of land. The same authorityestimates that the desert-like lands coveran area of 70,000,000 acres. Making themost liberal estimates for mountainousand desert-like lands, at least one half of

the whole area, or about 600,000,000acres, is arable land which by propermethods may be reclaimed for agriculturalpurposes.

Irrigation when fully developed mayreclaim not to exceed 5 per cent of thisarea. From any point of v iew, therefore,the possibilities involved in dryfarming inthe United States are immense.

Dryfarm area of the world

Dryfarming is a world problem. Aridity isa condition met and to be overcome uponevery continent. McColl estimates that inAustralia, which is somewhat larger thanthe continental United States of America,only one third of the whole surface receivesabove 20

inches of rainfall annually ; one thirdreceives from 10 to 20

inches, and one third receives less than lOinches. That is, about 1 ,267,000,000acres in Australia are subject toreclamation by dryfarming methods. Thiscondition is not far from that whichprevails in the United States, and isrepresentative of every continent of theworld. The following table gives theproportions of the earth’s land surfaceunder various degrees of annualprecipitations:—

Annual Precipitation Proportion of Earth’sLand Surface Under 10 inches 25.0 percent

From 10 to 20 inches 30.0 per cent

From 20 to 40 inches 20.0 per cent

From 40 to 60 inches 11 .0 per cent

From 60 to 80 inches 9.0 per cent

From 100 to 120 inches 4.0 per cent

From 120 to 160 inches 0.5 per cent

Above 160 inches 0.5 per cent

Total 100 per cent

Fifty-five per cent, or more than one half ofthe total land surface of the earth, receivesan annual precipitation of less than 20

inches, and must be reclaimed, if at all, bydryfarming. At least 10 per cent morereceives from 20 to 30 inches underconditions that make dryfarming methodsnecessary . A total of about 65 per cent ofthe earth’s land surface is, therefore,directly interested in dryfarming. With

the future perfected development ofirrigation systems and practices, not morethan 10 per cent will be reclaimed byirrigation. Dryfarming is truly a problemto challenge the attention of the race.

CHAPTER IV

DRYFARM AREAS.—GENERAL CLIMATICFEATURES

The dryfarm territory of the United Statesstretches from the Pacific seaboard to the96th parallel of longitude, and from theCanadian to the Mexican boundary ,making a total area of nearly 1 ,800,000square miles. This immense territory is farfrom being a vast level plain. On theextreme east is the Great Plains region ofthe Mississippi Valley which is acomparatively uniform country of rollinghills, but no mountains. At a point aboutone third of the whole distance westwardthe whole land is lifted skyward by theRocky Mountains, which cross the countryfrom south to northwest.

Here are innumerable peaks, canons, hightable-lands, roaring torrents, and quietmountain valleys. West of the Rockies isthe great depression known as the GreatBasin, which has no outlet to the ocean. Itis essentially a gigantic level lake floortraversed in many directions by mountainranges that are offshoots from thebackbone of the Rockies. South of the GreatBasin are the high plateaus, into whichmany great chasms are cut, the bestknown and largest of which is the greatCanon of the Colorado. North and east ofthe Great Basin is the Columbia RiverBasin characterized by basaltic rollingplains and broken mountain country . Tothe west, the floor of the Great Basin islifted up into the region of eternal snow bythe Sierra Nevada Mountains, which northof Nevada are known as the Cascades. Onthe west, the Sierra Nevadas slope gently ,through intervening valleys and minormountain ranges, into the Pacific Ocean. It

would be difficult to imagine a morediversified topography than is possessed bythe dryfarm territory of the United States.

Uniform climatic conditions are not to beexpected over such a broken country . Thechief determining factors of climate—latitude, relative distribution of land andwater, elevation, prevailing winds—swingbetween such large extremes that ofnecessity the climatic conditions ofdifferent sections are widely divergent.

Dryfarming is so intimately related toclimate that the typical climaticvariations must be pointed out.

The total annual precipitation is directlyinfluenced by the land topography,especially by the great mountain ranges.

On the east of the Rocky Mountains is thesub-humid district, which receives from20 to 30 inches of rainfall annually ; overthe Rockies themselves, semiaridconditions prevail; in the Great Basin,hemmed in by the Rockies on the east andthe Sierra Nevadas on the west, more aridconditions predominate; to the west, overthe Sierras and down to the seacoast,semiarid to sub-humid conditions areagain found.

Seasonal distribution of rainfall

It is doubtless true that the total annualprecipitation is the chief factor indetermining the success of dry farming.However, the distribution of the rainfallthroughout the year is also of greatimportance, and should be known by the

farmer. A small rainfall, coming at themost desirable season, will have greatercrop-producing power than a very muchlarger rainfall poorly distributed.Moreover, the methods of tillage to beemployed where most of the precipitationcomes in winter must be considerablydifferent from those used where the bulk ofthe precipitation comes in the summer.The successful dry farmer must know theaverage annual precipitation, and also theaverage seasonal distribution of therainfall, over the land which he intends todryfarm before he can safely choose hiscultural methods.

With reference to the monthly distributionof the precipitation over the dryfarmterritory of the United States, Henry of theUnited States Weather Bureau recognizesfive distinct types; namely : (1) Pacific, (2)Sub-Pacific, (3) Arizona, (4) the Northern

Rocky Mountain and Eastern Foothills, and(5) the Plains Type:—

“The Pacific Type.—This type is found in allof the territory west of the Cascade andSierra Nevada ranges, and also obtains in afringe of country to the eastward of themountain summits. The distinguishingcharacteristic of the Pacific type is a wetseason, extending from October to March,and a practically rainless summer, exceptin northern California and parts of Oregonand Washington.

About half of the yearly precipitationcomes in the months of December,January , and February , the remaininghalf being distributed throughout theseven months—September, October,November, March, April, May, and June.”

“Sub-Pacific Type.—The term ‘Sub-Pacific’has been given to that type of rainfallwhich obtains over eastern Washington,Nevada, and Utah. The influences thatcontrol the precipitation of this region aremuch similar to those that prevail west ofthe Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges.There is not, however, as in the easterntype, a steady diminution in theprecipitation with the approach of spring,but rather a culmination in theprecipitation.”

“Arizona Type.—The Arizona Type, so calledbecause it is more fully developed in thatterritory than elsewhere, prevails overArizona, New Mexico, and a small portionof eastern Utah and Nevada.

This type differs from all others in the factthat about 35 per cent of the rain falls inJuly and August. May and June are

generally the months of least rainfall.”

“The Northern Rocky Mountain and EasternFoothills Type.—This type is closely allied tothat of the plains to the eastward, and thebulk of the rain falls in the foothills of theregion in April and May; in Montana, inMay and June.”

“The Plains Type.—This type embraces thegreater part of the Dakotas, Nebraska,Kansas; Oklahoma, the Panhandle ofTexas, and all the great corn and wheatstates of the interior valleys. This region ischaracterized by a scant winterprecipitation over the northern states andmoderately heavy rains during thegrowing season. The.

bulk of the rains comes in May, June, and

July .”

This classification emphasizes the greatvariation in distribution of rainfall overthe dryfarm territory of the country . Westof the Rocky Mountains the precipitationcomes chiefly in winter and spring,leaving the summers rainless; while east ofthe Rockies, the winters are somewhatrainless and the precipitation comeschiefly in spring and summer. The Arizonatype stands midway between these types.This variation in the distribution of therainfall requires that different methods beemployed in storing and conserving therainfall for crop production. Theadaptation of cultural methods to theseasonal distribution of rainfall will bediscussed hereafter.

Snowfall

Closely related to the distribution of therainfall and the average annualtemperature is the snowfall. Wherever arelatively large winter precipitationoccurs, the dryfarmer is benefited if itcomes in the form of snow. The fall-plantedseeds are better protected by the snow; theevaporation is lower and it appears thatthe soil is improved by the annualcovering of snow. In any case, the methodsof culture are in a measure dependentupon the amount of snowfall and thelength of time that it lies upon the ground.

Snow falls over most of the dryfarmterritory , excepting the lowlands ofCalifornia, the immediate Pacific coast,and other districts where the average

annual temperature is high. The heaviestsnowfall is in the intermountain district,from the west slope of the Sierra Nevadasto the east slope of the Rockies. The degreeof snowfall on the agricultural lands isvery variable and dependent upon localconditions. Snow falls upon all the highmountain ranges.

Temperature

With the exceptions of portions ofCalifornia, Arizona, and Texas the averageannual surface temperature of thedryfarm territory of the United Statesranges from 40 deg to 55 deg F. Theaverage is not far from 45 deg F. Thisplaces most of the dryfarm territory in theclass of cold regions, though a small areaon the extreme east border may be classed

as temperate, and parts of California andArizona as warm. The range intemperature from the highest in summerto the lowest in winter is considerable, butnot widely different from other similarparts of the United States. The range isgreatest in the interior mountainousdistricts, and lowest along the seacoast.The daily range of the highest and lowesttemperatures for any one day is generallyhigher over dry farm sections than overhumid districts. In the Plateau regions ofthe semiarid country the average dailyvariation is from 30 to 35 deg F., whileeast of the Mississippi it is only about 20deg F. This greater daily range is chieflydue to the clear skies and scant vegetationwhich facilitate excessive warming by dayand cooling by night.

The important temperature question forthe dryfarmer is whether the growing

season is sufficiently warm and long topermit the maturing of crops. There arefew places, even at high altitudes in theregion considered, where the summertemperature is so low as to retard thegrowth of plants. Likewise, the first andlast killing frosts are ordinarily so far apartas to allow an ample growing season. Itmust be remembered that frosts aregoverned very largely by local topographicfeatures, and must be known from a localpoint of v iew.

It is a general law that frosts are morelikely to occur in valleys than on hillsides,owing to the downward drainage of thecooled air.

Further, the danger of frost increases withthe altitude. In general, the last killingfrost in spring over the dryfarm territoryvaries from March 15 to May 29, and thefirst killing frost in autumn fromSeptember 15 to November 15. These

limits permit of the maturing of allordinary farm crops, especially the graincrops.

Relative humidity

At a definite temperature, the atmospherecan hold only a certain amount of watervapor. When the air can hold no more, it issaid to be saturated. When it is notsaturated, the amount of water vaporactually held by the air is expressed inpercentages of the quantity required forsaturation. A relative humidity of 100 percent means that the air is saturated; of 50per cent, that it is only one half saturated.The drier the air is, the more rapidly doesthe water evaporate into it. To thedryfarmer, therefore, the relativehumidity or degree of dryness of the air is

of very great importance. According toProfessor Henry , the chief characteristicsof the geographic distribution of relativehumidity in the United States are asfollows:—

(1) Along the coasts there is a belt of highhumidity at all seasons, the percentage ofsaturation ranging from 75 to 80 per cent.

(2) Inland, from about the 70th meridianeastward to the Atlantic coast, the amountvaries between 70 and 75 per cent.

(3) The dry region is in the Southwest,where the average annual value is notover 50 per cent. In this region areincluded Arizona, New Mexico, westernColorado, and the greater portion of both

Utah and Nevada. The amount of annualrelative humidity in the remainingportion of the elevated district, betweenthe 100th meridian on the east to theSierra Nevada and the Cascades on thewest, varies between 55 and 65 per cent. InJuly , August, and September, the meanvalues in the Southwest sink as low as 20to 30 per cent, while along the Pacific coastdistricts they continue about 80 per centthe year round. In the Atlantic coastdistricts, and generally east from theMississippi River, the variation frommonth to month is not great. April isprobably the driest month of the year.

The air of the dry farm territory , therefore,on the whole, contains considerably lessthan two thirds the amount of moisturecarried by the air of the humid states. Thismeans that evaporation from plant leavesand soil surfaces will go on more rapidly in

semiarid than in humid regions. Againstthis danger, which cannot he controlled,the dryfarmer must take specialprecautions.

Sunshine

The amount of sunshine in a dry farmsection is also of importance.

Direct sunshine promotes plant growth,but at the same time it accelerates theevaporation of water from the soil. Thewhole dry farm territory receives moresunshine than do the humid sections. Infact, the amount of sunshine may roughlybe said to increase as the annual rainfalldecreases. Over the larger part of the aridand semiarid sections the sun shines over70 per cent of the time.

Winds

The winds of any locality , owing to theirmoisture-dissipating power play animportant part in the success ofdryfarming. A persistent wind will offsetmuch of the benefit of a heavy rainfall andcareful cultivation. While great generallaws have been formulated regarding themovements of the atmosphere, they are ofminor value in judging the effect of windon any farming district.

Local observations, however, may enablethe farmer to estimate the probable effectof the winds and thus to formulate propercultural means of protection. In general,those liv ing in a district are able todescribe it without special observations aswindy or quiet. In the dryfarm territory of

the United States the one great region ofrelatively high and persistent winds is theGreat Plains region east of the RockyMountains. Dryfarmers in that section willof necessity be obliged to adopt culturalmethods that will prevent the excessiveevaporation naturally induced by theunhindered wind, and the possible blowingof well-tilled fallow land.

Summary

The dryfarm territory is characterized bya low rainfall, averaging between 10 and20 inches, the distribution of which fallsinto two distinct types: a heavy winter andspring with a light summer precipitation,and a heavy spring and summer with alight winter precipitation. Snow falls overmost of the territory , but does not lie long

outside of the mountain states. The wholedryfarm territory may be classed astemperate to cold; relatively high andpersistent winds blow only over the GreatPlains, though local conditions causestrong regular winds in many other places;the air is dry and the sunshine is veryabundant. In brief, little water falls uponthe dryfarm territory , and the climaticfactors are of a nature to cause rapidevaporation.

In v iew of this knowledge, it is notsurprising that thousands of farmers,employ ing, often carelessly agriculturalmethods developed in humid sections, havefound only hardships and poverty on thepresent dry farm empire of the UnitedStates.

Drouth

Drouth is said to be the arch enemy of thedryfarmer, but few agree upon itsmeaning. For the purposes of this volume,drouth may be defined as a conditionunder which crops fail to mature becauseof an insufficient supply of water.Providence has generally been chargedwith causing drouths, but under the abovedefinition, man is usually the cause.Occasionally , relatively dry years occur,but they are seldom dry enough to causecrop failures if proper methods of farminghave been practiced. There are four chiefcauses of drouth: (1) Improper or carelesspreparation of the soil; (2) failure to storethe natural precipitation in the soil; (3)failure to apply proper cultural methodsfor keeping the moisture in the soil untilneeded by plants, and (4) sowing too muchseed for the available soil-moisture.

Crop failures due to untimely frosts,blizzards, cyclones, tornadoes, or hail mayperhaps be charged to Providence, but thedryfarmer must accept the responsibilityfor any crop injury resulting from drouth.A fairly accurate knowledge of the climaticconditions of the district, a goodunderstanding of the principles ofagriculture without irrigation under a lowrainfall, and a v igorous application of theseprinciples as adapted to the local climaticconditions will make dryfarm failures ararity .

CHAPTER V

DRYFARM SOILS

Important as is the rainfall in makingdryfarming successful, it is not more sothan the soils of the dryfarms. On ashallow soil, or on one penetrated withgravel streaks, crop failures are probableeven under a large rainfall; but a deep soilof uniform texture, unbroken by gravel orhardpan, in which much water may bestored, and which furnishes also anabundance of feeding space for the roots,will y ield large crops even under a verysmall rainfall.

Likewise, an infertile soil, though it bedeep, and under a large precipitation,cannot be depended on for good crops; but afertile soil, though not quite so deep, nor

under so large a rainfall, will almostinvariably bring large crops to maturity .

A correct understanding of the soil, fromthe surface to a depth of ten feet, is almostindispensable before a safe Judgment canbe pronounced upon the full dry farmpossibilities of a district.

Especially is it necessary to know (a) thedepth, (b) the uniformity of structure, and(c) the relative fertility of the soil, in orderto plan an intelligent system of farmingthat will be rationally adapted to therainfall and other climatic factors.

It is a matter of regret that so much of ourinformation concerning the soils of thedryfarm territory of the United States andother countries has been obtained

according to the methods and for the needsof humid countries, and that, therefore,the special knowledge of our arid andsemiarid soils needed for the developmentof dry farming is small and fragmentary .What is known to-day concerning thenature of arid soils and their relation tocultural processes under a scanty rainfallis due very largely to the extensiveresearches and voluminous writings of Dr.E. W. Hilgard, who for a generation was incharge of the agricultural work of the stateof California. Future students of arid soilsmust of necessity rest their investigationsupon the pioneer work done by Dr.Hilgard.

The contents of this chapter are in a largepart gathered from Hilgard’s writings.

The formation of soils

“Soil is the more or less loose and friablematerial in which, by means of their roots,plants may or do find a foothold andnourishment, as well as other conditions ofgrowth.” Soil is formed by a complexprocess, broadly known as weathering,from the rocks which constitute the earth’scrust. Soil is in fact only pulverized andaltered rock. The forces that produce soilfrom rocks are of two distinct classes,physical and chemical. The physicalagencies of soil production merely cause apulverization of the rock; the chemicalagencies, on the other hand, so thoroughlychange the essential nature of the soilparticles that they are no longer like therock from which they were formed.

Of the physical agencies, temperaturechanges are first in order of time, and

perhaps of first importance. As the heat ofthe day increases, the rock expands, and asthe cold night approaches, contracts. Thisalternate expansion and contraction, intime, cracks the surfaces of the rocks. Intothe tiny crevices thus formed water entersfrom the falling snow or rain. When wintercomes, the water in these cracks freezes toice, and in so doing expands and widenseach of the cracks. As these processes arerepeated from day to day , from year toyear, and from generation to generation,the surfaces of the rocks crumble. Thesmaller rocks so formed are acted upon bythe same agencies, in the same manner,and thus the process of pulverization goeson.

It is clear, then, that the second greatagency of soil formation, which alwaysacts in conjunction with temperaturechanges, is freezing water. The rock

particles formed in this manner are oftenwashed down into the mountain valleys,there caught by great rivers, ground intofiner dust, and at length deposited in thelower valleys. Moving water thus becomesanother physical agency of soil production.Most of the soils covering the greatdryfarm territory of the United States andother countries have been formed in thisway .

In places, glaciers moving slowly down thecanons crush and grind into powder therock over which they pass and deposit itlower down as soils. In other places, wherestrong winds blow with frequentregularity , sharp soil grains are picked upby the air and hurled against the rocks,which, under this action, are carved intofantastic forms. In still other places, thestrong winds carry soil over long distancesto be mixed with other soils. Finally , on the

seashore the great waves dashing againstthe rocks of the coast line, and rolling themass of pebbles back and forth, break andpulverize the rock until soil is formed._Glaciers, winds, and waves _are also,therefore, physical agencies of soilformation.

It may be noted that the result of theaction of all these agencies is to form a rockpowder, each particle of which preservesthe composition that it had while it was aconstituent part of the rock.

It may further be noted that the chief ofthese soil-forming agencies act morevigorously in arid than in humid sections.Under the cloudless sky and dryatmosphere of regions of limited rainfall,the daily and seasonal temperaturechanges are much greater than in sectionsof greater rainfall. Consequently the

pulverization of rocks goes on most rapidlyin dryfarm districts. Constant heavywinds, which as soil formers are secondonly to temperature changes and freezingwater, are also usually more common inarid than in humid countries. This isstrikingly shown, for instance, on theColorado desert and the Great Plains.

The rock powder formed by the processesabove described is continually being actedupon by agencies, the effect of which is tochange its chemical composition. Chief ofthese agencies is _water, _which exerts asolvent action on all known substances.Pure water exerts a strong solvent action,but when it has been rendered impure by avariety of substances, naturally occurring,its solvent action is greatly increased.

The most effective water impurity ,considering soil formation, is the gas,_carbon dioxid. _This gas is formedwhenever plant or animal substancesdecay , and is therefore found, normally , inthe atmosphere and in soils. Rains orflowing water gather the carbon dioxidfrom the atmosphere and the soil; fewnatural waters are free from it. Thehardest rock particles are disintegrated bycarbonated water, while limestones, orrocks containing lime, are readilydissolved.

The result of the action of carbonatedwater upon soil particles is to rendersoluble, and therefore more available toplants, many of the important plant-foods.In this way the action of water, holding insolution carbon dioxid and othersubstances, tends to make the soil morefertile.

The second great chemical agency of soilformation is the oxygen of the air.Oxidation is a process of more or less rapidburning, which tends to accelerate thedisintegration of rocks.

Finally , the _plants _growing in soils arepowerful agents of soil formation. First, theroots forcing their way into the soil exert astrong pressure which helps to pulverizethe soil grains; secondly , the acids of theplant roots actually dissolve the soil, andthird, in the mass of decay ing plants,substances are formed, among themcarbon dioxid, that have the power ofmaking soils more soluble.

It may be noted that moisture, carbon

dioxid, and vegetation, the three chiefagents inducing chemical changes in soils,are most active in humid districts. While,therefore, the physical agencies of soilformation are most active in arid climates,the same cannot be said of the chemicalagencies. However, whether in arid orhumid climates, the processes of soilformation, above outlined, are essentiallythose of the “fallow” or resting-period givento dryfarm lands. The fallow lasts for a fewmonths or a year, while the process of soilformation is always going on and has goneon for ages; the result, in quality thoughnot in quantity , is the same—the rockparticles are pulverized and the plant-foodsare liberated. It must be remembered inthis connection that climatic differencesmay and usually do influence materiallythe character of soils formed from one andthe same kind of rock.

Characteristics of arid soils

The net result of the processes abovedescribed Is a rock powder containing agreat variety of sizes of soil grainsintermingled with clay . The larger soilgrains are called sand; the smaller, silt,and those that are so small that they do notsettle from quiet water after 24 hours areknown as clay .

Clay differs materially from sand and silt,not only in size of particles, but also inproperties and formation. It is said thatclay particles reach a degree of finenessequal to 1/2500 of an inch. Clay itself,when wet and kneaded, becomes plasticand adhesive and is thus easilydistinguished from sand. Because of theseproperties, clay is of great value in holding

together the larger soil grains in relativelylarge aggregates which give soils thedesired degree of filth. Moreover, clay isvery retentive of water, gases, and solubleplant-foods, which are important factors insuccessful agriculture. Soils, in fact, areclassified according to the amount of claythat they contain. Hilgard suggests thefollowing classification:—

Very sandy soils 0.5 to 3 per cent clayOrdinary sandy soils 3.0 to 10 per centclay Sandy loams 10.0 to 15 per cent clayClay loams 15.0 to 25 per cent clay Claysoils 25.0 to 35 per cent clay Heavy claysoils 35.0 per cent and over Clay may beformed from any rock containing someform of _combined silica _(quartz). Thus,granites and crystalline rocks generally ,volcanic rocks, and shales will produceclay if subjected to the proper climaticconditions. In the formation of clay , the

extremely fine soil particles are attackedby the soil water and subjected to deep-going chemical changes. In fact, clayrepresents the most finely pulverized andmost highly decomposed and hence in ameasure the most valuable portion of thesoil. In the formation of clay , water is themost active agent, and under humidconditions its formation is most rapid.

It follows that dry farm soils formed undera more or less rainless climate contain lessclay than do humid soils. This difference ischaracteristic, and accounts for thestatement frequently made that heavyclay soils are not the best for dry farmpurposes. The fact is, that heavy clay soilsare very rare in arid regions; if found atall, they have probably been formed underabnormal conditions, as in high mountainvalleys, or under prehistoric humidclimates.

_Sand.—_The sand-forming rocks that arenot capable of clay production usuallyconsist of uncombined silica or quartz,which when pulverized by the soil-formingagencies give a comparatively barren soil.Thus it has come about that ordinarily aclayey soil is considered “strong” and asandy soil “weak.” Though this distinctionis true in humid climates where clayformation is rapid, it is not true in aridclimates, where true clay is formed veryslowly . Under conditions of deficientrainfall, soils are naturally less clayey , butas the sand and silt particles are producedfrom rocks which under humid conditionswould y ield clay , arid soils are notnecessarily less fertile.

Experiment has shown that the fertility inthe sandy soils of arid sections is as large

and as available to plants as in the clayeysoils of humid regions. Experience in thearid section of America, in Egypt, India,and other desert-like regions has furtherproved that the sands of the desertsproduce excellent crops whenever water isapplied to them. The prospectivedryfarmer, therefore, need not be afraid ofa somewhat sandy soil, provided it hasbeen formed under arid conditions. Intruth, a degree of sandiness ischaracteristic of dry farm soils.

The humus content forms anothercharacteristic difference between arid andhumid soils. In humid regions plants coverthe soil thickly ; in arid regions they arebunched scantily over the surface; in theformer case the decayed remnants ofgenerations of plants form a largepercentage of humus in the upper soil; inthe latter, the scarcity of plant life makes

the humus content low. Further, under anabundant rainfall the organic matter inthe soil rots slowly ; whereas in dry warmclimates the decay is very complete. Theprevailing forces in all countries ofdeficient rainfall therefore tend to y ieldsoils low in humus.

While the total amount of humus in aridsoils is very much lower than in humidsoils, repeated investigation has shownthat it contains about 3-1/2 times morenitrogen than is found in humus formedunder an abundant rainfall. Owing to theprevailing sandiness of dry farm soils,humus is not needed so much to give theproper filth to the soil as in the humidcountries where the content of clay is somuch higher. Since, for dry farm purposes,the nitrogen content is the most importantquality of the humus, the differencebetween arid and humid soils, based upon

the humus content, is not so great as wouldappear at first sight.

Soil and subsoil.—In countries of abundantrainfall, a great distinction exists betweenthe soil and the subsoil. The soil isrepresented by the upper few inches whichare filled with the remnants of decayedvegetable matter and modified by plowing,harrowing, and other cultural operations.The subsoil has been profoundly modifiedby the action of the heavy rainfall, which,in soaking through the soil, has carriedwith it the finest soil grains, especially theclay , into the lower soil layers.

In time, the subsoil has become moredistinctly clayey than the topsoil. Limeand other soil ingredients have likewisebeen carried down by the rains and

deposited at different depths in the soil orwholly washed away . Ultimately , thisresults in the removal from the topsoil ofthe necessary plant-foods and theaccumulation in the subsoil of the fine clayparticles which so compact the subsoil as tomake it difficult for roots and even air topenetrate it. The normal process ofweathering or soil disintegration will thengo on most actively in the topsoil and thesubsoil will remain unweathered and raw.This accounts for the well-known fact thatin humid countries any subsoil that mayhave been plowed up is reduced to anormal state of fertility and cropproduction only after several years ofexposure to the elements. The humidfarmer, knowing this, is usually verycareful not to let his plow enter the subsoilto any great depth.

In the arid regions or wherever a deficient

rainfall prevails, these conditions areentirely reversed. The light rainfall seldomcompletely fills the soil pores to anyconsiderable depth, but it rather movesdown slowly as a him, enveloping the soilgrains. The soluble materials of the soilare, in part at least, dissolved and carrieddown to the lower limit of the rainpenetration, but the clay and other finesoil particles are not moved downward toany great extent. These conditions leavethe soil and subsoil of approximately equalporosity . Plant roots can then penetratethe soil deeply , and the air can move upand down through the soil mass freely andto considerable depths. As a result, aridsoils are weathered and made suitable forplant nutrition to very great depths. Infact, in dry farm regions there need be littletalk about soil and subsoil, since the soil isuniform in texture and usually nearly soin composition, from the top down to adistance of many feet.

Many soil sections 50 or more feet in depthare exposed in the dryfarming territory ofthe United States, and it has often beendemonstrated that the subsoil to any depthis capable of producing, without furtherweathering, excellent y ields of crops. Thisgranular, permeable structure,characteristic of arid soils, is perhaps themost important single quality resultingfrom rock disintegration under aridconditions. As Hilgard remarks, it wouldseem that the farmer in the arid regionowns from three to four farms, one abovethe other, as compared with the sameacreage in the eastern states.

This condition is of the greatest importancein developing the principles upon whichsuccessful dry farming rests. Further, itmay be said that while in the humid East

the farmer must be extremely careful notto turn up with his plow too much of theinert subsoil, no such fear need possess thewestern farmer. On the contrary , heshould use his utmost endeavor to plow asdeeply as possible in order to prepare thevery best reservoir for the falling watersand a place for the development of plantroots.

Gravel seams.—It need be said, however,that in a number of localities in thedryfarm territory the soils have beendeposited by the action of running water insuch a way that the otherwise uniformstructure of the soil is broken by occasionallayers of loose gravel. While this is not avery serious obstacle to the downwardpenetration of roots, it is very serious indryfarming, since any break in thecontinuity of the soil mass prevents theupward movement of water stored in the

lower soil depths. The dryfarmer shouldinvestigate the soil which he intends to useto a depth of at least 8 to 10 feet to makesure, first of all, that he has a continuoussoil mass, not too clayey in the lowerdepths, nor broken by deposits of gravel.

Hardpan.—Instead of the heavy claysubsoil of humid regions, the so-calledhardpan occurs in regions of limitedrainfall. The annual rainfall, which isapproximately constant, penetrates fromyear to year very nearly to the samedepth. Some of the lime found soabundantly in arid soils is dissolved andworked down yearly to the lower limit ofthe rainfall and left there to enter intocombination with other soil ingredients.Continued through long periods of timethis results in the formation of a layer ofcalcareous material at the average depthto which the rainfall has penetrated the

soil. Not only is the lime thus carrieddown, but the finer particles are carrieddown in like manner. Especially where thesoil is poor in lime is the clay worked downto form a somewhat clayey hardpan. Ahardpan formed in such a manner isfrequently a serious obstacle to thedownward movement of the roots, and alsoprevents the annual precipitation frommoving down far enough to be beyond theinfluence of the sunshine and winds. It isfortunate, however, that in the greatmajority of instances this hardpangradually disappears under the influenceof proper methods of dry farm tillage. Deepplowing and proper tillage, which allowthe rain waters to penetrate the soil,gradually break up and destroy thehardpan, even when it is 10

feet below the surface. Nevertheless, thefarmer should make sure whether or notthe hardpan does exist in the soil and planhis methods accordingly . If a hardpan is

present, the land must be fallowed morecarefully every other year, so that a largequantity of water may be stored in the soilto open and destroy the hardpan.

Of course, in arid as in humid countries, itoften happens that a soil is underlaid, moreor less near the surface, by layers of rock,marl deposits, and similar impervious orhurtful substances. Such deposits are not tobe classed with the hardpans that occurnormally wherever the rainfall is small.

Leaching.—Fully as important as any of thedifferences above outlined are those whichdepend definitely upon the leaching powerof a heavy rainfall. In countries where therainfall is 30 inches or over, and in manyplaces where the rainfall is considerablyless, the water drains through the soil into

the standing ground water.

There is, therefore, in humid countries, acontinuous drainage through the soil afterevery rain, and in general there is a steadydownward movement of soil-waterthroughout the year. As is clearly shownby the appearance, taste, and chemicalcomposition of drainage waters, thisprocess leaches out considerable quantitiesof the soluble constituents of the soil.

When the soil contains decomposingorganic matter, such as roots, leaves,stalks, the gas carbon dioxid is formed,which, when dissolved in water, forms asolution of great solvent power. Waterpassing through well-cultivated soilscontaining much humus leaches out verymuch more material than pure watercould do. A study of the composition of thedrainage waters from soils and the waters

of the great rivers shows that immensequantities of soluble soil constituents aretaken out of the soil in countries ofabundant rainfall. These materialsultimately reach the ocean, where theyare and have been concentratedthroughout the ages. In short, the saltinessof the ocean is due to the substances thathave been washed from the soils incountries of abundant rainfall.

In arid regions, on the other hand, therainfall penetrates the soil only a few feet.In time, it is returned to the surface by theaction of plants or sunshine andevaporated into the air. It is true thatunder proper methods of tillage even thelight rainfall of arid and semiarid regionsmay he made to pass to considerable soildepths, yet there is little if any drainage ofwater through the soil into the standingground water. The arid regions of the

world, therefore, contributeproportionately a small amount of thesubstances which make up the salt of thesea.

Alkali soils.—Under favorable conditions itsometimes happens that the solublematerials, which would normally bewashed out of humid soils, accumulate toso large a degree in arid soils as to make thelands unfitted for agricultural purposes.Such lands are called alkali lands. Unwiseirrigation in arid climates frequentlyproduces alkali spots, but many occurnaturally . Such soils should not be chosenfor dryfarm purposes, for they are likely togive trouble.

Plant-food content.—This conditionnecessarily leads at once to the suggestion

that the soils from the two regions mustdiffer greatly in their fertility or power toproduce and sustain plant life. It cannot bebelieved that the water-washed soils of theEast retain as much fertility as the drysoils of the West. Hilgard has made a longand elaborate study of this somewhatdifficult question and has constructed atable showing the composition of typicalsoils of representative states in the arid andhumid regions. The following table shows afew of the average results obtained by him:—

Partial Percentage Composition

Source of soil Humid Arid Number ofsamples analyzed 696 573

Insoluble residue 84.17 69.16

Soluble silica 4.04 6.71

Alumina 3.66 7 .61

Lime 0.13 1 .43

Potash 0.21 0.67

Phos. Acid 0.12 0.16

Humus 1 .22 1 .13

Soil chemists have generally attempted toarrive at a determination of the fertility ofsoil by treating a carefully selected andprepared sample with a certain amount ofacid of definite strength.

The portion which dissolves under theinfluence of acids has been looked upon as arough measure of the possible fertility ofthe soil.

The column headed “Insoluble Residue”shows the average proportions of arid andhumid soils which remain undissolved byacids. It is ev ident at once that the humidsoils are much less soluble in acids thanarid soils, the difference being 84 to 69.Since the only plant-food in soils that maybe used for plant production is that whichis soluble, it follows that it is safe to assumethat arid soils are generally more fertilethan humid soils. This is borne out by astudy of the constituents of the soil. Forinstance, potash, one of the essential plantfoods ordinarily present in sufficientamount, is found in humid soils to theextent of 0.21 per cent, while in arid soilsthe quantity present is 0.67 per cent, orover three times as much. Phosphoric acid,another of the very important plant-foods,is present in arid soils in only slightlyhigher quantities than in humid soils. Thisexplains the somewhat well-known fact

that the first fertilizer ordinarily requiredby arid soils is some form of phosphorus:The difference in the chemical compositionof arid and humid soils is perhaps shownnowhere better than in the lime content.There is nearly eleven times more lime inarid than in humid soils.

Conditions of aridity favor strongly theformation of lime, and since there is verylittle leaching of the soil by rainfall, thelime accumulates in the soil.

The presence of large quantities of lime inarid soils has a number of distinctadvantages, among which the followingare most important: (1) It prevents thesour condition frequently present in humidclimates, where much organic material isincorporated with the soil. (2) When otherconditions are favorable, it encouragesbacterial life which, as is now a well-known

fact, is an important factor in developingand maintaining soil fertility . (3) Bysomewhat subtle chemical changes itmakes the relatively small percentages ofother plant-foods notably phosphoric acidand potash, more available for plantgrowth. (4) It aids to convert rapidlyorganic matter into humus whichrepresents the main portion of the nitrogencontent of the soil.

Of course, an excess of lime in the soil maybe hurtful, though less so in arid than inhumid regions. Some authors state thatfrom 8 to 20 per cent of calcium carbonatemakes a soil unfitted for plant growth.There are, however, a great manyagricultural soils covering large areas andyielding very abundant crops whichcontain very much larger quantities ofcalcium carbonate. For instance, in theSanpete Valley of Utah, one of the most

fertile sections of the Great Basin,agricultural soils often contain as high as40 per cent of calcium carbonate, withoutinjury to their crop-producing power.

In the table are two columns headed“Soluble Silica” and “Alumina,”

in both of which it is ev ident that a verymuch larger per cent is found in the aridthan in the humid soils. These soilconstituents indicate the condition of thesoil with reference to the availability of itsfertility for plant use. The higher thepercentage of soluble silica and alumina,the more thoroughly decomposed, in allprobability , is the soil as a whole and themore readily can plants secure theirnutriment from the soil. It will be observedfrom the table, as previously stated, thatmore humus is found in humid than inarid soils, though the difference is not so

large as might be expected. It should berecalled, however, that the nitrogencontent of humus formed under rainlessconditions is many times larger than thatof humus formed in rainy countries, andthat the smaller per cent of humus indryfarming countries is thereby offset.

All in all, the composition of arid soils isvery much more favorable to plant growththan that of humid soils. As will be shownin Chapter IX, the greater fertility of aridsoils is one of the chief reasons fordryfarming success. Depth of the soil alonedoes not suffice. There must be a largeamount of high fertility available forplants in order that the small amount ofwater can be fully utilized in plant growth.

Summary of characteristics.—Arid soils

differ from humid soils in that theycontain: less clay ; more sand, but of fertilenature because it is derived from rocksthat in humid countries would produceclay ; less humus, but that of a kind whichcontains about 3-1/2 times more nitrogenthan the humus of humid soils; more lime,which helps in a variety of ways toimprove the agricultural value of soils;more of all the essential plant-foods,because the leaching by downwarddrainage is very small in countries oflimited rainfall.

Further, arid soils show no real differencebetween soil and subsoil; they are deeperand more permeable; they are moreuniform in structure; they have hardpansinstead of clay subsoil, which, however,disappear under the influence ofcultivation; their subsoils to a depth of tenfeet or more are as fertile as the topsoil, and

the availability of the fertility is greater.The failure to recognize thesecharacteristic differences between arid andhumid soils has been the chief cause formany crop failures in the more or lessrainless regions of the world.

This brief rev iew shows that, everythingconsidered, arid soils are superior to humidsoils. In ease of handling, productiv ity ,certainty of crop-lasting quality , they farsurpass the soils of the countries in whichscientific agriculture was founded. AsHilgard has suggested, the historicaldatum that the majority of the mostpopulous and powerful historical peoples ofthe world have been located on soils thatthirst for water, may find its explanationin the intrinsic value of arid soils. FromBabylon to the United States is a far cry ;but it is one that shouts to the world thesuperlative merits of the soil that begs for

water. To learn how to use the “desert” is tomake it “blossom like the rose.”

Soil div isions

The dryfarm territory of the United Statesmay be div ided roughly into five great soildistricts, each of which includes a greatvariety of soil types, most of which arepoorly known and mapped.

These districts are:—

1 . Great Plains district.

2. Columbia River district

3. Great Basin district.

4. Colorado River district.

5. California district.

Great Plains district.—On the eastern slopeof the Rocky Mountains, extendingeastward to the extreme boundary of thedryfarm territory , are the soils of the HighPlains and the Great Plains. This vast soildistrict belongs to the drainage basin of theMissouri, and includes North and SouthDakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, andparts of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado,New Mexico, Texas, and Minnesota. Thesoils of this district are usually of highfertility . They have good lasting power,though the effect of the higher rainfall isev ident in their composition. Many of thedistinct types of the plains soils have beendetermined with considerable care bySnyder and Lyon, and may be founddescribed in Bailey ’s “Cyclopedia of

American Agriculture,” Vol. I.

Columbia River district.—The second greatsoil district of the dryfarming territory islocated in the drainage basin of theColumbia River, and includes Idaho andthe eastern two thirds of Washington andOregon. The high plains of this soil districtare often spoken of as the Palouse country .The soils of the western part of this districtare of basaltic origin; over the southernpart of Idaho the soils have been made froma somewhat recent lava flow which inmany places is only a few feet below thesurface. The soils of this district aregenerally of volcanic origin and verymuch alike. They are characterized by theproperties which normally belong tovolcanic soils; somewhat poor in lime, butrich in potash and phosphoric acid. Theylast well under ordinary methods of tillage.

The Great Basin.—The third great soildistrict is included in the Great Basin,which covers nearly all of Nevada, half ofUtah, and takes small portions out of Idaho,Oregon, and southern California.

This basin has no outlet to the sea. Itsrivers empty into great saline inland lakes,the chief of which is the Great Salt Lake.The sizes of these interior lakes aredetermined by the amounts of waterflowing into them and the rates ofevaporation of the water into the dry air ofthe region.

In recent geological times, the Great Basinwas filled with water, forming a vast fresh-water lake known as Lake Bonneville,which drained into the Columbia River.During the existence of this lake, soil

materials were washed from themountains into the lake and deposited onthe lake bottom. When at length, the lakedisappeared, the lake bottom was exposedand is now the farming lands of the GreatBasin district. The soils of this district arecharacterized by great depth anduniformity , an abundance of lime, and allthe essential plant-foods with the exceptionof phosphoric acid, which, while present innormal quantities, is not unusuallyabundant. The Great Basin soils are amongthe most fertile on the AmericanContinent.

Colorado River district.—The fourth soildistrict lies in the drainage basin of theColorado River It includes much of thesouthern part of Utah, the eastern part ofColorado, part of New Mexico, nearly all ofArizona, and part of southern California.This district, in its northern part, is often

spoken of as the High Plateaus. The soilsare formed from the easily disintegratedrocks of comparatively recent geologicalorigin, which themselves are said to havebeen formed from deposits in a shallowinterior sea which covered a large part ofthe West. The rivers running through thisdistrict have cut immense canons withperpendicular walls which make much ofthis country difficult to traverse. Some ofthe soils are of an extremely fine nature,settling firmly and requiring considerabletillage before they are brought to a propercondition of tilth. In many places the soilsare heavily charged with calcium sulfate,or crystals of the ordinary land plaster.The fertility of the soils, however, is high,and when they are properly cultivated,they y ield large and excellent crops.

California district.—The fifth soil district liesin California in the basin of the

Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. Thesoils are of the typical arid kind of highfertility and great lasting powers.

They represent some of the most valuabledryfarm districts of the West. These soilshave been studied in detail by Hilgard.

Dryfarming in the five districts.—It isinteresting to note that in all of these fivegreat soil districts dry farming has beentried with great success. Even in the GreatBasin and the Colorado River districts,where extreme desert conditions oftenprevail and where the rainfall is slight, ithas been found possible to produceprofitable crops without irrigation. It isunfortunate that the study of thedryfarming territory of the United Stateshas not progressed far enough to permit acomprehensive and correct mapping of itssoils. Our knowledge of this subject is, at

the best, fragmentary . We know, however,with certainty that the properties whichcharacterize arid soils, as described in thischapter’ are possessed by the soils of thedryfarming territory , including the fivegreat districts just enumerated. Thecharacteristics of arid id soils increase asthe rainfall decreases and other conditionsof aridity increase. They are less marked aswe go eastward or westward toward theregions of more abundant rainfall; that isto say , the most highly developed arid soilsare found in the Great Basin and ColoradoRiver districts. The least developed are onthe eastern edge of the Great Plains.

The judging of soils

A chemical analysis of a soil, unlessaccompanied by a large amount of other

information, is of little value to the farmer.The main points in judging a prospectivedryfarm are: the depth of the soil, theuniformity of the soil to a depth of at least10 feet, the native vegetation, the climaticconditions as relating to early and latefrosts, the total annual rainfall and itsdistribution, and the kinds and y ields ofcrops that have been grown in theneighborhood.

The depth of the soil is best determined bythe use of an auger. A simple soil auger ismade from the ordinary carpenter’s auger,1-1/2

to 2 inches in diameter, by lengthening itsshaft to 3 feet or more.

Where it is not desirable to carry sectionalaugers, it is often advisable to have threeaugers made: one 3 feet, the other 6, and

the third 9 or 10 feet in length. The shortauger is used first and the othersafterwards as the depth of the boringincreases. The boring should he made in alarge number of average places—preferably one boring or more on each acreif time and circumstances permit—and theresults entered on a map of the farm.

The uniformity of the soil is observed as theboring progresses. If gravel layers exist,they will necessarily stop the progress ofthe boring. Hardpans of any kind will alsobe revealed by such an examination.

The climatic information must be gatheredfrom the local weather bureau and fromolder residents of the section.

The native vegetation is always an

excellent index of dry farm possibilities. If agood stand of native grasses exists, therecan scarcely be any doubt about theultimate success of dry farming underproper cultural methods. A healthy crop ofsagebrush is an almost absolutely certainindication that farming without irrigationis feasible. The rabbit brush of the drierregions is also usually a good indication,though it frequently indicates a soil noteasily handled. Greasewood, shadscale, andother related plants ordinarily indicateheavy clay soils frequently charged withalkali. Such soils should be the last choicefor dry farming purposes, though theyusually give good satisfaction undersystems of irrigation. If the native cedar orother native trees grow in profusion, it isanother indication of good dryfarmpossibilities.

CHAPTER VI

THE ROOT SYSTEMS OF PLANTS

The great depth and high fertility of thesoils of arid and semiarid regions havemade possible the profitable production ofagricultural plants under a rainfall verymuch lower than that of humid regions.

To make the principles of this system fullyunderstood, it is necessary to rev iewbriefly our knowledge of the root systems ofplants growing under arid conditions.

Functions of roots

The roots serve at least three distinct uses

or purposes: First, they give the plant afoothold in the earth; secondly , they enablethe plant to secure from the soil the largeamount of water needed in plant growth,and, thirdly , they enable the plant tosecure the indispensable mineral foodswhich can be obtained only from the soil.So important is the proper supply of waterand food in the growth of a plant that, in agiven soil, the crop y ield is usually indirect proportion to the development of theroot system. Whenever the roots arehindered in their development, the growthof the plant above ground is likewiseretarded, and crop failure may result. Theimportance of roots is not fully appreciatedbecause they are hidden from direct v iew.Successful dry farming consists, largely inthe adoption of practices that facilitate afull and free development-of plant roots.Were it not that the nature of arid soils, asexplained in preceding chapters, is suchthat full root development is

comparatively easy , it would probably beuseless to attempt to establish a system ofdryfarming.

Kinds of roots

The root is the part of the plant that isfound underground. It has numerousbranches, twigs, and filaments. The rootwhich first forms when the seed bursts isknown as the primary root. From thisprimary root other roots develop, whichare known as secondary roots. When theprimary root grows more rapidly than thesecondary roots, the so-called taproot,characteristic of lucerne, clover, andsimilar plants, is formed. When, on theother hand, the taproot grows slowly orceases its growth, and the numeroussecondary roots grow long, a fibrous root

system results, which is characteristic ofthe cereals, grasses, corn, and othersimilar plants. With any type of root, thetendency of growth is downward; thoughunder conditions that are not favorable forthe downward penetration of the roots thelateral extensions may be very large andnear the surface Extent of roots

A number of investigators have attemptedto determine the weight of the roots ascompared with the weight of the plantabove ground, hut the subject, because ofits great experimental difficulties, has notbeen very accurately explained.Schumacher, experimenting about 1867,found that the roots of a well-establishedfield of clover weighed as much as the totalweight of the stems and leaves of the year’scrop, and that the weight of roots of an oatcrop was 43 per cent of the total weight ofseed and straw. Nobbe, a few years later,

found in one of his experiments that theroots of timothy weighed 31 per cent of theweight of the hay . Hosaeus, investigatingthe same subject about the same time,found that the weight of roots of one of thebrome grasses was as great as the weight ofthe part above ground; of serradella, 77per cent; of flax, 34 per cent; of oats, 14 percent; of barley , 13 per cent, and of peas, 9per cent.

Sanborn, working at the Utah Station in1893, found results very much the same

Although these results are not concordant,they show that the weight of the roots isconsiderable, in many cases far beyond thebelief of those who have given the subjectlittle or no attention. It may be noted thaton the basis of the figures above obtained,it is very probable that the roots in oneacre of an average wheat crop would weigh

in the neighborhood of a thousand pounds—possibly considerably more. It should beremembered that the investigations whichyielded the preceding results were allconducted in humid climates and at a timewhen the methods for the study of the rootsystems were poorly developed. The dataobtained, therefore, represent, in allprobability , minimum results whichwould be materially increased should thework be repeated now.

The relative weights of the roots and thestems and the leaves do not alone show thelarge quantity of roots; the total lengths ofthe roots are even more striking. TheGerman investigator, Nobbe, in a laboriousexperiment conducted about 1867, addedthe lengths of all the fine roots from each ofvarious plants. He found that the totallength of roots, that is, the sum of thelengths of all the roots, of one wheat plant

was about 268 feet, and that the totallength of the roots of one plant of rye wasabout 385 feet. King, of Wisconsin,estimates that in one of his experiments,one corn plant produced in the upper 3 feetof soil 1452 feet of roots. These surprisinglylarge numbers indicate with emphasis thethoroughness with which the roots invadethe soil.

Depth of root penetration

The earlier root studies did not pretend todetermine the depth to which rootsactually penetrate the earth. In recentyears, however, a number of carefullyconducted experiments were made by theNew York, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas,Colorado, and especially the North Dakotastations to obtain accurate information

concerning the depth to whichagricultural plants penetrate soils. It issomewhat regrettable, for the purpose ofdryfarming, that these states, with theexception of Colorado, are all in the humidor sub-humid area of the United States.Nevertheless, the conclusions drawn fromthe work are such that they may be safelyapplied in the development of theprinciples of dry farming.

There is a general belief among farmersthat the roots of all cultivated crops arevery near the surface and that few reach agreater depth than one or two feet. Thefirst striking result of the Americaninvestigations was that every crop,without exception, penetrates the soildeeper than was thought possible in earlierdays. For example, it was found that cornroots penetrated fully four feet into theground and that they fully occupied all of

the soil to that depth.

On deeper and somewhat drier soils, cornroots went down as far as eight feet. Theroots of the small grains,—wheat, oats,barley ,—penetrated the soil from four toeight or ten feet. Various perennial grassesrooted to a depth of four feet the first year;the next year, five and one half feet; nodeterminations were made of the depth ofthe roots in later years, though it hadundoubtedly increased. Alfalfa was thedeepest rooted of all the crops studied bythe American stations. Potato roots filledthe soil fully to a depth of three feet; sugarbeets to a depth of nearly four feet.

Sugar Beet Roots

In every case, under conditions prevailingin the experiments, and which did nothave in mind the forcing of the roots downto extraordinary depths, it seemed that thenormal depth of the roots of ordinary fieldcrops was from three to eight feet.Subsoiling and deep plowing enable theroots to go deeper into the soil. This workhas been confirmed in ordinary experienceuntil there can be little question about theaccuracy of the results.

Almost all of these results were obtained inhumid climates on humid soils, somewhatshallow, and underlain by a more or lessinfertile subsoil. In fact, they wereobtained under conditions reallyunfavorable to plant growth. It has beenexplained in Chapter V that soils formedunder arid or semiarid conditions areuniformly deep and porous and that thefertility of the subsoil is, in most cases,

practically as great as of the topsoil. Thereis, therefore, in arid soils, an excellentopportunity for a comparatively easypenetration of the roots to great depthsand, because of the available fertility , achance throughout the whole of the subsoilfor ample root development. Moreover, theporous condition of the soil permits theentrance of air, which helps to purify thesoil atmosphere and thereby to make theconditions more favorable for rootdevelopment.

Consequently it is to be expected that, inarid regions, roots will ordinarily go to amuch greater depth than in humidregions.

It is further to be remembered that rootsare in constant search of food and waterand are likely to develop in the directionswhere there is the greatest abundance of

these materials. Under systems ofdryfarming the soil water is stored more orless uniformly to considerable depths—tenfeet or more—and in most cases thepercentage of moisture in the spring andsummer is as large or larger some feetbelow the surface than in the upper twofeet. The tendency of the root is, then, tomove downward to depths where there is alarger supply of water. Especially is thistendency increased by the available soilfertility found throughout the whole depthof the soil mass.

It has been argued that in many of theirrigated sections the roots do not penetratethe soil to great depths. This is true,because by the present wasteful methods ofirrigation the plant receives so muchwater at such untimely seasons that theroots acquire the habit of feeding very nearthe surface where the water is so lav ishly

applied. This means not only that the plantsuffers more greatly in times of drouth, butthat, since the feeding ground of the rootsis smaller, the crop is likely to be small.

These deductions as to the depth to whichplant roots will penetrate the soil in aridregions are fully corroborated byexperiments and general observation. Theworkers of the Utah Station haverepeatedly observed plant roots ondryfarms to a depth of ten feet. Lucerneroots from thirty to fifty feet in length arefrequently exposed in the gullies formed bythe mountain torrents. Roots of trees,similarly , go down to great depths. Hilgardobserves that he has found roots ofgrapevines at a depth of twenty-two feetbelow the surface, and quotes Aughey ashaving found roots of the nativeShepherdia in Nebraska to a depth of fiftyfeet. Hilgard further declares that in

California fibrous-rooted plants, such aswheat and barley , may descend in sandysoils from four to seven feet. Orchard treesin the arid West, grown properly , aresimilarly observed to send their roots downto great depths. In fact, it has become acustom in many arid regions where thesoils are easily penetrable to say that theroot system of a tree corresponds in extentand branching to the part of the tree aboveground.

Now, it is to be observed that, generally ,plants grown in dry climates send theirroots straight down into the soil; whereasin humid climates, where the topsoil isquite moist and the subsoil is hard, rootsbranch out laterally and fill the upper footor two of the soil. A great deal has been saidand written about the danger of deepcultivation, because it tends to injure theroots that feed near the surface. However

true this may be in humid countries, it isnot v ital in the districts primarilyinterested in dry farming; and it is doubtfulif the objection is as valid in humidcountries as is often declared. True, deepcultivation, especially when performednear the plant or tree, destroys the surface-feeding roots, but this only tends to compelthe deeper ly ing roots to make better use ofthe subsoil.

When, as in arid regions, the subsoil isfertile and furnishes a sufficient amount ofwater, destroy ing the surface roots is nohandicap whatever. On the contrary , intimes of drouth, the deeply ing roots feedand drink at their leisure far from the hotsun or withering winds, and the plantssurvive and arrive at rich maturity , whilethe plants with shallow roots wither anddie or are so seriously injured as to producean inferior crop. Therefore, in the system

of dry farming as developed in this volume,it must be understood that so far as thefarmer has power, the roots must be drivendownward into the soil, and that no injuryneeds to be apprehended from deep andvigorous cultivation.

One of the chief attempts of the dryfarmermust be to see to it that the plants rootdeeply . This can be done only by preparingthe right kind of seed-bed and by havingthe soil in its lower depths well-stored withmoisture, so that the plants may be invitedto descend. For that reason, an excess ofmoisture in the upper soil when the youngplants are rooting is really an injury tothem.

CHAPTER VII

STORING WATER IN THE SOIL

The large amount of water required for theproduction of plant substance is taken fromthe soil by the roots. Leaves and stems donot absorb appreciable quantities of water.The scanty rainfall of dry farm districts orthe more abundant precipitation of humidregions must, therefore, be made to enterthe soil in such a manner as to be readilyavailable as soil-moisture to the roots atthe right periods of plant growth.

In humid countries, the rain that fallsduring the growing season is looked upon,and very properly , as the really effectivefactor in the production of large crops. The

root systems of plants grown under suchhumid conditions are near the surface,ready to absorb immediately the rains thatfall, even if they do not soak deeply into thesoil. As has been shown in Chapter IV, it isonly over a small portion of the dryfarmterritory that the bulk of the scantyprecipitation occurs during the growingseason. Over a large portion of the arid andsemiarid region the summers are almostrainless and the bulk of the precipitationcomes in the winter, late fall, or earlyspring when plants are not growing. If therains that fall during the growing seasonare indispensable in crop production, thepossible area to be reclaimed bydryfarming will be greatly limited. Evenwhen much of the total precipitation comesin summer, the amount in dryfarmdistricts is seldom sufficient for the propermaturing of crops. In fact, successfuldryfarming depends chiefly upon thesuccess with which the rains that fall

during any season of the year may bestored and kept in the soil until needed byplants in their growth. The fundamentaloperations of dry farming include a soiltreatment which enables the largestpossible proportion of the annualprecipitation to be stored in the soil. Forthis purpose, the deep, somewhat poroussoils, characteristic of arid regions, areunusually well adapted.

Alway ’s demonstration

An important and unique demonstration ofthe possibility of bringing crops tomaturity on the moisture stored in the soilat the time of planting has been made byAlway . Cy linders of galvanized iron, 6

feet long, were filled with soil as nearly as

possible in its natural position andcondition Water was added until seepagebegan, after which the excess was allowedto drain away . When the seepage hadclosed, the cy linders were entirely closedexcept at the surface. Sprouted grains ofspring wheat were placed in the moistsurface soil, and 1 inch of dry soil added tothe surface to prevent evaporation. Nomore water was added; the air of thegreenhouse was kept as dry as possible. Thewheat developed normally . The first earwas ripe in 132 days after planting and thelast in 143 days. The three cy linders of soilfrom semiarid western Nebraska produced37.8

grams of straw and 29 ears, containing415 kernels weighing 11 .188

grams. The three cy linders of soil fromhumid eastern Nebraska produced only11.2 grams of straw and 13 earscontaining 114

kernels, weighing 3 grams. Thisexperiment shows conclusively that rainsare not needed during the growing season,if the soil is well filled with moisture atseedtime, to bring crops to maturity .

What becomes of the rainfall?

The water that falls on the land is disposedof in three ways: First, under ordinaryconditions, a large portion runs off withoutentering the soil; secondly , a portion entersthe soil, but remains near the surface, andis rapidly evaporated back into the air;and, thirdly , a portion enters the lower soillayers, from which it is removed at laterperiods by several distinct processes. Therun-off is usually large and is a serious loss,especially in dry farming regions, wherethe absence of luxuriant vegetation, the

somewhat hard, sun-baked soils, and thenumerous drainage channels, formed bysuccessive torrents, combine to furnish therains with an easy escape into thetorrential rivers. Persons familiar witharid conditions know how quickly thenarrow box canyons, which often drainthousands of square miles, are filled withroaring water after a comparatively lightrainfall.

The run-off

The proper cultivation of the soildiminishes very greatly the loss due torun-off, but even on such soils theproportion may often be very great. Farrelobserved at one of the Utah stations thatduring a torrential rain—2.6 inches in 4hours—the surface of the summer fallowed

plats was packed so solid that only onefourth inch, or less than one tenth of thewhole amount, soaked into the soil, whileon a neighboring stubble field, whichoffered greater hindrance to the run-off, 1-1/2 inches or about 60 per cent wereabsorbed.

It is not possible under any condition toprevent the run-off altogether, although itcan usually be reduced exceedingly . It is acommon dryfarm custom to plow along theslopes of the farm instead of plowing up anddown them. When this is done, the waterwhich runs down the slopes is caught bythe succession of furrows and in that waythe runoff is diminished. During the fallowseason the disk and smoothing harrows arerun along the hillsides for the samepurpose and with results that are nearlyalways advantageous to the dryfarmer. Ofnecessity , each man must study his own

farm in order to devise methods that willprevent the run-off.

The structure of soils

Before examining more closely thepossibility of storing water in soils a briefreview of the structure of soils is desirable.As previously explained, soil is essentiallya mixture of disintegrated rock and thedecomposing remains of plants. The rockparticles which constitute the majorportion of soils vary greatly in size. Thelargest ones are often 500 times the sizes ofthe smallest. It would take 50 of thecoarsest sand particles, and 25,000 of thefinest silt particles, to form one lineal inch.The clay particles are often smaller and ofsuch a nature that they cannot beaccurately measured. The total number of

soil particles in even a small quantity ofcultivated soil is far beyond the ordinarylimits of thought, ranging from 125,000particles of coarse sand to15,625,000,000,000 particles of the finestsilt in one cubic inch.

In other words, if all the particles in onecubic inch of soil consisting of fine silt wereplaced side by side, they would form acontinuous chain over a thousand mileslong. The farmer, when he tills the soil,deals with countless numbers of indiv idualsoil grains, far surpassing theunderstanding of the human mind. It isthe immense number of constituent soilparticles that gives to the soil many of itsmost valuable properties.

It must be remembered that no natural soilis made up of particles all of which are ofthe same size; all sizes, from the coarsest

sand to the finest clay , are usually present.These particles of all sizes are not arrangedin the soil in a regular, orderly way; theyare not placed side by side withgeometrical regularity ; they are ratherjumbled together in every possible way .The larger sand grains touch and formcomparatively large interstitial spaces intowhich the finer silt and clay grains filter.Then, again, the clay particles, whichhave cementing properties, bind, as itwere, one particle to another. A sand grainmay have attached to it hundreds, or itmay be thousands, of the smaller siltgrains; or a regiment of smaller soil grainsmay themselves be clustered into one largegrain by cementing power of the clay .Further, in the presence of lime andsimilar substances, these complex soilgrains are grouped into yet larger andmore complex groups. The beneficial effectof lime is usually due to this power ofgrouping untold numbers of soil particles

into larger groups. When by correct soilculture the indiv idual soil grains are thusgrouped into large clusters, the soil is saidto be in good tilth. Anything that tends todestroy these complex soil grains, as, forinstance, plowing the soil when it is toowet, weakens the crop-producing power ofthe soil. This complexity of structure is oneof the chief reasons for the difficulty ofunderstanding clearly the physical lawsgoverning soils.

Pore-space of soils

It follows from this description of soilstructure that the soil grains do not fill thewhole of the soil space. The tendency israther to form clusters of soil grains which,though touching at many points, leavecomparatively large empty spaces. This

pore space in soils varies greatly , but witha maximum of about 55 per cent. In soilsformed under arid conditions thepercentage of pore-space is somewhere inthe neighborhood of 50 per cent. There aresome arid soils, notably gypsum soils, theparticles of which are so uniform size thatthe pore-space is exceedingly small. Suchsoils are always difficult to prepare foragricultural purposes.

It is the pore-space in soils that permits thestorage of soil-moisture; and it is alwaysimportant for the farmer so to maintainhis soil that the pore-space is large enoughto give him the best results, not only forthe storage of moisture, but for the growthand development of roots, and for theentrance into the soil of air, germ life, andother forces that aid in making the soil fitfor the habitation of plants. This canalways be best accomplished, as will be

shown hereafter, by deep plowing, whenthe soil is not too wet, the exposure of theplowed soil to the elements, the frequentcultivation of the soil through the growingseason, and the admixture of organicmatter. The natural soil structure atdepths not reached by the plow evidentlycannot be v itally changed by the farmer.

Hygroscopic soil-water

Under normal conditions, a certainamount of water is always found in allthings occurring naturally , soils included.Clinging to every tree, stone, or animaltissue is a small quantity of moisturevary ing with the temperature, theamount of water in the air, and with otherwell-known factors. It is impossible to ridany natural substance wholly of water

without heating it to a high temperature.

This water which, apparently , belongs toall natural objects is commonly calledhygroscopic water. Hilgard states that thesoils of the arid regions contain, under atemperature of 15 deg C. and anatmosphere saturated with water,approximately 5-1/2 per cent ofhygroscopic water. In fact, however, theair over the arid region is far from beingsaturated with water and the temperatureis even higher than 15 deg C., and thehygroscopic moisture actually found in thesoils of the dryfarm territory isconsiderably smaller than the averageabove given. Under the conditionsprevailing in the Great Basin thehygroscopic water of soils varies from .75per cent to 3-1/2 per cent; the averageamount is not far from 12 per cent.

Whether or not the hygroscopic water ofsoils is of value in plant growth is adisputed question. Hilgard believes thatthe hygroscopic moisture can be ofconsiderable help in carry ing plantsthrough rainless summers, and further,that its presence prevents the heating ofthe soil particles to a point dangerous toplant roots.

Other authorities maintain earnestly thatthe hygroscopic soil-water is practicallyuseless to plants. Considering the fact thatwilting occurs long before the hygroscopicwater contained in the soil is reached, it isvery unlikely that water so held is of anyreal benefit to plant growth.

Gravitational water

It often happens that a portion of the waterin the soil is under the immediateinfluence of gravitation. For instance, astone which, normally , is covered withhygroscopic water is dipped into water Thehydroscopic water is not thereby affected,but as the stone is drawn out of the water agood part of the water runs off. This isgravitational water That is, thegravitational water of soils is that portionof the soil-water which filling the soil pores,flows downward through the soil under theinfluence of gravity . When the soil poresare completely filled, the maximumamount of gravitational water is foundthere. In ordinary dryfarm soils this totalwater capacity is between 35 and 40 percent of the dry weight of soil.

The gravitational soil-water cannot longremain in that condition; for, necessarily ,the pull of gravity moves it downward

through the soil pores and if conditions arefavorable, it finally reaches the standingwater-table, whence it is carried to thegreat rivers, and finally to the ocean. Inhumid soils, under a large precipitation,gravitational water moves down to thestanding water-table after every rain. Indryfarm soils the gravitational waterseldom reaches the standing water-table;for, as it moves downward, it wets the soilgrains and remains in the capillarycondition as a thin film around the soilgrains.

To the dryfarmer, the full water capacityis of importance only as it pertains to theupper foot of soil. If, by proper plowing andcultivation, the upper soil be loose andporous, the precipitation is allowed to soakquickly into the soil, away from the actionof the wind and sun. From this temporaryreservoir, the water, in obedience to the

pull of gravity , will move slowlydownward to the greater soil depths, whereit will be stored permanently until neededby plants. It is for this reason thatdryfarmers find it profitable to plow in thefall, as soon as possible after harvesting. Infact, Campbell advocates that theharvester be followed immediately by thedisk, later to be followed by the plow Theessential thing is to keep the topsoil openand receptive to a rain.

Capillary soil-water

The so-called capillary soil-water is ofgreatest importance to the dryfarmer. Thisis the water that clings as a film around amarble that has been dipped into water.There is a natural attraction betweenwater and nearly all known substances, as

is witnessed by the fact that nearly allthings may be moistened. The water isheld around the marble because theattraction between the marble and thewater is greater than the pull of gravityupon the water. The greater theattraction, the thicker the film; thesmaller the attraction, the thinner thefilm will be. The water that rises in acapillary glass tube when placed in waterdoes so by v irtue of the attraction betweenwater and glass. Frequently , the force thatmakes capillary water possible is calledsurface tension.

Whenever there is a sufficient amount ofwater available, a thin film of water isfound around every soil grain; and wherethe soil grains touch, or where they arevery near together, water is held prettymuch as in capillary tubes. Not only arethe soil particles enveloped by such a film,

but the plant roots foraging in the soil arelikewise covered; that is, the whole systemof soil grains and roots is covered, underfavorable conditions, with a thin film ofcapillary water. It is the water in this formupon which plants draw during theirperiods of growth. The hygroscopic waterand the gravitational water are ofcomparatively little value in plantgrowth.

Field capacity of soils for capillary waterThe tremendously large number of soilgrains found in even a small amount of soilmakes it possible for the soil to hold verylarge quantities of capillary water. Toillustrate: In one cubic inch of sand soil thetotal surface exposed by the soil grainsvaries from 42 square inches to 27 squarefeet; in one cubic inch of silt soil, from 27square feet to 72 square feet, and in onecubic inch of an ordinary soil the total

surface exposed by the soil grains is about25 square feet. This means that the totalsurface of the soil grains contained in acolumn of soil 1 square foot at the top and10 feet deep is approximately 10 acres.When even a thin film of water is spreadover such a large area, it is clear that thetotal amount of water involved must belarge It is to be noticed, therefore, that thefineness of the soil particles previouslydiscussed has a direct bearing upon theamount of water that soils may retain forthe use of plant growth. As the fineness ofthe soil grains increases, the total surfaceincreases’ and the water-holding capacityalso increases.

Naturally , the thickness of a water filmheld around the soil grains is very minute.King has calculated that a film 275millionths of an inch thick, clingingaround the soil particles, is equivalent to

14.24 per cent of water in a heavy clay ;7 .2 per cent in a loam; 5.21 per cent in asandy loam, and 1 .41 per cent in a sandysoil.

It is important to know the largest amountof water that soils can hold in a capillarycondition, for upon it depend, in ameasure, the possibilities of cropproduction under dryfarming conditions.King states that the largest amount ofcapillary water that can be held in sandyloams varies from 17.65 per cent to 10.67per cent; in clay loams from 22.67 percent to 18.16 per cent, and in humus soils(which are practically unknown indryfarm sections) from 44.72 per cent to21.29 per cent. These results were notobtained under dry farm conditions andmust be confirmed by investigations ofarid soils.

The water that falls upon dryfarms is veryseldom sufficient in quantity to reach thestanding water-table, and it is necessary ,therefore, to determine the largestpercentage of water that a soil can holdunder the influence of gravity down to adepth of 8 or 10

feet—the depth to which the rootspenetrate and in which root action isdistinctly felt. This is somewhat difficult todetermine because the many conflictingfactors acting upon the soil-water areseldom in equilibrium. Moreover, aconsiderable time must usually elapsebefore the rain-water is thoroughlydistributed throughout the soil. Forinstance, in sandy soils, the downwarddescent of water is very rapid; in clay soils,where the preponderance of fine particlesmakes minute soil pores, there isconsiderable hindrance to the descent of

water, and it may take weeks or monthsfor equilibrium to be established. It isbelieved that in a dry farm district, wherethe major part of the precipitation comesduring winter, the early springtime,before the spring rains come, is the besttime for determining the maximum watercapacity of a soil. At that season the water-dissipating influences, such as sunshineand high temperature, are at a minimum,and a sufficient time has elapsed to permitthe rains of fall and winter to distributethemselves uniformly throughout the soil.In districts of high summer precipitation,the late fall after a fallow season willprobably be the best time for thedetermination of the field-water capacity .

Experiments on this subject have beenconducted at the Utah Station.

As a result of several thousand trials it was

found that, in the spring, a uniform, sandyloam soil of true arid properties contained,from year to year, an average of nearly16-1/2 per cent of water to a depth of 8feet. This appeared to be practically themaximum water capacity of that soilunder field conditions, and it may be calledthe field capacity of that soil for capillarywater.

Other experiments on dryfarms showedthe field capacity of a clay soil to a depth of8 feet to be 19 per cent; of a clay loam, tobe 18 per cent; of a loam, 17 per cent; ofanother loam somewhat more sandy, 16per cent; of a sandy loam, 14-1/2 per cent;and of a very sandy loam, 14 per cent.Leather found that in the calcareous aridsoil of India the upper 5 feet contained 18per cent of water at the close of the wetseason.

It may be concluded, therefore, that thefield-water capacities of ordinary dryfarmsoils are not very high, ranging from 15 to20 per cent, with an average for ordinarydryfarm soils in the neighborhood of 16 or17 per cent. Expressed in another way thismeans that a layer of water from 2 to 3inches deep can be stored in the soil to adepth of 12 inches. Sandy soils will holdless water than clayey ones. It must not beforgotten that in the dryfarm region arenumerous types of soils, among them someconsisting chiefly of very fine soil grainsand which would; consequently , possessfield-water capacities above the averagehere stated. The first endeavor of thedryfarmer should be to have the soil filledto its full field-water capacity before a cropis planted.

Downward movement of soil-moisture

One of the chief considerations in adiscussion of the storing of water in soils isthe depth to which water may move underordinary dryfarm conditions. In humidregions, where the water table is near thesurface and where the rainfall is veryabundant, no question has been raisedconcerning the possibility of the descent ofwater through the soil to the standingwater. Considerable objection, however,has been offered to the doctrine that therainfall of arid districts penetrates the soilto any great extent. Numerous writers onthe subject intimate that the rainfallunder dry farm conditions reaches at thebest the upper 3 or 4 feet of soil. Thiscannot be true, for the deep rich soils of thearid region, which never have beendisturbed by the husbandman, are moist tovery great depths. In the deserts of theGreat Basin, where vegetation is veryscanty , soil borings made almost anywhere

will reveal the fact that moisture exists inconsiderable quantities to the full depth ofthe ordinary soil auger, usually 10 feet.The same is true for practically everydistrict of the arid region.

Such water has not come from below, for inthe majority of cases the standing water is50 to 500 feet below the surface. Whitneymade this observation many years ago andreported it as a striking feature ofagriculture in arid regions, worthy ofserious consideration. Investigations madeat the Utah Station have shown thatundisturbed soils within the Great Basinfrequently contain, to a depth of 10 feet, anamount of water equivalent to 2 or 3 yearsof the rainfall which normally occurs inthat locality . These quantities of watercould not be found in such soils, unless,under arid conditions, water has the powerto move downward to considerably greater

depths than is usually believed bydryfarmers.

In a series of irrigation experimentsconducted at the Utah Station it wasdemonstrated that on a loam soil, within afew hours after an irrigation, some of thewater applied had reached the eighth foot,or at least had increased the percentage ofwater in the eighth foot. In soil that wasalready well filled with water, the additionof water was felt distinctly to the full depthof 8 feet. Moreover, it was observed in theseexperiments that even very small rainscaused moisture changes to considerabledepths a few hours after the rain was over.For instance, 0.14 of an inch of rainfall wasfelt to a depth of 2 feet within 3 hours;0.93 of an inch was felt to a depth of 3 feetwithin the same period.

To determine whether or not the naturalwinter precipitation, upon which the cropsof a large portion of the dryfarm territorydepend, penetrates the soil to any greatdepth a series of tests were undertaken. Atthe close of the harvest in August orSeptember the soil was carefully sampledto a depth of 8 feet, and in the followingspring similar samples were taken on thesame soils to the same depth. In every case,it was found that the winter precipitationhad caused moisture changes to the fulldepth reached by the soil auger. Moreover,these changes were so great as to lead theinvestigators to believe that moisturechanges had occurred to greater depths.

In districts where the major part of theprecipitation occurs during the summerthe same law is undoubtedly in operation;but, since evaporation is most active in thesummer, it is probable that a smaller

proportion reaches the greater soil depths.In the Great Plains district, therefore,greater care will have to be exercisedduring the summer in securing properwater storage than in the Great Basin, forinstance. The principle is, nevertheless,the same. Burr, working under GreatPlains conditions in Nebraska, has shownthat the spring and summer rainspenetrate the soil to the depth of 6

feet, the average depth of the borings, andthat it undoubtedly affects the soil-moisture to the depth of 10 feet. In general,the dryfarmer may safely accept thedoctrine that the water that falls upon hisland penetrates the soil far beyond theimmediate reach of the sun, though not sofar away that plant roots cannot make useof it.

Importance of a moist subsoil

In the consideration of the downwardmovement of soil-water it is to be notedthat it is only when the soil is tolerablymoist that the natural precipitation movesrapidly and freely to the deeper soil layers.When the soil is dry , the downwardmovement of the water is much slower andthe bulk of the water is then stored nearthe surface where the loss of moisture goeson most rapidly . It has been observedrepeatedly in the investigations at theUtah Station that when desert land isbroken for dry farm purposes and thenproperly cultivated, the precipitationpenetrates farther and farther into the soilwith every year of cultivation. Forexample, on a dry farm, the soil of which isclay loam, and which was plowed in thefall of 1904 and farmed annuallythereafter, the eighth foot contained in thespring of 1905, 6.59 per cent of moisture;in the spring of 1906, 13.11 per cent, and

in the spring of 1907, 14.75 per cent ofmoisture. On another farm, with a verysandy soil and also plowed in the fall of1904, there was found in the eighth foot inthe spring of 1905, 5.63 per cent ofmoisture, in the spring of 1906, 11 .41 percent of moisture, and in the spring of 1907,15.49 per cent of moisture. In both of thesetypical cases it is ev ident that as the topsoilwas loosened, the full field water capacityof the soil was more nearly approached to agreater depth. It would seem that, as thelower soil layers are moistened, the wateris enabled, so to speak, to slide down moreeasily into the depths of the soil.

This is a very important principle for thedry farmer to understand.

It is always dangerous to permit the soil ofa dry farm to become very dry , especiallybelow the first foot. Dryfarms should be so

manipulated that even at the harvestingseason a comparatively large quantity ofwater remains in the soil to a depth of 8feet or more.

The larger the quantity of water in the soilin the fall, the more readily and quicklywill the water that falls on the land duringthe resting period of fall, winter, and earlyspring sink into the soil and move awayfrom the topsoil. The top or first foot willalways contain the largest percentage ofwater because it is the chief receptacle ofthe water that falls as rain or snow butwhen the subsoil is properly moist, thewater will more completely leave thetopsoil. Further, crops planted on a soilsaturated with water to a depth of 8 feetare almost certain to mature and y ieldwell.

If the field-water capacity has not been

filled, there is always the danger that anunusually dry season or a series of hotwinds or other like circumstances mayeither seriously injure the crop or cause acomplete failure. The dryfarmer shouldkeep a surplus of moisture in the soil to becarried over from year to year, just as thewise business man maintains a sufficientworking capital for the needs of hisbusiness. In fact, it is often safe to advisethe prospective dry farmer to plow hisnewly cleared or broken land carefully andthen to grow no crop on it the first year, sothat, when crop production begins, the soilwill have stored in it an amount of watersufficient to carry a crop over periods ofdrouth.

Especially in districts of very low rainfall isthis practice to be recommended. In theGreat Plains area, where the summer rainstempt the farmer to give less attention tothe soil-moisture problem than in the drydistricts with winter precipitation farther

West, it is important that a fallow seasonbe occasionally given the land to preventthe store of soil moisture from becomingdangerously low.

To what extent is the rainfall stored insoils?

What proportion of the actual amount ofwater falling upon the soil can be stored inthe soil and carried over from season toseason?

This question naturally arises in v iew ofthe conclusion that water penetrates thesoil to considerable depths. There iscomparatively little available informationwith which to answer this question,because the great majority of students ofsoil moisture have concerned themselves

wholly with the upper two, three, or fourfeet of soil. The results of suchinvestigations are practically useless inanswering this question. In humid regionsit may be very satisfactory to confine soil-moisture investigations to the upper fewfeet; but in arid regions, where dryfarmingis a liv ing question, such a method leads toerroneous or incomplete conclusions.

Since the average field capacity of soils forwater is about 2.5

inches per foot, it follows that it is possibleto store 25 inches of water in 10 feet of soil.This is from two to one and a half times oneyear’s rainfall over the better dry farmingsections.

Theoretically , therefore, there is no reasonwhy the rainfall of one season or morecould not be stored in the soil. Careful

investigations have borne out this theory .Atkinson found, for example, at theMontana Station, that soil, which to adepth of 9

feet contained 7 .7 per cent of moisture inthe fall contained 11 .5

per cent in the spring and, after carry ingit through the summer by proper methodsof cultivation, 11 per cent.

It may certainly be concluded from thisexperiment that it is possible to carry overthe soil moisture from season to season. Theelaborate investigations at the UtahStation have demonstrated that the winterprecipitation, that is, the precipitationthat comes during the wettest period of theyear, may be retained in a large measurein the soil. Naturally , the amount of thenatural precipitation accounted for in the

upper eight feet will depend upon thedryness of the soil at the time theinvestigation commenced. If at thebeginning of the wet season the upper eightfeet of soil are fairly well stored withmoisture, the precipitation will move downto even greater depths, beyond the reach ofthe soil auger. If, on the other hand, thesoil is comparatively dry at the beginningof the season, the natural precipitation willdistribute itself through the upper few feet,and thus be readily measured by the soilauger.

In the Utah investigations it was foundthat of the water which fell as rain andsnow during the winter, as high as 95-1/2per cent was found stored in the first eightfeet of soil at the beginning of the growingseason. Naturally , much smallerpercentages were also found, but on anaverage, in soils somewhat dry at the

beginning of the dry season, more thanthree fourths of the natural precipitationwas found stored in the soil in the spring.The results were all obtained in a localitywhere the bulk of the precipitation comesin the winter, yet similar results wouldundoubtedly be obtained where theprecipitation occurs mainly in thesummer. The storage of water in the soilcannot be a whit less important on theGreat Plains than in the Great Basin. Infact, Burr has clearly demonstrated forwestern Nebraska that over 50 per cent ofthe rainfall of the spring and summer maybe stored in the soil to the depth of six feet.

Without question, some is stored also atgreater depths.

All the ev idence at hand shows that a largeportion of the precipitation falling uponproperly prepared soil, whether it be

summer or winter, is stored in the soiluntil evaporation is allowed to withdraw itWhether or not water so stored may bemade to remain in the soil throughout theseason or the year will be discussed in thenext chapter. It must be said, however,that the possibility of storing water in thesoil, that is, making the water descend torelatively great soil depths away from theimmediate and direct action of thesunshine and winds, is the mostfundamental principle in successfuldryfarming.

The fallow

It may be safely concluded that a largeportion of the water that falls as rain orsnow may be stored in the soil toconsiderable depths (eight feet or more).

However, the question remains, Is itpossible to store the rainfall of successiveyears in the soil for the use of one crop? Inshort, Does the practice of clean fallowingor resting the ground with propercultivation for one season enable thefarmer to store in the soil the largerportion of the rainfall of two years, to beused for one crop? It is unquestionablytrue, as will be shown later, that cleanfallowing or “summer tillage” is one of theoldest and safest practices of dry farming aspracticed in the West, but it is notgenerally understood why fallowing isdesirable.

Considerable doubt has recently been castupon the doctrine that one of the beneficialeffects of fallowing in dry farming is to storethe rainfall of successive seasons in the soilfor the use of one crop. Since it has beenshown that a large proportion of the winter

precipitation can be stored in the soilduring the wet season, it merely becomes aquestion of the possibility of preventing theevaporation of this water during the drierseason. As will be shown in the nextchapter, this can well be effected by propercultivation.

There is no good reason, therefore, forbeliev ing that the precipitation ofsuccessive seasons may not be added towater already stored in the soil. King hasshown that fallowing the soil one yearcarried over per square foot, in the upperfour feet, 9.38

pounds of water more than was found in acropped soil in a parallel experiment; and,moreover, the beneficial effect of this.water advantage was felt for a wholesucceeding season. King concludes,therefore, that one of the advantages of

fallowing is to increase the moisturecontent of the soil. The Utah experimentsshow that the tendency of fallowing isalways to increase the soil-moisturecontent. In dry farming, water is thecritical factor, and any practice that helpsto conserve water should be adopted. Forthat reason, fallowing, which gathers soil-moisture, should be strongly advocated. InChapter IX another important value of thefallow will be discussed.

In v iew of the discussion in this chapter itis easily understood why students of soil-moisture have not found a materialincrease in soil-moisture due to fallowing.Usually such investigations have beenmade to shallow depths which alreadywere fairly well filled with moisture.Water falling upon such soils would sinkbeyond the depth reached by the soilaugers, and it became impossible to judge

accurately of the moisture-storingadvantage of the fallow. A critical analysisof the literature on this subject will revealthe weakness of most experiments in thisrespect.

It may be mentioned here that the onlyfallow that should be practiced by thedryfarmer is the clean fallow. Waterstorage is manifestly impossible whencrops are growing upon a soil. A healthycrop of sagebrush, sunflowers, or otherweeds consumes as much water as a first-class stand of corn, wheat, or potatoes.Weeds should be abhorred by the farmer. Aweedy fallow is a sure forerunner of a cropfailure. How to maintain a good fallow isdiscussed in Chapter VIII, under the head ofCultivation. Moreover, the practice offallowing should be varied with theclimatic conditions. In districts of lowrainfall, 10-15 inches, the land should be

clean summer-fallowed every other year;under very low rainfall perhaps even twoout of three years; in districts of moreabundant rainfall, 15-20 inches, perhapsone year out of every three or four issufficient. Where the precipitation comesduring the growing season, as in the GreatPlains area, fallowing for the storage ofwater is less important than where themajor part of the rainfall comes during thefall and winter. However, any system ofdryfarming that omits fallowing whollyfrom its practices is in danger of failure indry years.

Deep plowing for water storage

It has been attempted in this chapter todemonstrate that water falling upon a soilmay descend to great depths, and may be

stored in the soil from year to year, subjectto the needs of the crop that may beplanted. By what cultural treatment maythis downward descent of the water beaccelerated by the farmer? First andforemost, by plowing at the right time andto the right depth. Plowing should be donedeeply and thoroughly so that the fallingwater may immediately be drawn down tothe full depth of the loose, spongy , plowedsoil, away from the action of the sunshineor winds. The moisture thus caught willslowly work its way down into the lowerlayers of the soil. Deep plowing is always tobe recommended for successfuldryfarming.

In humid districts where there is a greatdifference between the soil and the subsoil,it is often dangerous to turn up the lifelesssubsoil, but in arid districts where there isno real differentiation between the soil and

the subsoil, deep plowing may safely berecommended. True, occasionally , soils arefound in the dryfarm territory which areunderlaid near the surface by an inert clayor infertile layer of lime or gypsum whichforbids the farmer putting the plow toodeeply into the soil. Such soils, however’are seldom worth while try ing for dry farmpurposes. Deep plowing must be practicedfor the best dry farming results.

It naturally follows that subsoiling shouldbe a beneficial practice on dryfarms.Whether or not the great cost of subsoilingis offset by the resulting increased y ields isan open question; it is, in fact, quitedoubtful. Deep plowing done at the righttime and frequently enough is possiblysufficient. By deep plowing is meantstirring or turning the soil to a depth of sixto ten inches below the surface of the land.

Fall plowing far water storage

It is not alone sufficient to plow and to plowdeeply ; it is also necessary that the plowingbe done at the right time. In the very greatmajority of cases over the whole dry farmterritory , plowing should be done in thefall. There are three reasons for this: First,after the crop is harvested, the soil shouldbe stirred immediately , so that it can beexposed to the full action of the weatheringagencies, whether the winters be open orclosed. If for any reason plowing cannot bedone early it is often advantageous tofollow the harvester with a disk and toplow later when convenient. The chemicaleffect on the soil resulting from theweathering, made possible by fall plowing,as will be shown in Chapter IX, is of itself sogreat as to warrant the teaching of the

general practice of fall plowing. Secondly ,the early stirring of the soil preventsevaporation of the moisture in the soilduring late summer and the fall. Thirdly ,in the parts of the dryfarm territory wheremuch precipitation occurs in the fall,winter, or early spring, fall plowingpermits much of this precipitation to enterthe soil and be stored there until needed byplants.

A number of experiment stations havecompared plowing done in the early fallwith plowing done late in the fall or in thespring, and with almost no exception it hasbeen found that early fall plowing is water-conserving and in other waysadvantageous. It was observed on a Utahdryfarm that the fall-plowed landcontained, to a depth of 10 feet, 7 .47 acre-inches more water than the adjoiningspring-plowed land—a saving of nearly one

half of a year’s precipitation. The groundshould be plowed in the early fall as soon aspossible after the crop is harvested. Itshould then be left in the roughthroughout the winter, so that it may bemellowed and broken down by theelements. The rough lend further has atendency to catch and hold the snow thatmay be blown by the wind, thus insuring amore even distribution of the water fromthe melting snow.

A common objection to fall plowing is thatthe ground is so dry in the fall that it doesnot plow up well, and that the great dryclods of earth do much to injure thephysical condition of the soil. It is verydoubtful if such an objection is generallyvalid, especially if the soil is so cropped asto leave a fair margin of moisture in thesoil at harvest time. The atmosphericagencies will usually break down the clods,

and the physical result of the treatmentwill be beneficial. Undoubtedly , the fallplowing of dry land is somewhat difficult,but the good results more than pay thefarmer for his trouble. Late fall plowing,after the fall rains have softened the land,is preferable to spring plowing. If for anyreason the farmer feels that he mustpractice spring plowing, he should do it asearly as possible in the spring. Of course, itis inadvisable to plow the soil when it is sowet as to injure its tilth seriously , but assoon as that danger period has passed, theplow should be placed in the ground. Themoisture in the soil will thereby beconserved, and whatever water may fallduring the spring months will beconserved also. This is of especialimportance in the Great Plains region andin any district where the precipitationcomes in the spring and winter months.

Likewise, after fall plowing, the land mustbe well stirred in the early spring with thedisk harrow or a similar implement, toenable the spring rains to enter the soileasily and to prevent the evaporation ofthe water already stored. Where therainfall is quite abundant and the plowedland has been beaten down by the frequentrains, the land should be plowed again inthe spring. Where such conditions do notexist, the treatment of the soil with thedisk and harrow in the spring is usuallysufficient.

In recent dry farm experience it has beenfairly completely demonstrated that,providing the soil is well stored with water,crops will mature even if no rain fallsduring the growing season.

Naturally , under most circumstances, anyrains that may fall on a well-prepared soil

during the season of crop growth will tendto increase the crop y ield, but someprofitable y ield is assured, in spite of theseason, if the soil is well stored with waterat seed time. This is an important principlein the system of dry farming.

CHAPTER VIII

REGULATING THE EVAPORATION

The demonstration in the last chapter thatthe water which falls as rain or snow maybe stored in the soil for the use of plants is offirst importance in dry farming, for itmakes the farmer independent, in a largemeasure, of the distribution of the rainfall.The dryfarmer who goes into the summerwith a soil well stored with water careslittle whether summer rains come or not,for he knows that his crops will mature inspite of external drouth. In fact, as will beshown later, in many dryfarm sectionswhere the summer rains are light they area positive detriment to the farmer who bycareful farming has stored his deep soilwith an abundance of water. Storing thesoil with water is, however, only the first

step in making the rains of fall, winter, orthe preceding year available for plantgrowth. As soon as warm growing weathercomes, water-dissipating forces come intoplay , and water is lost by evaporation. Thefarmer must, therefore, use all precautionsto keep the moisture in the soil until suchtime as the roots of the crop may draw itinto the plants to be used in plantproduction. That is, as far as possible,direct evaporation of water from the soilmust be prevented.

Few farmers really realize the immensepossible annual evaporation in thedryfarm territory . It is always muchlarger than the total annual rainfall. Infact, an arid region may be defined as onein which under natural conditions severaltimes more water evaporates annuallyfrom a free water surface than falls as rainand snow. For that reason many students

of aridity pay little attention totemperature, relative humidity , or winds,and simply measure the evaporation froma free water surface in the locality inquestion.

In order to obtain a measure of the aridity ,MacDougal has constructed the followingtable, showing the annual precipitationand the annual evaporation at severalwell-known localities in the dryfarmterritory .

True, the localities included in thefollowing table are extreme, but theyillustrate the large possible evaporation,ranging from about six to thirty-five timesthe precipitation. At the same time it mustbe borne in mind that while such rates ofevaporation may occur from free watersurfaces, the evaporation fromagricultural soils under like conditions is

very much smaller.

Place Annual Precipitation AnnualEvaporation Ratio (In Inches) (In Inches) ElPaso, Texas 9.23 80 8.7

Fort Wingate,

New Mexico 14.00 80 5.7

Fort Yuma,

Arizona 2.84 100 35.2

Tucson, AZ 11 .74 90 7 .7

Mohave, CA 4.97 95 19.1

Hawthorne,

Nevada 4.50 80 17.5

Winnemucca,

Nevada 9.51 80 9.6

St. George, Utah 6.46 90 13.9

Fort Duchesne,

Utah 6.49 75 11 .6

Pineville,

Oregon 9.01 70 7 .8

Lost River,

Idaho 8.47 70 8.3

Laramie,

Wyoming 9.81 70 7 .1

Torres, Mexico 16.97 100 6.0

To understand the methods employed forchecking evaporation from the soil, it is

necessary to rev iew briefly the conditionsthat determine the evaporation of waterinto the air, and the manner in whichwater moves in the soil.

The formation of water vapor

Whenever water is left freely exposed tothe air, it evaporates; that is, it passes intothe gaseous state and mixes with the gasesof the air. Even snow and ice give off watervapor, though in very small quantities.The quantity of water vapor which canenter a given volume of air is definitelylimited. For instance, at the temperatureof freezing water 2.126 grains of watervapor can enter one cubic foot of air, but nomore. When air contains all the waterpossible, it is said to be saturated, andevaporation then ceases.

The practical effect of this is the well-known experience that on the seashore,where the air is often very nearly fullysaturated with water vapor, the dry ing ofclothes goes on very slowly , whereas in theinterior, like the dryfarming territory ,away from the ocean, where the air is farfrom being saturated, dry ing goes on veryrapidly .

The amount of water necessary to saturateair varies greatly with the temperature. Itis to be noted that as the temperatureincreases, the amount of water that maybe held by the air also increases; andproportionately more rapidly than theincrease in temperature. This is generallywell understood in common experience, asin dry ing clothes rapidly by hanging thembefore a hot fire. At a temperature of 100deg F., which is often reached in portions ofthe dryfarm territory during the growing

season, a given volume of air can holdmore than nine times as much watervapor as at the temperature of freezingwater. This is an exceedingly importantprinciple in dry farm practices, for itexplains the relatively easy possibility ofstoring water during the fall and winterwhen the temperature is low and themoisture usually abundant, and thegreater difficulty of storing the rain thatfalls largely , as in the Great Plains area, inthe summer when water-dissipating forcesare very active. This law also emphasizesthe truth that it is in times of warmweather that every precaution must betaken to prevent the evaporation of waterfrom the soil surface.

Temperature Grains of Water held in inDegrees F. One Cubic Foot of Air

32 2.126

40 2.862

50 4.089

60 5.756

70 7 .992

80 10.949

90 14.810

100 19.790

It is of course well understood that theatmosphere as a whole is never saturatedwith water vapor. Such saturation is at thebest only local, as, for instance, on theseashore during quiet days, when the layerof air over the water may be fullysaturated, or in a field containing muchwater from which, on quiet warm days,enough water may evaporate to saturate

the layer of air immediately upon the soiland around the plants. Whenever, in suchcases, the air begins to move and the windblows, the saturated air is mixed with thelarger portion of unsaturated air, andevaporation is again increased.Meanwhile, it must be borne in mind thatinto a layer of saturated air resting upon afield of growing plants very little waterevaporates, and that the chief water-dissipating power of winds lies in theremoval of this saturated layer. Winds orair movements of any kind, therefore,become enemies of the farmer who dependsupon a limited rainfall.

The amount of water actually found in agiven volume of air at a certaintemperature, compared with the largestamount it can hold, is called the relativehumidity of the air. As shown in ChapterIV, the relative humidity becomes smaller

as the rainfall decreases. The lower therelative humidity is at a giventemperature, the more rapidly will waterevaporate into the air. There is no morestriking confirmation of this law than thefact that at a temperature of 90

deg sunstrokes and similar ailments arereported in great number from New York,while the people of Salt Lake City areperfectly comfortable. In New York therelative humidity in summer is about 73

per cent; in Salt Lake City , about 35 percent. At a high summer temperatureevaporation from the skin goes on slowly inNew York and rapidly in Salt Lake City ,with the resulting discomfort or comfort.

Similarly , evaporation from soils goes onrapidly under a low and slowly under ahigh percentage of relative humidity .

Evaporation from water surfaces ishastened, therefore, by (1) an increase inthe temperature, (2) an increase in the airmovements or winds, and (3) a decrease inthe relative humidity . The temperature ishigher; the relative humidity lower, andthe winds usually more abundant in aridthan in humid regions. The dryfarmermust consequently use all possibleprecautions to prevent evaporation fromthe soil.

Conditions of evaporation from from soilsEvaporation does not alone occur from asurface of free water. All wet or moistsubstances lose by evaporation most of thewater that they hold, providing theconditions of temperature and relativehumidity are favorable. Thus, from a wetsoil, evaporation is continually removingwater. Yet, under ordinary conditions, it isimpossible to remove all the water, for a

small quantity is attracted so strongly bythe soil particles that only a temperatureabove the boiling point of water will driveit out. This part of the soil is thehygroscopic moisture spoken of in the lastchapter.

Moreover, it must be kept in mind thatevaporation does not occur as rapidly fromwet soil as from a water surface, unless allthe soil pores are so completely filled withwater that the soil surface is practically awater surface. The reason for this reducedevaporation from a wet soil is almost self-ev ident. There is a comparatively strongattraction between soil and water, whichenables the moisture to cling as a thincapillary film around the soil particles,against the force of gravity . Ordinarily ,only capillary water is found in well-tilledsoil, and the force causing evaporationmust be strong enough to overcome this

attraction besides changing the water intovapor.

The less water there is in a soil, the thinnerthe water film, and the more firmly is thewater held. Hence, the rate of evaporationdecreases with the decrease in soil-moisture. This law is confirmed by actualfield tests. For instance, as an average of274 trials made at the Utah Station, it wasfound that three soils, otherwise alike, thatcontained, respectively , 22.63 per cent,17 .14 per cent, and 12.75 per cent of waterlost in two weeks, to a depth of eight feet,respectively 21.0, 17 . 1 , and 10.0 poundsof water per square foot. Similarexperiments conducted elsewhere alsofurnish proof of the correctness of thisprinciple. From this point of v iew thedryfarmer does not want his soils to beunnecessarily moist. The dryfarmer canreduce the per cent of water in the soil

without diminishing the total amount ofwater by so treating the soil that the waterwill distribute itself to considerable depths.This brings into prominence again thepractices of fall plowing, deep plowing,subsoiling, and the choice of deep soils fordryfarming.

Very much for the same reasons,evaporation goes on more slowly fromwater in which salt or other substanceshave been dissolved. The attractionbetween the water and the dissolved saltseems to be strong enough to resistpartially the force causing evaporation.

Soil-water always contains some of the soilingredients in solution, and consequentlyunder the given conditions evaporationoccurs more slowly from soil-water thanfrom pure water. Now, the more fertile asoil is, that is, the more soluble plant-food it

contains, the more material will bedissolved in the soil-water, and as a resultthe more slowly will evaporation takeplace. Fallowing, cultivation, thoroughplowing and manuring, which increase thestore of soluble plant-food, all tend todiminish evaporation. While theseconditions may have little value in theeyes of the farmer who is under anabundant rainfall, they are of greatimportance to the dryfarmer.

It is only by utilizing every possibility ofconserving water and fertility thatdryfarming may be made a perfectly safepractice.

Loss by evaporation chiefly at the surfaceEvaporation goes on from every wetsubstance. Water evaporates thereforefrom the wet soil grains under the surfaceas well as from those at the surface. In

developing a system of practice which willreduce evaporation to a minimum it mustbe learned whether the water whichevaporates from the soil particles far belowthe surface is carried in large quantitiesinto the atmosphere and thus lost to plantuse. Over forty years ago, Nesslersubjected this question to experiment andfound that the loss by evaporation occursalmost wholly at the soil surface, and thatvery little if any is lost directly byevaporation from the lower soil layers.Other experimenters have confirmed thisconclusion, and very recentlyBuckingham, examining the same subject,found that while there is a very slowupward movement of the soil gases into theatmosphere, the total quantity of thewater thus lost by direct evaporation fromsoil, a foot below the surface, amounted atmost to one inch of rainfall in six years.This is insignificant even under semiaridand arid conditions. However, the rate of

loss of water by direct evaporation fromthe lower soil layers increases with theporosity of the soil, that is, with the spacenot filled with soil particles or water. Fine-grained soils, therefore, lose the least waterin this manner. Nevertheless, if coarse-grained soils are well filled with water, bydeep fall plowing and by proper summerfallowing for the conservation of moisture,the loss of moisture by direct evaporationfrom the lower soil layers need not belarger than from finer grained soils

Thus again are emphasized the principlespreviously laid down that, for the mostsuccessful dry farming, the soil shouldalways be kept well filled with moisture,even if it means that the land, after beingbroken, must lie fallow for one or twoseasons, until a sufficient amount ofmoisture has accumulated. Further, thecorrelative principle is emphasized that

the moisture in dry farm lands should bestored deeply , away from the immediateaction of the sun’s rays upon the landsurface. The necessity for deep soils is thusagain brought out.

The great loss of soil moisture due to anaccumulation of water in the upper twelveinches is well brought out in theexperiments conducted by the UtahStation. The following is selected from thenumerous data on the subject. Two soils,almost identical in character, containedrespectively 17 .57 per cent and 16.55 percent of water on an average to a depth ofeight feet; that is, the total amount ofwater held by the two soils was practicallyidentical.

Owing to vary ing cultural treatment, thedistribution of the water in the soil was notuniform; one contained 23.22 per cent and

the other 16.64 per cent of water in thefirst twelve inches. During the first sevendays the soil that contained the highestpercentage of water in the first foot lost13.30 pounds of water, while the other lostonly 8.48 pounds per square foot. Thisgreat difference was due no doubt to thefact that direct evaporation takes place inconsiderable quantity only in the uppertwelve inches of soil, where the sun’s heathas a full chance to act.

Any practice which enables the rains tosink quickly to considerable depths shouldbe adopted by the dryfarmer. This isperhaps one of the great reasons foradvocating the expensive but usuallyeffective subsoil plowing on dryfarms. It isa very common experience, in the aridregion, that great, deep cracks form duringhot weather. From the walls of these cracksevaporation goes on, as from the topsoil,

and the passing winds renew the air so thatthe evaporation may go on rapidly . Thedryfarmer must go over the land as oftenas needs be with some implement that willdestroy and fill up the cracks that mayhave been formed. In a field of growingcrops this is often difficult to do; but it isnot impossible that hand hoeing, expensiveas it is, would pay well in the saving of soilmoisture and the consequent increase incrop y ield.

How soil water reaches the surface

It may be accepted as an established truththat the direct evaporation of water fromwet soils occurs almost wholly at thesurface. Yet it is well known thatevaporation from the soil surface maycontinue until the soil-moisture to a depth

of eight or ten feet or more is depleted. Thisis shown by the following analyses ofdryfarm soil in early spring andmidsummer. No attempt was made toconserve the moisture in the soil:—

Per cent of water in Early springMidsummer 1st foot 20.84 8.83

2nd foot 20.06 8.87

3rd foot 19.62 11 .03

4th foot 18.28 9.59

5th foot 18.70 11 .27

6th foot 14.29 11 .03

7th foot 14.48 8.95

8th foot 13.83 9.47

Avg 17 .51 9.88

In this case water had undoubtedly passedby capillary movement from the depth ofeight feet to a point near the surface wheredirect evaporation could occur. Asexplained in the last chapter, water whichis held as a film around the soil particles iscalled capillary water; and it is in thecapillary form that water may be stored indryfarm soils. Moreover, it is the capillarysoil-moisture alone which is of real value incrop production. This capillary water tendsto distribute itself uniformly throughoutthe soil, in accordance with the prevailingconditions and forces. If no water isremoved from the soil, in course of time thedistribution of the soil-water will be suchthat the thickness of the film at any pointin the soil mass is a direct resultant of thevarious forces acting at that particularpoint. There will then be no appreciable

movement of the soil-moisture. Such acondition is approximated in late winter orearly spring before planting begins.During the greater part of the year,however, no such quiescent state canoccur, for there are numerous disturbingelements that normally are active, amongwhich the three most effective are (l) theaddition of water to the soil by rains; (2)the evaporation of water from the topsoil,due to the more active meteorologicalfactors during spring, summer, and fall;and (3) the abstraction of water from thesoil by plant roots.

Water, entering the soil, moves downwardunder the influence of gravity asgravitational water, until under theattractive influence of the soil it has beenconverted into capillary water and adheresto the soil particles as a film. If the soil weredry , and the film therefore thin, the rain

water would move downward only a shortdistance as gravitational water; if the soilwere wet, and the film therefore thick, thewater would move down to a greaterdistance before being exhausted. If, as isoften the case in humid districts, the soil issaturated, that is, the film is as thick as theparticles can hold, the water would passright through the soil and connect with thestanding water below. This, of course, isseldom the case in dry farm districts. Inany soil, excepting one already saturated,the addition of water will produce athickening of the soil-water film to the fulldescent of the water. This immediatelydestroys the conditions of equilibriumformerly existing, for the moisture is notnow uniformly distributed. Consequently aprocess of redistribution begins whichcontinues until the nearest approach toequilibrium is restored. In this processwater will pass in every direction from thewet portion of the soil to the drier; it does

not necessarily mean that water willactually pass from the wet portion to thedrier portion; usually , at the driest point alittle water is drawn from the adjoiningpoint, which in turn draws from the next,and that from the next, until theredistribution is complete. The process isvery much like stuffing wool into a sackwhich already is loosely filled. The newwool does not reach the bottom of the sack,yet there is more wool in the bottom thanthere was before.

If a plant-root is actively feeding somedistance under the soil surface, the reverseprocess occurs. At the feeding point the rootcontinually abstracts water from the soilgrains and thus makes the film thinner inthat locality . This causes a movement ofmoisture similar to the one abovedescribed, from the wetter portions of thesoil to the portion being dried out by the

action of the plant-root.

Soil many feet or even rods distant mayassist in supply ing such an active root withmoisture. When the thousands of tiny rootssent out by each plant are recalled. it maywell be understood what a confusion ofpulls and counter-pulls upon the soil-moisture exists in any cultivated soil. Infact, the soil-water film may be v iewed asbeing in a state of trembling activ ity ,tending to place itself in full equilibriumwith the surrounding contending forceswhich, themselves, constantly change.Were it not that the water film held closelyaround the soil particles is possessed ofextreme mobility , it would not be possibleto meet the demands of the plants upon thewater at comparatively great distances.Even as it is, it frequently happens thatwhen crops are planted too thickly ondryfarms, the soil-moisture cannot movequickly enough to the absorbing roots tomaintain plant growth, and crop failure

results. Incidentally , this points toplanting that shall be proportional to themoisture contained by the soil. See ChapterXI.

As the temperature rises in spring, with adecrease in the relative humidity , and anincrease in direct sunshine, evaporationfrom the soil surface increases greatly .However, as the topsoil becomes drier, thatis, as the water fihn becomes thinner,there is an attempt at readjustment, andwater moves upward to take the place ofthat lost by evaporation. As this continuesthroughout the season, the moisture storedeight or ten feet or more below the surfaceis gradually brought to the top andevaporated, and thus lost to plant use.

The effect of rapid top dry ing of soils As the

water held by soils diminishes, and thewater film around the soil grains becomesthinner, the capillary movement of thesoil-water is retarded. This is easilyunderstood by recalling that the soilparticles have an attraction for water,which is of definite value, and may bemeasured by the thickest film that may beheld against gravity . When the film isthinned, it does not diminish the attractionof the soil for water; it simply results in astronger pull upon the water and a firmerholding of the film against the surfaces ofthe soil grains. To move soil-water undersuch conditions requires the expenditure ofmore energy than is necessary for movingwater in a saturated or nearly saturatedsoil.

Under like conditions, therefore, thethinner the soil-water film the moredifficult will be the upward movement ofthe soil-water and the slower theevaporation from the topsoil.

As dry ing goes on, a point is reached atwhich the capillary movement of thewater wholly ceases. This is probably whenlittle more than the hygroscopic moistureremains. In fact, very dry soil and waterrepel each other. This is shown in thecommon experience of driv ing along a roadin summer, immediately after a lightshower.

The masses of dust are wetted only on theoutside, and as the wheels pass throughthem the dry dust is revealed. It is animportant fact that very dry soil furnishesa very effective protection against thecapillary movement of water.

In accordance with the principle aboveestablished if the surface soil could be driedto the point where capillarity is very slow,

the evaporation would be diminished oralmost wholly stopped. More than aquarter of a century ago, Eser showedexperimentally that soil-water may besaved by dry ing the surface soil rapidly .Under dry farm conditions it frequentlyoccurs that the draft upon the water of thesoil is so great that nearly all the water isquickly and so completely abstracted fromthe upper few inches of soil that they areleft as an effective protection againstfurther evaporation. For instance, inlocalities where hot dry winds are ofcommon occurrence, the upper layer of soilis sometimes completely dried before thewater in the lower layers can by slowcapillary movement reach the top. Thedry soil layer then prevents further loss ofwater, and the wind because of itsintensity has helped to conserve the soil-moisture. Similarly in localities where therelative humidity is low, the sunshineabundant, and the temperature high,

evaporation may go on so rapidly that thelower soil layers cannot supply thedemands made, and the topsoil then driesout so completely as to form a protectivecovering against further evaporation. It ison this principle that the native desert soilsof the United States, untouched by theplow, and the surfaces of which are sun-baked, are often found to possess largepercentages of water at lower depths.Whitney recorded this observation withconsiderable surprise, many years ago,and other observers have found the sameconditions at nearly all points of the aridregion. This matter has been subjected tofurther study by Buckingham, who placeda variety of soils under artificially arid andhumid conditions. It was found in everycase that, the initial evaporation wasgreater under arid conditions, but as theprocess went on and the topsoil of the aridsoil became dry , more water was lost underhumid conditions. For the whole

experimental period, also, more water waslost under humid conditions. It was notablethat the dry protective layer was formedmore slowly on alkali soils, which wouldpoint to the inadvisability of using alkalilands for dry farm purposes. All in all,however, it appears “that under very aridconditions a soil automatically protectsitself from dry ing by the formation of anatural mulch on the surface.”

Naturally , dry farm soils differ greatly intheir power of forming such a mulch. Aheavy clay or a light sandy soil appears tohave less power of such automaticprotection than a loamy soil. Anadmixture of limestone seems to favor theformation of such a natural protectivemulch. Ordinarily , the farmer can furtherthe formation of a dry topsoil layer bystirring the soil thoroughly .

This assists the sunshine and the air toevaporate the water very quickly . Suchcultivation is very desirable for otherreasons also, as will soon be discussed.Meanwhile, the water-dissipating forces ofthe dryfarm section are not whollyobjectionable, for whether the land becultivated or not, they tend to hasten theformation of dry surface layers of soilwhich guard against excessiveevaporation. It is in moist cloudy weather,when the dry ing process is slow, thatevaporation causes the greatest losses ofsoil-moisture.

The effect of shading

Direct sunshine is, next to temperature,the most active cause of rapid evaporationfrom moist soil surfaces. Whenever,

therefore, evaporation is not rapid enoughto form a dry protective layer of topsoil,shading helps materially in reducingsurface losses of soil-water. Under very aridconditions, however, it is questionablewhether in all cases shading has a reallybeneficial effect, though under semiarid orsub-humid conditions the benefits derivedfrom shading are increased largely .Ebermayer showed in 1873 that theshading due to the forest cover reducedevaporation 62 per cent, and manyexperiments since that day haveconfirmed this conclusion. At the UtahStation, under arid conditions, it was foundthat shading a pot of soil, which otherwisewas subjected to water-dissipatinginfluences, saved 29 per cent of the loss dueto evaporation from a pot which was notshaded. This principle cannot be appliedvery greatly in practice, but it points to asomewhat thick planting, proportioned tothe water held by the soil. It also shows a

possible benefit to be derived from the highheader straw which is allowed to stand forseveral weeks in dry farm sections wherethe harvest comes early and the fallplowing is done late, as in the mountainstates.

The high header stubble shades the groundvery thoroughly . Thus the stubble may bemade to conserve the soil-moisture indryfarm sections, where grain is harvestedby the “header” method.

A special case of shading is the mulching ofland with straw or other barnyard litter,or with leaves, as in the forest. Suchmulching reduces evaporation, but only inpart, because of its shading action, since itacts also as a loose top layer of soil matterbreaking communication with the lowersoil layers.

Whenever the soil is carefully stirred, aswill be described, the value of shading as ameans or checking evaporation disappearsalmost entirely . It is only with soils whichare tolerably moist at the surface thatshading acts beneficially .

Alfalfa in cultivated rows. This practice isemployed to make possible the growth ofalfalfa and other perennial crops on aridlands without irrigation.

The effect of tillage

Capillary soil-moisture moves fromparticle to particle until the surface isreached. The closer the soil grains are

packed together, the greater the number ofpoints or contact, and the more easily willthe movement of the soil-moisture proceed.If by any means a layer of the soil is soloosened as to reduce the number of pointsof contact, the movement of the soil-moisture is correspondingly hindered. Theprocess is somewhat similar to theexperience in large r airway stations. Justbefore train time a great crowd of people isgathered outside or the gates ready to showtheir tickets. If one gate is opened, a certainnumber of passengers can pass througheach minute; if two are opened, nearlytwice as many may be admitted in thesame time; if more gates are opened, thepassengers will be able to enter the trainmore rapidly . The water in the lowerlayers of the soil is ready to move upwardwhenever a call is made upon it. To reachthe surface it must pass from soil grain tosoil grain, and the larger the number ofgrains that touch, the more quickly and

easily will the water reach the surface, forthe points of contact of the soil particlesmay be likened to the gates of the railwaystation. Now if, by a thorough stirring andloosening of the topsoil, the number ofpoints of contact between the top andsubsoil is greatly reduced, the upward flowof water is thereby largely checked. Such aloosening of the topsoil for the purpose ofreducing evaporation from the topsoil hascome to be called cultivation, and includesplowing, harrowing, disking, hoeing, andother cultural operations by which thetopsoil is stirred. The breaking of the pointsof contact between the top and subsoil isundoubtedly the main reason for theefficiency of cultivation, but it is also to beremembered that such stirring helps todry the top soil very thoroughly , and ashas been explained a layer of dry soil ofitself is a very effective check upon surfaceevaporation.

That the stirring or cultivation of thetopsoil really does diminish evaporation ofwater from the soil has been shown bynumerous investigations. In 1868, Nesslerfound that during six weeks of an ordinaryGerman summer a stirred soil lost 510grams of water per square foot, while theadjoining compacted soil lost 1680 grams,—a saving due to cultivation of nearly 60per cent. Wagner, testing the correctness ofNessler’s work, found, in 1874, thatcultivation reduced the evaporation a littlemore than 60 per cent; Johnson, in 1878,confirmed the truth of the principle onAmerican soils, and Levi Stockbridge,working about the same time, also onAmerican soils, found that cultivationdiminished evaporation on a clay soilabout 23 per cent, on a sandy loam 55 percent, and on a heavy loam nearly 13 percent. All the early work done on thissubject was done under humid conditions,and it is only in recent years that

confirmation of this important principlehas been obtained for the soils of thedryfarm region. Fortier, working underCalifornia conditions, determined thatcultivation reduced the evaporation fromthe soil surface over 55 per cent. At theUtah Station similar experiments haveshown that the saving of soil-moisture bycultivation was 63 per cent for a clay soil,34 per cent for a coarse sand, and 13 percent for a clay loam. Further, practicalexperience has demonstrated time andtime again that in cultivation thedryfarmer has a powerful means ofpreventing evaporation from agriculturalsoils.

Closely connected with cultivation is thepractice of scattering straw or other litterover the ground. Such artificial mulchesare very effective in reducing evaporation.Ebermayer found that by spreading straw

on the land, the evaporation was reduced22 per cent; Wagner found under similarconditions a saving of 38 per cent, andthese results have been confirmed bymany other investigators.

On the modern dryfarms, which are largein area, the artificial mulching of soilscannot become a very extensive practice,yet it is well to bear the principle in mind.The practice of harvesting dryfarm grainwith the header and plowing under thehigh stubble in the fall is a phase ofcultivation for water conservation thatdeserves special notice. The straw, thusincorporated into the soil, decomposes quitereadily in spite of the popular notion to thecontrary , and makes the soil more porous,and, therefore, more effectively worked forthe prevention of evaporation. When thispractice is continued for considerableperiods, the topsoil becomes rich in organicmatter, which assists in retardingevaporation, besides increasing the

fertility of the land. When straw cannot befed to advantage, as is yet the case onmany of the western dryfarms, it would bebetter to scatter it over the land than toburn it, as is often done. Anything thatcovers the ground or loosens the topsoilprevents in a measure the evaporation ofthe water stored in lower soil depths for theuse of crops.

Depth of cultivation

The all-important practice for thedryfarmer who is entering upon thegrowing season is cultivation. The soilmust be covered continually with a deeplayer of dry loose soil, which because of itslooseness and dryness makes evaporationdifficult. A leading question in connectionwith cultivation is the depth to which the

soil should be stirred for the best results.Many of the early students of the subjectfound that a soil mulch only one half inchin depth was effective in retaining a largepart of the soil-moisture whichnoncultivated soils would lose byevaporation.

Soils differ greatly in the rate ofevaporation from their surfaces.

Some form a natural mulch when dried,which prevents further water loss. Othersform only a thin hard crust, below whichlies an active evaporating surface of wetsoil. Soils which dry out readily andcrumble on top into a natural mulchshould be cultivated deeply , for a shallowcultivation does not extend beyond thenaturally formed mulch. In fact, oncertain calcareous soils, the surfaces ofwhich dry out quickly and form a goodprotection against evaporation, shallowcultivations often cause a greater

evaporation by disturbing the almostperfect natural mulch. Clay or sand soils,which do not so well form a natural mulch,will respond much better to shallowcultivations. In general, however, thedeeper the cultivation, the more effectiveit is in reducing evaporation. Fortier, inthe experiments in California to whichallusion has already been made, showedthe greater value of deep cultivation.During a period of fifteen days, beginningimmediately after an irrigation, the soilwhich had not been mulched lost byevaporation nearly one fourth of the totalamount of water that had been added. Amulch 4 inches deep saved about 72 percent of the evaporation; a mulch 8 inchesdeep saved about 88 per cent, and a mulch10 inches deep stopped evaporation almostwholly . It is a most serious mistake for thedryfarmer, who attempts cultivation forsoil-moisture conservation, to fail to get thebest results simply to save a few cents per

acre in added labor.

When to cultivate or till

It has already been shown that the rate ofevaporation is greater from a wet thanfrom a dry surface. It follows, therefore,that the critical time for preventingevaporation is when the soil is wettest.After the soil is tolerably dry , a very largeportion of the soil-moisture has been lost,which possibly might have been saved byearlier cultivation. The truth of thisstatement is well shown by experimentsconducted by the Utah Station. In one caseon a soil well filled with water, during athree weeks’ period, nearly one half of thetotal loss occurred the first, while only onefifth fell on the third week. Of the amountlost during the first week, over 60 per cent

occurred during the first three days.Cultivation should, therefore, be practicedas soon as possible after conditionsfavorable for evaporation have beenestablished. This means, first, that in earlyspring, just as soon as the land is dryenough to be worked without causingpuddling, the soil should be deeply andthoroughly stirred. Spring plowing, doneas early as possible, is an excellent practicefor forming a mulch against evaporation.Even when the land has been fall-plowed,spring plowing is very beneficial, thoughon fall-plowed land the disk harrow isusually used in early spring, and if it is setat rather a sharp angle, and properlyweighted, so that it cuts deeply into theground, it is practically as effective asspring plowing. The chief danger to thedryfarmer is that he will permit the earlyspring days to slip by until, when at last hebegins spring cultivation, a large portion ofthe stored soil-water has been evaporated.

It may be said that deep fall plowing, bypermitting the moisture to sink quicklyinto the lower layers of soil, makes itpossible to get upon the ground earlier inthe spring. In fact, unplowed land cannotbe cultivated as early as that which hasgone through the winter in a plowedcondition

If the land carries a fall-sown crop, earlyspring cultivation is doubly important. Assoon as the plants are well up in spring theland should be gone over thoroughlyseveral times if necessary , with an irontooth harrow, the teeth of which are set toslant backward in order not to tear up theplants. The loose earth mulch thus formedis very effective in conserving moisture;and the few plants torn up are more thanpaid for by the increased water supply forthe remaining plants. The wise dry-fannercultivates his land, whether fallow or

cropped, as early as possible in the spring.

Following the first spring plowing, disking,or cultivation, must come morecultivation. Soon after the spring plowing,the land should be disked and. thenharrowed. Every device should be used tosecure the formation of a layer of loosedry ing soil over the land surface. Theseason’s crop will depend largely upon theeffectiveness of this spring treatment.

As the season advances, three causescombine to permit the evaporation of soil-moisture.

First, there is a natural tendency , underthe somewhat moist conditions of spring,for the soil to settle compactly and thus to

restore the numerous capillaryconnections with the lower soil layersthrough which water escapes. Carefulwatch should therefore be kept upon thesoil surface, and whenever the mulch isnot loose, the disk or harrow should be runover the land.

Secondly , every rain of spring or summertends to establish connections with thestore of moisture in the soil. In fact, latespring and summer rains are often adisadvantage on dryfarms, which bycultural treatment have been made tocontain a large store of moisture. It hasbeen shown repeatedly that light rainsdraw moisture very quickly from soillayers many feet below the surface.

The rainless summer is not feared by thedryfarmer whose soils are fertile and richin moisture. It is imperative that at the

very earliest moment after a spring orsummer rain the topsoil be well stirred toprevent evaporation. It thus happens thatin sections of frequent summer rains, as inthe Great Plains area, the farmer has toharrow his land many times in succession,but the increased crop y ields invariablyjustify the added expenditure of effort.

Thirdly , on the summer-fallowed groundweeds start v igorously in the spring anddraw upon the soil-moisture, if allowed togrow, fully as heavily as a crop of wheat orcorn. The dryfarmer must not allow aweed upon his land. Cultivation must he socontinuous as to make weeds animpossibility . The belief that the elementsadded to the soil by weeds offset the loss ofsoil-moisture is wholly erroneous.

The growth of weeds on a fallow dryfarm ismore dangerous than the packed uncared-

for topsoil. Many implements have beendevised for the easy killing of weeds, butnone appear to be better than the plow andthe disk which are found on every farm.(See Chapter XV.) When crops are growingon the land, thorough summer cultivationis somewhat more difficult, but must bepracticed for the greatest certainty of cropyields. Potatoes, corn, and similar cropsmay be cultivated with comparative ease,by the use of ordinary cultivators. Withwheat and the other small grains,generally , the damage done to the crop byharrowing late in the season is too great,and reliance is therefore placed on theshading power of the plants to preventundue evaporation. However, until thewheat and other grains are ten to twelveinches high, it is perfectly safe to harrowthem. The teeth should be set backward todiminish the tearing up of the plants, andthe implement weighted enough to breakthe soil crust thoroughly . This practice has

been fully tried out over the larger part ofthe dryfarm territory and foundsatisfactory .

So v itally important is a permanent soilmulch for the conservation for plant use ofthe water stored in the soil that manyattempts have been made to devise meansfor the effective cultivation of land onwhich small grains and grasses aregrowing. In many places plants have beengrown in rows so far apart that a man witha hoe could pass between them. Scofield hasdescribed this method as practicedsuccessfully in Tunis. Campbell and othersin America have proposed that a drill holebe closed every three feet to form a pathwide enough for a horse to travel in and topull a large spring tooth cultivator’ withteeth so spaced as to strike between therows of wheat. It is yet doubtful whether,under average conditions, such careful

cultivation, at least of grain crops, isjustified by the returns. Under conditionsof high aridity , or where the store of soil-moisture is low, such treatment frequentlystands between crop success and failure,and it is not unlikely that methods will bedevised which will permit of the cheap andrapid cultivation between the rows ofgrowing wheat. Meanwhile, the dryfarmermust always remember that the marginunder which he works is small, and thathis success depends upon the degree towhich he prevents small wastes.

Dryfarm potatoes, Rosebud Co., Montana,1909. Yield, 282 bushels per acre.

The conservation of soil-moisture dependsupon the v igorous, unremitting,continuous stirring of the topsoil.

Cultivation!

cultivation! and more cultivation! must bethe war-cry of the dryfarmer who battlesagainst the water thieves of an aridclimate.

CHAPTER IX

REGULATING THE TRANSPIRATION

Water that has entered the soil may be lostin three ways. First, it may escape bydownward seepage, whereby it passesbeyond the reach of plant roots and oftenreaches the standing water. In dry farmdistricts such loss is a rare occurrence, forthe natural precipitation is not sufficientlylarge to connect with the countrydrainage, and it may , therefore, beeliminated from consideration.

Second, soil-water may be lost by directevaporation from the surface soil. Theconditions prevailing in arid districts favorstrongly this manner of loss of soil-moisture. It has been shown, however, inthe preceding chapter that the farmer, by

proper and persistent cultivation of thetopsoil, has it in his power to reduce thisloss enough to be almost negligible in thefarmer’s consideration. Third, soil-watermay be lost by evaporation from the plantsthemselves. While it is not generallyunderstood, this source of loss is, in districtswhere dryfarming is properly carried on,very much larger than that resultingeither from seepage or from directevaporation. While plants are growing,evaporation from plants, ordinarily calledtranspiration, continues. Experimentsperformed in various arid districts haveshown that one and a half to three timesmore water evaporates from the plantthan directly from well-tilled soil. To thepresent very little has been learnedconcerning the most effective methods ofchecking or controlling this continual lossof water. Transpiration, or the evaporationof water from the plants themselves andthe means of controlling this loss, are

subjects of the deepest importance to thedryfarmer.

Absorption

To understand the methods for reducingtranspiration, as proposed in this chapter,it is necessary to rev iew briefly themanner in which plants take water fromthe soil. The roots are the organs of waterabsorption. Practically no water is takeninto the plants by the stems or leaves, evenunder conditions of heavy rainfall. Suchsmall quantities as may enter the plantthrough the stems and leaves are of verylittle value in furthering the life andgrowth of the plant.

The roots alone are of real consequence inwater absorption. All parts of the roots do

not possess equal power of taking up soil-water. In the process of water absorptionthe younger roots are most active andeffective. Even of the young roots,however, only certain parts are activelyengaged in water absorption. At the verytips of the young growing roots arenumerous fine hairs. These root-hairs,which cluster about the growing point ofthe young roots, are the organs of the plantthat absorb soil-water. They are of valueonly for limited periods of time, for as theygrow older, they lose their power of waterabsorption. In fact, they are active onlywhen they are in actual process of growth.It follows, therefore, that water absorptionoccurs near the tips of the growing roots,and whenever a plant ceases to grow thewater absorption ceases also. The root-hairsare filled with a dilute solution of varioussubstances, as yet poorly understood,which plays an important tent part in theab sorption of water and plant-food from

the soil.

Owing to their minuteness, the root-hairsare in most cases immersed in the waterfilm that surrounds the soil particles, andthe soil-water is taken directly into theroots from the soil-water film by theprocess known as osmosis. The explanationof this inward movement is complicatedand need not be discussed here. It issufficient to say that the concentration orstrength of the solution within the root-hair is of different degree from the soil-water solution. The water tends, therefore,to move from the soil into the root, in orderto make the solutions inside and outside ofthe root of the same concentration. If itshould ever occur that the soil-water andthe water within the root-hair became thesame concentration, that is to say ,contained the same substances in the sameproportional amounts, there would be no

further inward movement of water.Moreover, if it should happen that the soil-water is stronger than the water withinthe root-hair, the water would tend to passfrom the plant into the soil. This is thecondition that prevails in many alkalilands of the West, and is the cause of thedeath of plants growing on such lands.

It is clear that under these circumstancesnot only water enters the root-hairs, butmany of the substances found in solution inthe soil-water enter the plant also. Amongthese are the mineral substances which areindispensable for the proper life andgrowth of plants. These plant nutrients areso indispensable that if any one of them isabsent, it is absolutely impossible for theplant to continue its life functions. Theindispensable plant-foods gathered fromthe soil by the root-hairs, in addition towater, are: potassium, calcium,

magnesium, iron, nitrogen, andphosphorus,—all in their propercombinations. How the plant uses thesesubstances is yet poorly understood, but weare fairly certain that each one has someparticular function in the life of the plant.For instance, nitrogen and phosphorus areprobably necessary in the formation of theprotein or the flesh-forming portions of theplant, while potash is especially valuablein the formation of starch.

There is a constant movement of theindispensable plant nutrients after theyhave entered the root-hairs, through thestems and into the leaves. This constantmovement of the plant-foods depends uponthe fact that the plant consumes in itsgrowth considerable quantities of thesesubstances, and as the plant juices arediminished in their content of particularplant-foods, more enters from the soil

solution. The necessary plant-foods do notalone enter the plant but whatever may bein solution in the soil-water enters theplant in variable quantities. Nevertheless,since the plant uses only a few definitesubstances and leaves the unnecessaryones in solution, there is soon a cessation ofthe inward movement of the unimportantconstituents of the soil solution. Thisprocess is often spoken of as selectiveabsorption; that is, the plant, because of itsv ital activ ity , appears to have the power ofselecting from the soil certain substancesand rejecting others.

Movement of water through plant

The soil-water, holding in solution a greatvariety of plant nutrients, passes from theroot-hairs into the adjoining cells and

gradually moves from cell to cellthroughout the whole plant. In manyplants this stream of water does not simplypass from cell to cell, but moves throughtubes that apparently have been formedfor the specific purpose of aiding themovement of water through the plant. Therapidity of this current is oftenconsiderable.

Ordinarily , it varies from one foot to sixfeet per hour, though observations are onrecord showing that the movement oftenreaches the rate of eighteen feet per hour.It is ev ident, then, that in an activelygrowing plant it does not take long for thewater which is in the soil to find its way tothe uppermost parts of the plant.

The work of leaves

Whether water passes upward from cell tocell or through especially provided tubes, itreaches at last the leaves, whereevaporation takes place. It is necessary toconsider in greater detail what takes placein leaves in order that we may moreclearly understand the loss due totranspiration. One half or more of everyplant is made up of the element carbon.The remainder of the plant consists of themineral substances taken from the soil (notmore than two to 10 per cent of the dryplant) and water which has been combinedwith the carbon and these mineralsubstances to form the characteristicproducts of plant life. The carbon whichforms over half of the plant substance isgathered from the air by the leaves and itis ev ident that the leaves are very activeagents of plant growth. The atmosphereconsists chiefly of the gases oxygen andnitrogen in the proportion of one to four,but associated with them are small

quantities of various other substances.Chief among the secondary constituents ofthe atmosphere is the gas carbon dioxid,which is formed when carbon burns, thatis, when carbon unites with the oxygen ofthe air. Whenever coal or wood or anycarbonaceous substance burns, carbondioxid is formed. Leaves have the power ofabsorbing the gas carbon dioxid from theair and separating the carbon from theoxygen. The oxygen is returned to theatmosphere while the carbon is retained tobe used as the fundamental substance inthe construction by the plant of oils, fats,starches, sugars, protein, and all the otherproducts of plant growth.

This important process known as carbonassimilation is made possible by the aid ofcountless small openings which existchicfly on the surfaces of leaves and knownas “stomata.” The stomata are delicately

balanced valves, exceedingly sensitive toexternal influences. They are morenumerous on the lower side than on theupper side of plants. In fact, there is oftenfive times more on the under side than onthe upper side of a leaf. It has beenestimated that 150,000 stomata or moreare often found per square inch on theunder side of the leaves of ordinarycultivated plants. The stomata orbreathing-pores are so constructed thatthey may open and close very readily . Inwilted leaves they are practically closed;often they also close immediately after arain; but in strong sunlight they areusually wide open. It is through thestomata that the gases of the air enter theplant through which the discarded oxygenreturns to the atmosphere.

It is also through the stomata that thewater which is drawn from the soil by the

roots through the stems is evaporated intothe air.

There is some evaporation of water fromthe stems and branches of plants, but it isseldom more than a thirtieth or a fortiethof the total transpiration. The evaporationof water from the leaves through thebreathing-pores is the so-calledtranspiration, which is the greatest causeof the loss of soil-water under dry farmconditions. It is to the prevention of thistranspiration that much investigationmust be given by future students ofdryfarming.

Transpiration

As water evaporates through thebreathing-pores from the leaves it

necessarily follows that a demand is madeupon the lower portions of the plant formore water. The effect of the loss of water isfelt throughout the whole plant and is,undoubtedly , one of the chief causes of theabsorption of water from the soil. Asevaporation is diminished the amount ofwater that enters the plants is alsodiminished. Yet transpiration appears to bea process wholly necessary for plant life.The question is, simply , to what extent itmay be diminished without injuring plantgrowth. Many students believe that thecarbon assimilation of the plant, which isfundamentally important in plant growth,cannot be continued unless there is asteady stream of water passing throughthe plant and then evaporating from theleaves.

Of one thing we are fairly sure: if theupward stream of water is wholly stopped

for even a few hours, the plant is likely tobe so severely injured as to be greatlyhandicapped in its future growth.

Botanical authorities agree thattranspiration is of value to plant growth,first, because it helps to distribute themineral nutrients necessary for plantgrowth uniformly throughout the plant;secondly , because it permits an activeassimilation of the carbon by the leaves;thirdly , because it is not unlikely that theheat required to evaporate water, in largepart taken from the plant itself, preventsthe plant from being overheated. This lastmentioned value of transpiration isespecially important in dryfarm districts,where, during the summer, the heat isoften intense. Fourthly , transpirationapparently influences plant growth anddevelopment in a number of ways not yetclearly understood.

Conditions influencing transpiration

In general, the conditions that determinethe evaporation of water from the leavesare the same as those that favor the directevaporation of water from soils, althoughthere seems to be something in the lifeprocess of the plant, a physiological factor,which permits or prevents the ordinarywater-dissipating factors from exercisingtheir full powers. That the evaporation ofwater from the soil or from a free watersurface is not the same as that from plantleaves may be shown in a general wayfrom the fact that the amount of watertranspired from a given area of leaf surfacemay be very much larger or very muchsmaller than that evaporated from anequal surface of free water exposed to thesame conditions. It is further shown by the

fact that whereas evaporation from a freewater surface goes on with little or nointerruption throughout the twenty-fourhours of the day , transpiration is v irtuallyat a standstill at night even though theconditions for the rapid evaporation from afree water surface are present.

Some of the conditions influencing thetranspiration may be enumerated asfollows:—

First, transpiration is influenced by therelative humidity . In dry air, underotherwise similar conditions, plantstranspire more water than in moist airthough it is to be noted that even when theatmosphere is fully saturated, so that nowater evaporates from a free watersurface, the transpiration of plants still

continues in a small degree. This isexplained by the observation that since thelife process of a plant produces a certainamount of heat, the plant is alwayswarmer than the surrounding air and thattranspiration into an atmosphere fullycharged with water vapor is consequentlymade possible. The fact that transpirationis greater under a low relative humidity isof greatest importance to the dryfarmerwho has to contend with the dryatmosphere.

Second, transpiration increases with theincrease in temperature; that is, underconditions otherwise the same,transpiration is more rapid on a warm daythan on a cold one. The temperatureincrease of itself, however, is not sufficientto cause transpiration.

Third, transpiration increases with theincrease of air currents, which is to say ,that on a windy day transpiration is muchmore rapid than on a quiet day .

Fourth, transpiration increases with theincrease of direct sunlight. It is aninteresting observation that even with thesame relative humidity , temperature, andwind, transpiration is reduced to aminimum during the night and increasesmanyfold during the day when directsunlight is available. This condition isagain to be noted by the dryfarmer, for thedryfarm districts are characterized by anabundance of sunshine.

Fifth, transpiration is decreased by thepresence in the soil-water of largequantities of the substances which the

plant needs for its food material. This willbe discussed more fully in the next section.

Sixth, any mechanical v ibration of theplant seems to have some effect upon thetranspiration. At times it is increased andat times it is decreased by such mechanicaldisturbance.

Seventh, transpiration varies also with theage of the plant. In the young plant it iscomparatively small. Just before bloomingit is very much larger and in time of bloomit is the largest in the history of the plant.As the plant grows older transpirationdiminishes, and finally at the ripeningstage it almost ceases.

Eighth, transpiration varies greatly with

the crop. Not all plants take water from thesoil at the same rate. Very little is as yetknown about the relative waterrequirements of crops on the basis oftranspiration. As an illustration,MacDougall has reported that sagebrushuses about one fourth as much water as atomato plant.

Even greater differences exist betweenother plants. This is one of the interestingsubjects yet to be investigated by thosewho are engaged in the reclamation ofdryfarm districts. Moreover, the same cropgrown under different conditions varies inits rate of transpiration. For instance,plants grown for some time under aridconditions greatly modify their rate oftranspiration, as shown by Spalding, whoreports that a plant reared under humidconditions gave off 3.7 times as muchwater as the same plant reared under aridconditions. This very interestingobservation tends to confirm the v iew

commonly held that plants grown underarid conditions will gradually adaptthemselves to the prevailing conditions,and in spite of the greater waterdissipating conditions will live with theexpenditure of less water than would be thecase under humid conditions. Further,Sorauer found, many years ago, thatdifferent varieties of the same crop possessvery different rates of transpiration. Thisalso is an interesting subject that should bemore fully investigated in the future.

Ninth, the v igor of growth of a cropappears to have a strong influence ontranspiration. It does not follow, however,that the more v igorously a crop grows, themore rapidly does it transpire water, for itis well known that the most luxuriantplant growth occurs in the tropics, wherethe transpiration is exceedingly low.

It seems to be true that under the sameconditions, plants that grow mostv igorously tend to use proportionately thesmallest amount of water.

Tenth, the root system—its depth andmanner of growth—influences the rate oftranspiration. The more v igorous andextensive the root system, the morerapidly can water be secured from the soilby the plant.

The conditions above enumerated asinfluencing transpiration are nearly all ofa physical character, and it must not beforgotten that they may all be annulled orchanged by a physiological regulation. Itmust be admitted that the subject oftranspiration is yet poorly understood,though it is one of the most important

subjects in its applications to plantproduction in localities where water isscaree. It should also be noted that nearlyall of the above conditions influencingtranspiration are beyond the control of thefarmer. The one that seems most readilycontrolled in ordinary agriculturalpractice will be discussed in the followingsection.

Plant-food and transpiration

It has been observed repeatedly bystudents of transpiration that the amountof water which actually evaporates fromthe leaves is varied materially by thesubstances held in solution by the soil-water. That is, transpiration depends uponthe nature and concentration of soilsolution. This fact, though not commonly

applied even at the present time, hasreally been known for a very long time.Woodward, in 1699, observed that theamount of water transpired by a plantgrowing in rain water was 192.3 grams; inspring water, 163.6 grams, and in waterfrom the River Thames, 159.5

grams; that is, the amount of watertranspired by the plant in thecomparatively pure rain water was nearly20 per cent higher than that used by theplant growing in the notoriously impurewater of the River Thames. Sachs, in 1859,carried on an elaborate series ofexperiments on transpiration in which heshowed that the addition of potassiumnitrate, ammonium sulphate or commonsalt to the solution in which plants grewreduced the transpiration; in fact, thereduction was large, vary ing from 10 to 75per cent. This was confirmed by a numberof later workers, among them, for instance,Buergerstein, who, in 1875, showed that

whenever acids were added to a soil or towater in which plants are growing, thetranspiration is increased greatly ; butwhen alkalies of any kind are added,transpiration decreases. This is of specialinterest in the development of dry farming,since dryfarm soils, as a rule, contain moresubstances that may be classed as alkaliesthan do soils maintained under humidconditions. Sour soils are verycharacteristic of districts where therainfall is abundant; the vegetationgrowing on such soils transpiresexcessively and the crops are consequentlymore subject to drouth.

The investigators of almost a generationago also determined beyond question thatwhenever a complete nutrient solution ispresented to plants, that is, a solutioncontaining all the necessary plant-foods inthe proper proportions, the transpiration is

reduced immensely .

It is not necessary that the plant-foodsshould be presented in a water solution inorder to effect this reduction intranspiration; if they are added to the soilon which plants are growing, the sameeffect will result. The addition ofcommercial fertilizers to the soil willtherefore diminish transpiration. It wasfurther discovered nearly half a centuryago that similar plants growing ondifferent soils evaporate different amountsof water from their leaves; this difference,undoubtedly , is due to the conditions in thefertility of the soils, for the more fertile asoil is, the richer will the soil-water be inthe necessary plant-foods. The principlethat transpiration or the evaporation ofwater from the plants depends on thenature and concentration of the soilsolution is of far-reaching importance inthe development of a rational practice ofdryfarming.

Transpiration for a pound of dry matter Isplant growth proportional totranspiration? Do plants that evaporatemuch water grow more rapidly than thosethat evaporate less? These questions arosevery early in the period characterized byan active study of transpiration. If vary ingthe transpiration varies the growth, therewould be no special advantage in reducingthe transpiration. From an economic pointof v iew the important question is this: Doesthe plant when its rate of transpiration isreduced still grow with the same v igor? Ifthat be the case, then every effort shouldbe made by the farmer to control and todiminish the rate of transpiration.

One of the very earliest experiments ontranspiration, conducted by Woodward in1699, showed that it required less water to

produce a pound of dry matter if the soilsolution were of the proper concentrationand contained the elements necessary forplant growth.

Little more was done to answer the abovequestions for over one hundred and fiftyyears. Perhaps the question was not evenasked during this period, for scientificagriculture was just coming into being incountries where the rainfall wasabundant. However, Tschaplowitz, in1878, investigated the subject and foundthat the increase in dry matter is greatestwhen the transpiration is the smallest.Sorauer, in researches conducted from1880 to 1882, determined with almostabsolute certainty that less water isrequired to produce a pound of dry matterwhen the soil is fertilized than when it isnot fertilized. Moreover, he observed thatthe enriching of the soil solution by theaddition of artificial fertilizers enabled theplant to produce dry matter with less

water. He further found that if a soil isproperly tilled so as to set free plant-foodand in that way to enrich the soil solutionthe water-cost of dry plant substance isdecreased. Hellriegel, in 1883, confirmedthis law and laid down the law that poorplant nutrition increases the water-cost ofevery pound of dry matter produced. Itwas about this time that the RothamstedExperiment Station reported that itsexperiments had shown that duringperiods of drouth the well-tilled and well-fertilized fields y ielded good crops, whilethe unfertilized fields y ielded poor crops orcrop failures—indicating thereby , sincerainfall was the critical factor, that thefertility of the soil is important indetermining whether or not with a smallamount of water a good crop can beproduced. Pagnoul, working in 1895 withfescue grass, arrived at the sameconclusion. On a poor clay soil it required1109 pounds of water to produce one pound

of dry matter, while on a rich calcareoussoil only 574 pounds were required.Gardner of the United States Departmentof Agriculture, Bureau of Soils, working in1908, on the manuring of soils, came tothe conclusion that the more fertile the soilthe less water is required to produce apound of dry matter. He incidentallycalled attention to the fact that incountries of limited rainfall this might be avery important principle to apply in cropproduction. Hopkins in his study of the soilsof Illinois has repeatedly observed, inconnection with certain soils, that wherethe land is kept fertile, injury from drouthis not common, imply ing thereby thatfertile soils will produce dry matter at alower water-cost. The most recentexperiments on this subject, conducted bythe Utah Station, confirm theseconclusions. The experiments, whichcovered several years, were conducted inpots filled with different soils. On a soil,

naturally fertile, 908

pounds of water were transpired for eachpound of dry matter (corn) produced; byadding to this soil an ordinary dressing ofmanure’

this was reduced to 613 pounds, and byadding a small amount of sodium nitrate itwas reduced to 585 pounds. If so large areduction could be secured in practice, itwould seem to justify the use ofcommercial fertilizers in years when thedryfarm year opens with little waterstored in the soil. Similar results, as will beshown below, were obtained by the use ofvarious cultural methods. It maytherefore, be stated as a law, that anycultural treatment which enables the soil-water to acquire larger quantities of plant-food also enables the plant to produce drymatter with the use of a smaller amount ofwater. In dryfarming, where the limitingfactor is water, this principle must he

emphasized in every cultural operation.

Methods of controlling transpiration

It would appear that at present the onlymeans possessed by the farmer forcontrolling transpiration and makingpossible maximum crops with theminimum amount of water in a properlytilled soil is to keep the soil as fertile as ispossible. In the light of this principle thepractices already recommended for thestoring of water and for the prevention ofthe direct evaporation of water from thesoil are again emphasized. Deep andfrequent plowing, preferably in the fall sothat the weathering of the winter may befelt deeply and strongly , is of firstimportance in liberating plant-food.

Cultivation which has been recommendedfor the prevention of the direct evaporationof water is of itself an effective factor insetting free plant-food and thus in reducingthe amount of water required by plants.The experiments at the Utah Station,already referred to, bring out verystrikingly the value of cultivation inreducing the transpiration. For instance,in a series of experiments the followingresults were obtained. On a sandy loam,not cultivated, 603 pounds of water weretranspired to produce one pound of drymatter of corn; on the same soil,cultivated, only 252 pounds wererequired. On a clay loam, not cultivated,535 pounds of water were transpired foreach pound of dry matter, whereas on thecultivated soil only 428 pounds werenecessary . On a clay soil, not cultivated,753 pounds of water were transpired foreach pound of dry matter; on thecultivated soil, only 582 pounds. The

farmer who faithfully cultivates the soilthroughout the summer and after everyrain has therefore the satisfaction ofknowing that he is accomplishing two veryimportant things: he is keeping themoisture in the soil, and he is making itpossible for good crops to be grown withmuch less water than would otherwise berequired. Even in the case of a peculiar soilon which ordinary cultivation did notreduce the direct evaporation, the effectupon the transpiration was very marked.On the soil which was not cultivated, 451pounds of water were required to produceone pound of dry matter (corn), while onthe cultivated soils, though the directevaporation was no smaller, the number ofpounds of water for each pound of drysubstance was as low as 265.

One of the chief values of fallowing lies inthe liberation of the plant-food during the

fallow year, which reduces the quantity ofwater required the next year for the fullgrowth of crops. The Utah experiments towhich reference has already been madeshow the effect of the previous soiltreatment upon the water requirements ofcrops.

One half of the three types of soil had beencropped for three successive years, whilethe other half had been left bare. Duringthe fourth year both halves were plantedto corn. For the sandy loam it was foundthat, on the part that had been croppedpreviously , 659

pounds of water were required for eachpound of dry matter produced, while onthe part that had been bare only 573pounds were required.

For the clay loam 889 pounds on thecropped part and 550 on the previouslybare part were required for each pound of

dry matter. For the clay 7466 pounds onthe cropped part and 1739 pounds on thepreviously bare part were required foreach pound of dry matter.

These results teach clearly andemphatically that the fertile condition ofthe soil induced by fallowing makes itpossible to produce dry matter with asmaller amount of water than can be doneon soils that are cropped continuously . Thebeneficial effects of fallowing are thereforeclearly twofold: to store the moisture of twoseasons for the use of one crop; and to setfree fertility to enable the plant to growwith the least amount of water. It is not yetfully understood what changes occur infallowing to give the soil the fertility whichreduces the water needs of the plant. Theresearches of Atkinson in Montana,Stewart and Graves in Utah, and Jensen inSouth Dakota make it seem probable thatthe formation of nitrates plays animportant part in the whole process. If a

soil is of such a nature that neither careful,deep plowing at the right time norconstant crust cultivation are sufficient toset free an abundance of plant-food, it maybe necessary to apply manures orcommercial fertilizers to the soil. While thequestion of restoring soil fertility has notyet come to be a leading one indryfarming, yet in v iew of what has beensaid in this chapter it is not impossible thatthe time will come when the farmers mustgive primary attention to soil fertility inaddition to the storing and conservation ofsoil-moisture. The fertilizing of lands withproper plant-foods, as shown in the lastsections, tends to check transpiration andmakes possible the production of drymatter at the lowest water-cost.

The recent practice in practically alldry farm districts, at least in theintermountain and far West, to use the

header for harvesting bears directly uponthe subject considered in this chapter. Thehigh stubble which remains containsmuch valuable plant-food, often gatheredmany feet below the surface by the plantroots. When this stubble is plowed underthere is a valuable addition of the plant-food to the upper soil. Further, as thestubble decays, acid substances areproduced that act upon the soil grains toset free the plant-food locked up in them.The plowing under of stubble is therefore ofgreat value to the dryfarmer. The plowingunder of any other organic substance hasthe same effect. In both cases fertility isconcentrated near the surface, whichdissolves in the soil-water and enables thecrop to mature with the Ieast quantity ofwater.

The lesson then to be learned from thischapter is, that it is not aufficient for the

dryfarmer to store an abundance of waterin the soil and to prevent that water fromevaporating directly from the soil; but thesoil must be kept in such a state of highfertility that plants are enabled to utilizethe stored moisture in the most economicalmanner. Water storage, the prevention ofevaporation, and the maintenance of soilfertility go hand in hand in thedevelopment of a successful system offarming without irrigation.

CHAPTER X

PLOWING AND FALLOWING

The soil treatment prescribed in thepreceding chapters rests upon (1) deep andthorough plowing, done preferably in thefall; (2) thorough cultivation to form amulch over the surface of the land, and (3)clean summer fallowing every other yearunder low rainfall or every third or fourthyear under abundant rainfall.

Students of dry farming all agree thatthorough cultivation of the topsoilprevents the evaporation of soil-moisture,but some have questioned the value of deepand fall plowing and the occasional cleansummer fallow. It is the purpose of this

chapter to state the findings of practicalmen with reference to the value of plowingand fallowing in producing large cropyields under dryfarm conditions.

It will be shown in Chapter XVIII that thefirst attempts to produce crops withoutirrigation under a limited rainfall weremade independently in many diverseplaces. California, Utah, and the ColumbiaBasin, as far as can now be learned, as wellas the Great Plains area, were allindependent pioneers in the art ofdryfarming. It is a most significant factthat these diverse localities, operatingunder different conditions as to soil andclimate, have developed practically thesame system of dry farming.

In all these places the best dry farmerspractice deep plowing wherever the subsoilwill permit it; fall plowing wherever the

climate will permit it; the sowing of fallgrain wherever the winters will permit it,and the clean summer fallow every otheryear, or every third or fourth year. H. W.Campbell, who has been the leadingexponent of dry farming in the Great Plainsarea, began his work without the cleansummer fallow as a part of his system, buthas long since adopted it for that section ofthe country . It is scarcely to be believedthat these practices, developed laboriouslythrough a long succession of years inwidely separated localities, do not restupon correct scientific principles. In anycase, the accumulated experience of thedryfarmers in this country confirms thedoctrines of soil tillage for dry farms laiddown in the preceding chapters.

At the DryFarming Congresses largenumbers of practical farmers assemble forthe purpose of exchanging experiences and

views. The reports of the Congress show agreat difference of opinion on minormatters and a wonderful unanimity ofopinion on the more fundamentalquestions. For instance, deep plowing wasrecommended by all who touched upon thesubject in their remarks; though onefarmer, who lived in a locality the subsoilof which was very inert, recommendedthat the depth of plowing should beincreased gradually until the full depth isreached, to avoid a succession of poor cropyears while the lifeless soil was beingviv ified. The states of Utah, Montana,Wyoming, South Dakota, Colorado, Kansas,Nebraska, and the provinces of Alberta andSaskatchewan of Canada all specificallydeclared through one to eightrepresentatives from each state in favor ofdeep plowing as a fundamental practice indryfarming. Fall plowing, wherever theclimatic conditions make it possible, wassimilarly advocated by all the speakers.

Farmers in certain localities had found thesoil so dry in the fall that plowing wasdifficult, but Campbell insisted that evenin such places it would be profitable to usepower enough to break up the land beforethe winter season set in. Numerousspeakers from the states of Utah,Wyoming, Montana, Nebraska, and anumber of the Great Plains states, as wellas from the Chinese Empire, declaredthemselves as favoring fall plowing.Scareely a dissenting voice was raised.

In the discussion of the clean summerfallow as a v ital principle of dry farming aslight difference of opinion was discovered.Farmers from some of the localities insistedthat the clean summer fallow every otheryear was indispensable; others that one inthree years was sufficient; and others onein four years, and a few doubtful thewisdom of it altogether. However, all the

speakers agreed that clean and thoroughcultivation should be practiced faithfullyduring the spring, and fall of the fallowyear. The appreciation of the fact thatweeds consume precious moisture andfertility seemed to be general among thedryfarmers from all sections of thecountry . The following states, provinces,and countries declared themselves as beingdefinitely and emphatically in favor ofclean summer fallowing:

California, Utah, Nevada, Washington,Montana, Idaho, Colorado, New Mexico,North Dakota, Nebraska, Alberta,Saskatchewan, Russia, Turkey , theTransvaal, Brazil, and Australia. Each ofthese many districts was represented byone to ten or more representatives. Theonly state to declare somewhat v igorouslyagainst it was from the Great Plains area,and a warning voice was heard from the

United States Department of Agriculture.The recorded practical experience of thefarmers over the whole of the dryfarmterritory of the United States leads to theconviction that fallowing must he acceptedas a practice which resulted in successfuldryfarming.

Further, the experimental leaders in thedryfarm movement, whether workingunder private, state, or governmentaldirection, are, with very few exceptions,strongly in favor of deep fall plowing andclean summer fallowing as parts of thedryfarm system.

The chief reluctance to accept cleansummer fallowing as a principle ofdryfarming appears chicfly amongstudents of the Great Plains area. Eventhere it is admitted by all that a wheatcrop following a fallow year is larger and

better than one following wheat. Thereseem, however, to be two serious reasonsfor objecting to it. First, a fear that a cleansummer fallow, practiced every second,third, or fourth year, will cause a largediminution of the organic matter in thesoil, resulting finally in complete cropfailure; and second, a belief that a hoedcrop, like corn or potatoes, exerts the samebeneficial effect.

It is undoubtedly true that the thoroughtillage involved in dryfarming exposes tothe action of the elements the organicmatter of the soil and thereby favors rapidoxidation. For that reason the differentways in which organic matter may besupplied regularly to dryfarms are pointedout in Chapter XIV. It may also be observedthat the header harvesting systememployed over a large part of the dryfarmterritory leaves the large header stubble to

be plowed under, and it is probable thatunder such methods more organic matteris added to the soil during the year ofcropping than is lost during the year offallowing. It may, moreover, be observedthat thorough tillage of a crop like corn orpotatoes tends to cause a loss of the organicmatter of the soil to a degree nearly aslarge as is the case when a fallow field iswell cultivated. The thorough stirring ofthe soil under an arid or semiarid climate,which is an essential feature ofdryfarming, will always result in adecrease in organic matter. It matterslittle whether the soil is fallow or in cropduring the process of cultivation, so far asthe result is concerned.

A serious matter connected with fallowingin the Great Plains area is the blowing ofthe loose well-tilled soil of the fallow fields,which results from the heavy winds that

blow so steadily over a large part of thewestern slope of the Mississippi Valley . Thisis largely avoided when crops are grown onthe land, even when it is well tilled.

The theory , recently proposed, that in theGreat Plains area, where the rains comechicfly in summer, the growing of hoedcrops may take the place of the summerfallow, is said to be based on experimentaldata not yet published. Careful andconscientious experimenters, as Chilcottand his co-laborers, indicate in theirstatements that in many cases the y ields ofwheat, after a hoed crop, have been largerthan after a fallow year. The doctrine has,therefore, been rather widely disseminatedthat fallowing has no place in thedryfarming of the Great Plains area andshould be replaced by the growing of hoedcrops. Chilcott, who is the chief exponent ofthis doctrine, declares, however, that it is

only with spring-grown crops and for asuccession of normal years that fallowingmay be omitted, and that fallowing mustbe resorted to as a safeguard or temporaryexpedient to guard against total loss of cropwhere extreme drouth is anticipated; thatis, where the rainfall falls below theaverage. He further explains thatcontinuous grain cropping, even withcareful plowing and spring and fall tillage,is unsuccessful; but holds that certainrotations of crops, including grain and ahoed crop every other year, are often moreprofitable than grain alternating withclean summer fallow. He further believesthat the fallow year every third or fourthyear is sufficient for Great Plainsconditions.

Jardine explains that whenever fall grainis grown in the Great Plains area, thefallow is remarkably helpful, and in factbecause of the dry winters is practicallyindispensable.

This latter v iew is confirmed by theexperimental results obtained by Atkinsonand others at the Montana ExperimentStations, which are conducted underapproximately Great Plains conditions.

It should be mentioned also that inSaskatchewan, in the north end of theGreat Plains area, and which ischaracteristic, except for a lower annualtemperature, of the whole area, and wheredryfarming has been practiced for aquarter of a century , the clean summerfallow has come to be an establishedpractice.

This recent discussion of the place offallowing in the agriculture of the Great

Plains area illustrates what has been saidso often in this volume about the adaptingof principles to local conditions.

Wherever the summer rainfall is sufficientto mature a crop, fallowing for the purposeof storing moisture in the soil isunnecessary ; the only value of the fallowyear under such conditions would be to setfree fertility . In the Great Plains area therainfall is somewhat higher thanelsewhere in the dryfarm territory andmost of it comes in summer; and thesummer precipitation is probably enoughin average years to mature crops,providing soil conditions are favorable. Themain considerations, then, are to keep thesoils open for the reception of water and tomaintain the soils in a sufficiently fertilecondition to produce, as explained inChapter IX, plants with a minimumamount of water. This is accomplishedvery largely by the year of hoed crop,when the soil is as well stirred as under a

clean fallow.

The dryfarmer must never forget that thecritical element in dryfarming is waterand that the annual rainfall will in thevery nature of things vary from year toyear, with the result that the dry year, orthe year with a precipitation below theaverage, is sure to come. In somewhat wetyears the moisture stored in the soil is ofcomparatively little consequence, but in ayear of drouth it will be the maindependence of the farmer. Now, whether acrop be hoed or not, it requires water for itsgrowth, and land which is continuouslycropped even with a variety of crops islikely to be so largely depleted of itsmoisture that, when the year of drouthcomes, failure will probably result.

The precariousness of dry farming must bedone away with. The year of drouth mustbe expected every year. Only as certaintyof crop y ield is assured will dry farming riseto a respected place by the side of otherbranches of agriculture. To attain suchcertainty and respect clean summerfallowing every second, third, or fourthyear, according to the average rainfall, isprobably indispensable; and futureinvestigations, long enough continued, willdoubtless confirm this prediction.Undoubtedly , a rotation of crops, includinghoed crops, will find an important place indryfarming, but probably not to thecomplete exclusion of the clean summerfallow.

Jethro Tull, two hundred years ago,discovered that thorough tillage of the soilgave crops that in some cases could not beproduced by the addition of manure, and

he came to the erroneous conclusion that“tillage is manure.” In recent days wehave learned the value of tillage inconserving moisture and in enablingplants to reach maturity with the leastamount of water, and we may be temptedto believe that “tillage is moisture.” This,like Tull’s statement, is a fallacy and mustbe avoided. Tillage can take the place ofmoisture only to a limited degree. Water isthe essential consideration in dryfarming,else there would be no dryfarming.

CHAPTER XI

SOWING AND HARVESTING

The careful application of the principles ofsoil treatment discussed in the precedingchapters will leave the soil in goodcondition for sowing, either in the fall orspring. Nevertheless, though properdryfarming insures a first-class seed-bed,the problem of sowing is one of the mostdifficult in the successful production ofcrops without irrigation. This is chiefly dueto the difficulty of choosing, undersomewhat rainless conditions, a time forsowing that will insure rapid and completegermination and the establishmcnt of aroot system capable of producing goodplants. In some respects fewer definite,reliable principles can be laid downconcerning sowing than any other

principle of important application in thepractice of dry farming. The experience ofthe last fifteen years has taught that theoccasional failures to which even gooddryfarmers have been subjected have beencaused almost wholly by uncontrollableunfavorable conditions prevailing at thetime of sowing.

Conditions of germination

Three conditions determine germination:(1) heat, (2) oxygen, and (3) water. Unlessthese three conditions are all favorable,seeds cannot germinate properly . The firstrequisite for successful seed germination isa proper degree of heat. For every kind ofseed there is a temperature below whichgermination does not occur; another,above which it does not occur, and

another, the best, at which, providing theother factors are favorable, germinationwill go on most rapidly . The followingtable, constructed by Goodale, shows thelatest, highest, and best germinationtemperatures for wheat, barley , and corn.Other seeds germinate approximatelywithin the same ranges of temperature:—

Germination Temperatures (DegreesFarenheit) Lowest Highest Best

Wheat 41 108 84

Barley 41 100 84

Corn 49 115 91

Germination occurs within theconsiderable range between the highestand lowest temperatures of this table,

though the rapidity of germinationdecreases as the temperature recedes fromthe best. This explains the early spring andlate fall germination when thetemperature is comparatively low. If thetemperature falls below the lowestrequired for germination, dry seeds are notinjured, and even a temperature far belowthe freezing point of water will not affectseeds unfavorably if they are not too moist.The warmth of the soil, essential togermination, cannot well be controlled bythe farmer; and planting must, therefore,be done in seasons when, from pastexperience, it is probable that thetemperature is and will remain in theneighborhood of the best degree forgermination. More heat is required to raisethe temperature of wet soils; therefore,seeds will generally germinate more slowlyin wet than in dry soils, as is illustrated inthe rapid germination often observed inwell-tilled dryfarm soils. Consequently , it

is safer at a low temperature to sow in drysoils than in wet ones. Dark soils absorbheat more rapidly than lighter coloredones, and under the same conditions oftemperature germination is thereforemore likely to go on rapidly in dark coloredsoils. Over the dryfarm territory the soilsare generally light colored, which wouldtend to delay germination. Theincorporation of organic matter with thesoil, which tends to darken the soil, has aslight though important bearing ongermination as well as on the generalfertility of the soil, and should be made animportant dryfarm practice. Meanwhile,the temperature of the soil depends almostwholly upon the prevailing temperatureconditions in the district and is not to anymaterial degree under the control of thefarmer.

A sufficient supply of oxygen in the soil is

indispensable to germination. Oxygen, asis well known, forms about one fifth of theatmosphere and is the active principle incombustion and in tile changes in theanimal body occasioned by respiration.Oxygen should be present in the soil air inapproximately the proportion in which it isfound in the atmosphere. Germination ishindered by a larger or smaller proportionthan is found in the atmosphere. The soilmust be in such a condition that the aircan easily enter or leave the upper soillayer; that is, the soil must be somewhatloose. In order that the seeds may haveaccess to the necessary oxygen, then,sowing should not be done in wet or packedsoils, nor should the sowing implements besuch as to press the soil too closely aroundthe seeds. Well-fallowed soil is in an idealcondition for admitting oxygen.

If the temperature is right, germination

begins by the forcible absorption of waterby the seed from the surrounding soil. Theforce of this absorption is very great,ranging from four hundred to five hundredpounds per square inch, and continuesuntil the seed is completely saturated. Thegreat v igor with which water is thusabsorbed from the soil explains how seedsare able to secure the necessary water fromthe thin water film surrounding the soilgrains. The following table, based uponnumerous investigations conducted inGermany and in Utah, shows themaximum percentages of water containedby seeds when the absorption is complete.These quantities are reached only whenwater is easily accessible:—

Percentage of Water contained by Seeds atSaturation German Utah

Rye 58 —

Wheat 57 52

Oats 58 43

Barley 56 44

Corn 44 57

Beans 95 88

Lucern 78 67

Germination itself does not go on freelyuntil this maximum saturation has beenreached. Therefore, if the moisture in thesoil is low, the absorption of water is madedifficult and germination is retarded. Thisshows itself in a decreased percentage ofgermination. The effect upon germinationof the percentage of water in the soil is wellshown by some of the Utah experiments, asfollows:—

Effect of Vary ing Amounts of Water onPercentage of Germination Percent waterin soil 7 .5 10 12.5 15 17 .5 20 22.5 25

Wheat in sandy loam 0.0 98 94 86 82 8282 6

Wheat in clay 30 48 84 94 84 82 86 58

Beans in sandy loam 0 0 20 46 66 18 8 9

Beans in clay 0 0 6 20 22 32 30 36

Lucern in Sandy loam 0 18 68 54 54 8 8 9

Lucern in clay 8 8 54 48 50 32 15 14

In a sandy soil a small percentage of waterwill cause better germination than in aclay soil. While different seeds vary intheir power to abstract water from soils,

yet it seems that for the majority of plants,the best percentage of soil-water forgermination purposes is that which is inthe neighborhood of the maximum fieldcapacity of soils for water, as explained inChapter VII. Bogdanoff has estimated thatthe best amount of water in the soil forgermination purposes is about twice themaximum percentage of hygroscopicwater. This would not be far from the field-water capacity as described in thepreceding chapter.

During the absorption of water, seeds swellconsiderably , in many cases from two tothree times their normal size. This has thevery desirable effect of crowding the seedwalls against the soil particles and thus, byestablishing more points of contact,enabling the seed to absorb moisture withgreater facility . As seeds begin to absorbwater, heat is also produced. In many cases

the temperature surrounding the seeds isincreased one degree on the Centigradescale by the mere process of waterabsorption. This favors rapid germination.Moreover, the fertility of the soil has adirect influence upon germination. Infertile soils the germination is more rapidand more complete than in infertile soils.Especially active in favoring directgermination are the nitrates. When it isrecalled that the constant cultivation andwell-kept summer fallow of dry farmingdevelop large quantities of nitrates in thesoil, it will be understood that the methodsof dry farming as already outlinedaccelerate germination very greatly .

It scareely need be said that the soil of theseed-bed should be fine, mellow, anduniform in physical texture so that theseeds can be planted evenly and in closecontact with the soil particles. All the

requisite conditions for germination arebest met by the conditions prevailing in awell-kept summer fallowed soil.

Time to sow

In the consideration of the time to sow, thefirst question to be disposed of by thedryfarmer is that of fall as against springsowing. The small grains occur as fall andspring varieties, and it is v itally importantto determine which season, under dryfarmconditions, is the best for sowing.

The advantages of fall sowing are many.As stated, successful germination isfavored by the presence of an abundance offertility , especially of nitrates, in the soil.In summer-fallowed land nitrates are

always found in abundance in the fall,ready to stimulate the seed into rapidgermination and the young plants intovigorous growth. During the late fall andwinter months the nitrates disappear, atleast in part, anti from the point of v iew offertility the spring is not so desirable as thefall for germination. More important,grain sown in the fall under favorableconditions will establish a good root systemwhich is ready for use and in action in theearly spring as soon as the temperature isright and long before the farmer can go outon the ground with his implements. As aresult, the crop has the use of the earlyspring moisture, which under theconditions of spring sowing is evaporatedinto the air. Where the naturalprecipitation is light and the amount ofwater stored in the soil is not large, thegain resulting from the use of the earlyspring moisture. often decides the questionin favor of fall sowing.

The disadvantages of fall sowing are alsomany. The uncertainty of the fall rainsmust first be considered. In ordinarypractice, seed sown in the fall does notgerminate until a rain comes, unlessindeed sowing is done immediately after arain. The fall rains are uncertain as toquantity . In many cases they are so lightthat they suffice only to start germinationand not to complete it and give the plantsthe proper start. Such incompletegermination frequently causes the totalloss of the crop. Even if the stand of the fallcrop is satisfactory , there is always thedanger of winter-killing to be reckonedwith. The real cause of winter-killing is notyet clearly understood, though it seemsthat repeated thawing and freezing,dry ing winter winds, accompanied by drycold or protracted periods of intense cold,destroy the v itality of the seed and youngroot system. Continuous but moderate cold

is not ordinarily very injurious. Theliability to winter-killing is, therefore,very much greater wherever the wintersare open than in places where the snowcovers the ground the larger part of thewinter. It is also to be kept in mind thatsome varieties are very resistant to winter-killing, while others require well-coveredwinters. Fall sowing is preferable whereverthe bulk of the precipitation comes inwinter and spring and where the wintersare covered for some time with snow andthe summers are dry . Under suchconditions it is very important that thecrop make use of the moisture stored in thesoil in the early spring. Wherever theprecipitation comes largely in late springand summer, the arguments in favor offall sowing are not so strong, and in suchlocalities spring sowing is often moredesirable than fall sowing. In the GreatPlains district, therefore, spring sowing isusually recommended, though fall-sown

crops nearly always, even there, y ield thelarger crops. In the intermountain states,with wet winters and dry summers, fallsowing has almost wholly replaced springsowing. In fact, Farrell reports that uponthe Nephi (Utah) substation the average ofsix years shows about twenty bushels ofwheat from fall-sown seed as against aboutthirteen bushels from spring-sown seed.Under the California climate, with wetwinters and a winter temperature highenough for plant growth, fall sowing is alsoa general practice. Wherever theconditions are favorable, fall sowing shouldbe practiced, for it is in harmony with thebest principles of water conservation. Evenin districts where the precipitation comeschiefly in the summer, it may be foundthat fall sowing, after all, is preferable.

The right time to sow in the fall can befixed only with great difficulty , for so

much depends upon the climaticconditions. In fact the practice varies inaccordance with differences in fallprecipitation and early fall frosts. Wherenumerous fall rains maintain the soil in afairly moist condition and the temperatureis not too low, the problem iscomparatively simple. In such districts, forlatitudes represented by the dryfarmsections of the United States, a good timefor fall planting is ordinarily from the firstof September to the middle of October. Ifsown much earlier in such districts, thegrowth is likely to be too rank and subjectto dangerous injury by frosts, and assuggested by Farrell the very largedevelopment of the root system in the fallmay cause, the following summer, adangerously large growth of foliage; thatis, the crop may run to straw at theexpense of the grain. If sown much later,the chances are that the crop will notpossess sufficient v itality to withstand the

cold of late fall and winter. In localitieswhere the late summer and the early fallare rainless, it is much more difficult to laydown a definite rule covering the time offall sowing. The dryfarmers in such placesusually sow at any convenient time in thehope that an early rain will start theprocess of germination and growth. Inother cases planting is delayed until thearrival of the first fall rain. This is ancertain and usually unsatisfactorypractice, since it often happens that thesowing is delayed until too late in the fallfor the best results.

In districts of dry late summer and fall, thegreatest danger in depending upon the fallrains for germination lies in the fact thatthe precipitation is often so small that itinitiates germination without beingsufficient to complete it. This means thatwhen the seed is well started in

germination, the moisture gives out. Whenanother slight rain comes a little later,germination is again started and possiblyagain stopped. In some seasons this mayoccur several times, to the permanentinjury of the crop. Dryfarmers try toprovide against this danger by using anunusually large amount of seed, assumingthat a certain amount will fail to come upbecause of the repeated partialgerminations. A number of investigatorshave demonstrated that a seed may startto germinate, then be dried, and again bestarted to germinate several times insuccession without wholly destroy ing thevitality of the seed.

In these experiments wheat and other seedswere allowed to germinate and dry seventimes in succession. With each partialgermination the percentage of totalgermination decreased until at the seventh

germination only a few seeds of wheat,barley , and oats retained their power.This, however, is practically the conditionin dryfarm districts with rainless summersand falls, where fall seeding is practiced. Insuch localities little dependence should beplaced on the fall rains and greaterreliance placed on a method of soiltreatment that will insure goodgermination. For this purpose the summerfallow has been demonstrated to be themost desirable practice. If the soil has beentreated according to the principles laiddown in earlier chapters, the fallowed landwill, in the fall, contain a sufficientamount of moisture to produce completegermination though no rains may fall.Under such conditions the mainconsideration is to plant the seed so deepthat it may draw freely upon the storedsoil-moisture. This method makes fallgermination sure in districts where thenatural precipitation is not to be depended

upon.

When sowing is done in the spring, thereare few factors to consider. Whenever thetemperature is right and the soil has driedout sufficiently so that agriculturalimplements may be used properly , it isusually safe to begin sowing. The customswhich prevail generally with regard to thetime of spring sowing may be adopted indryfarm practices also.

Depth of seeding

The depth to which seed should be plantedin the soil is of importance in a system ofdryfarming. The reserve materials in seedsare used to produce the first roots and theyoung plants. No new nutriment beyond

that stored in the soil can be obtained bythe plant until the leaves are above theground able to gather Carleton from theatmosphere. The danger of deep plantinglies, therefore, in exhausting the reservematerials of the seeds before the plant hasbeen able to push its leaves above theground. Should this occur, the plant willprobably die in the soil. On the other hand,if the seed is not planted deeply enough, itmay happen that the roots cannot be sentdown far enough to connect with the soil-water reservoir below. Then, the rootsystem will not be strong and deep, but willhave to depend for its development uponthe surface water, which is always adangerous practice in dryfarming. Therule as to the depth of seeding is simply :Plant as deeply as is safe. The depth towhich seeds may be safely placed dependsupon the nature of the soil, its fertility , itsphysical condition, and the water that itcontains. In sandy soils, planting may be

deeper than in clay soils, for it requires lessenergy for a plant to push roots, stems, andleaves through the loose sandy soil thanthrough the more compact clay soil; in adry soil planting may be deeper than inwet soils; likewise, deep planting is safer ina loose soil than in one firmly compacted;finally , where the moist soil is considerabledistance below the surface, deeper plantingmay be practiced than when the moist soilis near the surface. Countless experimentshave been conducted on the subject ofdepth of seeding. In a few cases, ordinaryagricultural seeds planted eight inchesdeep have come up and producedsatisfactory plants. However, theconsensus of opinion is that from one tothree inches are best in humid districts,but that, everything considered, fourinches is the best depth under dryfarmconditions. Under a low naturalprecipitation, where the methods ofdryfarming are practiced, it is always safe

to plant deeply , for such a practice willdevelop and strengthen the root system,which is one big step toward successfuldryfarming.

Quantity to sow

Numerous dryfarm failures may becharged wholly to ignorance concerningthe quantity of seed to sow. In no otherpractice has the custom of humid countriesbeen followed more religiously bydryfarmers, and failure has nearly alwaysresulted. The discussions in this volumehave brought out the fact that every plantof whatever character requires a largeamount of water for its growth.

From the first day of its growth to the dayof its maturity , large amounts of water are

taken from the soil through the plant andevaporated into the air through the leaves.When the large quantities of seed employedin humid countries have been sown on drylands, the result has usually been anexcellent stand early in the season, with acrop splendid in appearance up to earlysummer. .A luxuriant spring crop reduces,however, the water content of the soil sogreatly that when the heat of the summerarrives, there is not sufficient water left inthe soil to support the final developmentand ripening. A thick stand in early springis no assurance to the dryfarmer of a goodharvest. On the contrary , it is usually thefield with a thin stand in spring thatstands up best through the summer andyields most at the time of harvest. Thequantity of seed sown should vary with thesoil conditions: the more fertile the soil is,the more seed may be used; the more waterin the soil, the more seed may be sown; asthe fertility or the water content

diminishes, the amount of seed shouldlikewise be diminished. Under dryfarmconditions the fertility is good, but themoisture is low. As a general principle,therefore, light seeding should be practicedon dryfarms, though it should be sufficientto y ield a crop that will shade the groundwell. If the sowing is done early , in fall orspring, less seed may be used than if thesowing is late, because the early sowinggives a better chance for root development,which results, ordinarily , in more v igorousplants that consume more moisture thanthe smaller and weaker plants of latersowing. If the winters are mild and wellcovered with snow, less seed may be usedthan in districts where severe or openwinters cause a certain amount of winter-killing. On a good seed-bed of fallowed soilless seed may be used than where the soilhas not been carefully tilled and issomewhat rough and lumpy andunfavorable for complete germination. The

y ield of any crop is not directlyproportional to the amount sown, unless allfactors contributing to germination arealike. In the case of wheat and othergrains, thin seeding also gives a plant abetter chance for stooling, which isNature’s method of adapting the plant tothe prevailing moisture and fertilityconditions. When plants are crowded,stooling cannot occur to any markeddegree, and the crop is rendered helpless inattempts to adapt itself to surroundingconditions.

In general the rule may be laid down thata little more than one half as much seedshould be used in dryfarm districts with anannual rainfall of about fifteen inches thanis used in humid districts. That is, asagainst the customary five pecks of wheatused per acre in humid countries aboutthree pecks or even two pecks should be

used on dryfarms. Merrill recommends theseeding of oats at the rate of about threepecks per acre; of barley , about threepecks; of rye, two pecks; of alfalfa, sixpounds; of corn, two kernels to the hill, andother crops in the same proportion. Noinvariable rule can be laid down for perfectgermination. A small quantity of seed isusually sufficient; but where germinationfrequently fails in part, more seed must beused. If the stand is too thick at thebeginning of the growing season, it must beharrowed out. Naturally , the quantity ofseed to be used should be based on thenumber of kernels as well as on the weight.For instance, since the larger theindiv idual wheat kernels the fewer in abushel, fewer plants would be producedfrom a bushel of large than from a bushelof small seed wheat. The size of the seed indetermining the amount for sowing is oftenimportant and should be determined bysome simple method, such as counting the

seeds required to fill a small bottle.

Method of sowing

There should really be no need ofdiscussing the method of sowing were it notthat even at this day there are farmers inthe dryfarm district who sow bybroadcasting and insist upon thesuperiority of this method. Thebroadcasting of seed has no place in anysystem of scientific agriculture, least of allin dryfarming, where success dependsupon the degree with which all conditionsare controlled. In all good dryfarm practiceseed should be placed in rows, preferablyby means of one of the numerous forms ofdrill seeders found upon the market. Theadvantages of the drill are almost self-ev ident. It permits uniform distribution of

the seed, which is indispensable for successon soils that receive limited rainfall. Theseed may be placed at an even depth,which is very necessary , especially in fallsowing, where the seed depends for propergermination upon the moisture alreadystored in the soil. The deep seeding oftennecessary under dryfarm conditions makesthe drill indispensable.

Moreover, Hunt has explained that thedrill furrows themselves have definiteadvantages. During the winter the furrowscatch the snow, and because of theprotection thus rendered, the seed is lesslikely to be heaved out by repeated freezingand thawing. The drill furrow also protectsto a certain extent against the dry ingaction of winds and in that way , thoughthe furrows are small, they aid materiallyin enabling the young plant to passthrough the winter successfully .

The rains of fall and spring are

accumulated in the furrows and madeeasily accessible to plants. Moreover, manyof the drills have attachments whereby thesoil is pressed around the seed and thetopsoil afterwards stirred to preventevaporation. This permits of a much morerapid and complete germination. The drill,the advantages of which were taught twohundred years ago by Jethro Tull, is one ofthe most valuable implements of modernagriculture. On dryfarms it isindispensable. The dryfarmer should makea careful study of the drills on the marketand choose such as comply with theprinciples of the successful prosecution ofdryfarming. Drill culture is the onlymethod of sowing that can be permitted ifuniform success is desired.

The care of the crop

Excepting the special treatment for soil-moisture conservation, dry farm cropsshould receive the treatment usuallygiven crops growing under humidconditions. The light rains that frequentlyfall in autumn sometimes form a crust onthe top of the soil, which hinders the propergermination and growth of the fall-sowncrop. It may be necessary , therefore, forthe farmer to go over the land in the fallwith a disk or more preferably with acorrugated roller.

Ordinarily , however, after fall sowingthere is no further need of treatment untilthe following spring. The spring treatmentis of considerably more importance, forwhen the warmth of spring and earlysummer begins to make itself felt, a crustforms over many kinds of dry farm soils.This is especially true where the soil is ofthe distinctively arid kind and poor in

organic matter. Such a crust should bebroken early in order to give the youngplants a chance to develop freely . This maybe accomplished, as above stated, by theuse of a disk, corrugated roller, or ordinarysmoothing harrow.

When the young grain is well under way ,it may be found to be too thick. If so, thecrop may be thinned by going over thefield with a good irontooth harrow with theteeth so set as to tear out a portion of theplants. This treatment may enable theremaining plants to mature with thelimited amount of moisture in the soil.

Paradoxically , if the crop seems to be toothin in the spring, harrowing may also beof serv ice. In such a case the teeth shouldbe slanted backwards and the harrowingdone simply for the purpose of stirring thesoil without injury to the plant, to

conserve the moisture stored in the soil andto accelerate the formation of nitrates.—The conserved moisture and added fertilitywill strengthen the growth and diminishthe water requirements of the plants, andthus y ield a larger crop. The irontoothharrow is a very useful implement on thedryfarm when the crops are young.

After the plants are up so high that theharrow cannot be used on them no specialcare need be given them, unless indeedthey are cultivated crops like corn orpotatoes which, of course, as explained inprevious chapters, should receivecontinual cultivation.

Harvesting

The methods of harvesting crops on

dryfarms are practically those for farms inhumid districts. The one great exceptionmay be the use of the header on the grainfarms of the dryfarm sections. The headerhas now become well-nigh general in itsuse. Instead of cutting and binding thegrain, as in the old method, the heads aresimply cut off and piled in large stackswhich later are threshed.

The high straw which remains is plowedunder in the fall and helps to supply thesoil with organic matter. The maintenanceof dry farms for over a generation withoutthe addition of manures has been madepossible by the organic matter added to thesoil in the decay of the high v igorous strawremaining after the header. In fact, thechanges occurring in the soil in connectionwith the decay ing of the header stubbleappear to have actually increased theavailable fertility .

Hundreds of Utah dry wheat farms during

the last ten or twelve years have increasedin fertility , or at least in productive power,due undoubtedly to the introduction of theheader system of harvesting.

This system of harvesting also makes thepractice of fallowing much more effective,for it helps maintain the organic matterwhich is drawn upon by the fallow seasons.The header should be used whereverpracticable. The fear has been expressedthat the high header straw plowed underwill make the soil so loose as to renderproper sowing difficult and also, because ofthe easy circulation of air in the upper soillayers, cause a large loss of soil-moisture.This fear has been found to be groundless,for wherever the header straw has beenplowed under; especially in connectionwith fallowing, the soil has been benefited.

Rapidity and economy in harvesting are

vital factors in dryfarming, and newdevices are constantly being offered toexpedite the work.

Of recent years the combined harvesterand thresher has come into general use. Itis a large header combined with anordinary threshing machine. The grain isheaded and threshed in one operation andthe sacks dropped along the path of themachine. The straw is scattered over thefield where it belongs.

All in all, the question of sowing, care ofcrop, and harvesting may be answered bythe methods that have been so welldeveloped in countries of abundantrainfall, except as new methods may berequired to offset the deficiency in therainfall which is the determining conditionof dry farming.

CHAPTER XII

CROPS FOR DRYFARMING

The work of the dryfarmer is only halfdone when the soil has been properlyprepared, by deep plowing, cultivation,fallowing, for the planting of the crop. Thechoice of the crop, its proper seeding, andits correct care and harvesting are asimportant as rational soil treatment in thesuccessful pursuit of dry farming. It is truethat in general the kinds of cropsordinarily cultivated in humid regions aregrown also on arid lands, but varietiesespecially adapted to the prevailingdryfarm conditions must be used if anycertainty of harvest is desired. Plantspossess a marvelous power of adaptation toenvironment, and this power becomesstronger as successive generations of plants

are grown under the given conditions.Thus, plants which have been grown forlong periods of time in countries ofabundant rainfall and characteristichumid climate and soil y ield well undersuch conditions, but usually suffer and dieor at best y ield scantily if planted in hotrainless countries with deep soils. Yet, suchplants, if grown year after year under aridconditions, become accustomed to warmthand dryness and in time will y ield perhapsnearly as well or it may be better in theirnew surroundings. The dryfarmer wholooks for large harvests must use everycare to secure varieties of crops thatthrough generations of breeding havebecome adapted to the conditionsprevailing on his farm. Home-grown seeds,if grown properly , are therefore of thehighest value. In fact, in the districtswhere dry farming has been practicedlongest the best y ielding varieties are, withvery few exceptions, those that have been

grown for many successive years on thesame lands. The comparative newness ofthe attempts to produce profitable crops inthe present dryfarming territory and theconsequent absence of home-grown seedhas rendered it wise to explore otherregions of the world, with similar climaticconditions, but long inhabited, for suitablecrop varieties. The United StatesDepartment of Agriculture hasaccomplished much good work in thisdirection. The breeding of new varieties byscientific methods is also important,though really valuable results cannot beexpected for many years to come. Whenresults do come from breedingexperiments, they will probably be of thegreatest value to the dryfarmer.Meanwhile, it must be acknowledged thatat the present, our knowledge of dry farmcrops is extremely limited. Every year willprobably bring new additions to the listand great improvements of the crops and

varieties now recommended. Theprogressive dryfarmer should thereforekeep in close touch with state andgovernment workers concerning the bestvarieties to use.

Moreover, while the various sections of thedryfarming territory are alike in receiv inga small amount of rainfall, they are widelydifferent in other conditions affecting plantgrowth, such as soils, winds, averagetemperature, and character and severityof the winters. Until trials have been madein all these vary ing localities, it is not safeto make unqualified recommendations ofany crop or crop variety . At the present wecan only say that for dry farm purposes wemust have plants that will produce themaximum quantity of dry matter with theminimum quantity of water; and thattheir periods of growth must be theshortest possible. However, enough work

has been done to establish some generalrules for the guidance of the dry farmer inthe selection of crops. Undoubtedly , wehave as yet had only a glimpse of the vastcrop possibilities of the dryfarmingterritory in the United States, as well as inother countries.

Wheat

Wheat is the leading dryfarm crop. Everyprospect indicates that it will retain itspreëminence. Not only is it the mostgenerally used cereal, but the world israpidly learning to depend more and moreupon the dryfarming areas of the world forwheat production.

In the arid and semiarid regions it is now acommonly accepted doctrine that upon the

expensive irrigated lands should be grownfruits, vegetables, sugar beets, and otherintensive crops, while wheat, corn, andother grains and even much of the forageshould be grown as extensive crops uponthe nonirrigated or dry farm lands.

It is to be hoped that the time is near athand when it will be a rarity to see graingrown upon irrigated soil, providing theclimatic conditions permit the raising ofmore extensive crops.

In v iew of the present and future greatnessof the wheat crop on semiarid lands, it isvery important to secure the varieties thatwill best meet the vary ing dryfarmconditions. Much has been done to this end,but more needs to be done. Our knowledgeof the best wheats is still fragmentary . Thisis even more true of other dryfarm crops.According to Jardine, the dryfarm wheats

grown at present in the United States maybe classificd as follows:—

I. Hard spring wheats:

(a) Common

(b) Durum

II. Winter wheats:

(a) Hard wheats (Crimean)

(b) Semihard wheats (Intermountain)

(c) Soft wheats (Pactfic)

The common varieties of hard springwheats are grown principally in districtswhere winter wheats have not as yet been

successful; that is, in the Dakotas,northwestern Nebraska, and otherlocalities with long winters and periods ofalternate thawing and severe freezing. Thesuperior value of winter wheat has been soclearly demonstrated that attempts arebeing made to develop in every localitywinter wheats that can endure theprevailing climatic conditions. Springwheats are also grown in a scattering wayand in small quantities over the wholedryfarm territory . The two most valuablevarieties of the common hard spring wheatare Blue Stem and Red Fife, both well-established varieties of excellent millingqualities, grown in immense quantities inthe Northeastern corner of the dryfarmterritory of the United States andcommanding the best prices on themarkets of the world. It is notable that RedFife originated in Russia, the countrywhich has given us so many good dryfarmcrops.

The durum wheats or macaroni wheats, asthey are often called, are also springwheats which promise to displace all otherspring varieties because of their excellenty ields under extreme dryfarm conditions.These wheats, though known for morethan a generation through occasionalshipments from Russia, Algeria, and Chile,were introduced to the farmers of theUnited States only in 1900, through theexplorations and enthusiastic advocacy ofCarleton of the United States Departmentof Agriculture. Since that time they havebeen grown in nearly all the dryfarmstates and especially in the Great Plainsarea. Wherever tried they have y ieldedwell, in some cases as much as the oldestablished winter varieties. The extremehardness of these wheats made it difficultto induce the millers operating mills fittedfor grinding softer wheats to accept themfor flourmaking purposes. This prejudice

has, however, gradually vanished, and to-day the durum wheats are in greatdemand, especially for blending with thesofter wheats and for the making ofmacaroni. Recently the popularity of thedurum wheats among the farmers hasbeen enhanced, owing to the discoverythat they are strongly rust resistant.

The winter wheats, as has been repeatedlysuggested in preceding chapters, are mostdesirable for dryfarm purposes, whereverthey can be grown, and especially inlocalities where a fair precipitation occursin the winter and spring. The hard winterwheats are represented mainly by theCrimean group, the chief members ofwhich are Turkey , Kharkow, and Crimean.These wheats also originated in Russia andare said to have been brought to the UnitedStates a generation ago by Mennonitecolonists. At present these wheats are

grown chiefly in the central and southernparts of the Great Plains area and inCanada, though they are rapidlyspreading over the intermountaincountry . These are good milling wheats ofhigh gluten content and y ieldingabundantly under dryfarm conditions. It isquite clear that these wheats will soondisplace the older winter wheats formerlygrown on dryfarms. Turkey wheatpromises to become the leading dryfarmwheat. The semisoft winter wheats aregrown chiefly in the intermountaincountry . They are represented by a verylarge number of varieties, all tendingtoward softness and starchiness. This mayin part be due to climatic, soil, andirrigation conditions, but is more likely aresult of inherent qualities in the varietiesused. They are rapidly being displaced byhard varieties.

The group of soft winter wheats includesnumerous varieties grown extensively inthe famous wheat districts of California,Oregon, Washington, and northern Idaho.The main varieties are Red Russian andPalouse Blue Stem, in Washington andIdaho, Red Chaff and Foise in Oregon, andDefiance, Little Club, Sonora, and WhiteAustralian in California. These are all soft,white, and rather poor in gluten.

It is believed that under given climatic,soil, and cultural conditions, all wheatvarieties will approach one type,distinctive of the conditions in question,and that the California wheat type is aresult of prevailing unchangeableconditions. More researeh is needed,however, before definite principles can belaid down concerning the formation ofdistinctive wheat types in the variousdryfarm sections. Under any condition, achange of seed, keeping improvementalways in v iew, should be baneficial.

Jardine has reminded the dryfarmers ofthe United States that before theproduction of wheat on the dryfarms canreach its full possibilities under anyacreage, sufficient quantities must begrown of a few varieties to affect the largemarkets. This is especially important inthe intermountain country where nouniformity exists, but the warning shouldbe heeded also by the Pacific coast andGreat Plains wheat areas. As soon as thebest varieties are found they shoulddisplace the miscellaneous collection ofwheat varieties now grown. The indiv idualfarmer can be a law unto himself no morein wheat growing than in fruit growing, ifhe desires to reap the largest reward of hisefforts. Only by uniformity of kind andquality and large production will any onelocality impress itself upon the marketsand create a demand. The changes now inprogress by the dryfarmers of the United

States indicate that this lesson has beentaken to heart. The principle is equallyimportant for all countries wheredryfarming is practiced.

Other small grains

Oats is undoubtedly a coming dryfarmcrop. Several varieties have been foundwhich y ield well on lands that receive anaverage annual rainfall of less than fifteeninches. Others will no doubt be discoveredor developed as special attention is given todryfarm oats. Oats occurs as spring andwinter varieties, but only one wintervariety has as yet found place in the list ofdryfarm crops.

The leading; spring varieties of oats are theSixty-Day , Kherson, Burt, and Swedish

Select. The one winter variety , which isgrown chiefly in Utah, is the Boswell, ablack variety originally brought fromEngland about 1901.

Barley, like the other common grains,occurs in varieties that grow well ondryfarms. In comparison with wheat verylittle seareh has been made for dryfarmbarleys, and, naturally , the list of testedvarieties is very small. Like wheat andoats, barley occurs in spring and wintervarieties, but as in the case of oats only onewinter variety has as yet found its wayinto the approved list of dry farm crops.The best dry farm spring barleys are thosebelonging to the beardless and hull-lesstypes, though the more common varietiesalso y ield well, especially the six-rowedbeardless barley . The winter variety is theTennessee Winter, which is already welldistributed over the Great Plains district.

Rye is one of the surest dry farm crops. Ity ields good crops of straw and grain, bothof which are valuable stock foods. In fact,the great power of rye to survive and growluxuriantly under the most try ingdryfarm conditions is the chief objection toit. Once started, it is hard to eradicate.Properly cultivated and used either as astock feed or as green manure, it is veryvaluable. Rye occurs as both spring andwinter varieties. The winter varieties areusually most satisfactory .

Carleton has recommended emmer as acrop peculiarly adapted to semiaridconditions. Emmer is a species of wheat tothe berries of which the chaff adheres veryclosely . It is highly prized as a stock feed. InRussia and Germany it is grown in verylarge quantities. It is especially adapted to

arid and semiarid conditions, but willprobably thrive best where the winters aredry and summers wet. It exists as springand winter varieties. is with the othersmall grains, the success of emmer willdepend largely upon the satisfactorydevelopment of winter varieties.

Corn

Of all crops yet tried on dryfarms, corn isperhaps the most uniformly successfulunder extreme dry conditions. If the soiltreatment and planting have been right,the failures that have been reported mayinvariably be traced to the use of seedwhich had not been acclimated. TheAmerican Indians grow corn which isexcellent for dry farm purposes; many ofthe western farmers have likewise

produced strains that use the minimum ofmoisture, and, moreover, corn broughtfrom humid sections adapts itself to aridconditions in a very few years. Escobarreports a native corn grown in Mexico withlow stalks and small ears that well enduresdesert conditions. In extremely dry yearscorn does not always produce a profitablecrop of seed, but the crop as a whole, forforage purposes, seldom fails to payexpenses and leave a margin for profit. Inwetter years there is a correspondingincrease of the corn crop. The dryfarmingterritory does not yet realize the value ofcorn as a dry farm crop.

The known facts concerning corn make itsafe to predict, however, that its dry farmacreage will increase rapidly , and that intime it will crowd the wheat crop forpreëminence.

Sorghums

Among dryfarm crops not popularlyknown are the sorghums, which promise tobecome excellent y ielders under aridconditions. The sorghums are supposed tohave come grown the tropical sections ofthe globe, but they are now scattered overthe earth in all climes.

The sorghums have been known in theUnited States for over half a century , but itwas only when dryfarming began todevelop so tremendously that the drouth-resisting power of the sorghums wasrecalled. According to Ball, the sorghumsfall into the following classes:—

THE SORGHUMS

1 . Broom corns

2. Sorgas or sweet sorghums

3. Kafirs

4. Durras

The broom corns are grown only for theirbrush, and are not considered indryfarming; the sorgas for forage andsirups, and are especially adapted forirrigation or humid conditions, thoughthey are said to endure dryfarm conditionsbetter than corn. The Kafirs are dry farmcrops and are grown for grain and forage.This group includes Red Kafir, White Kafir,Black-hulled White Kafir, and White Milo,all of which are valuable for dryfarming.The Durras are grown almost exclusivelyfor seed and include Jerusalem corn,Brown Durra, and Milo. The work of Ball

has made Milo one of the most importantdryfarm crops. As improved, the crop isfrom four to four and a half feet high, withmostly erect heads, carry ing a largequantity of seeds. Milo is already a staplecrop in parts of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas,and New Mexico. It has further been shownto be adapted to conditions in the Dakotas,Nebraska, Colorado, Arizona, Utah, andIdaho. It will probably be found, in somevarietal form, valuable over the wholedryfarm territory where the altitude is nottoo high and the average temperature nottoo low.

It has y ielded an average of forty bushels ofseed to the acre.

Lucern or alfalfa

Next to human intelligence and industry ,alfalfa has probably been the chief factor inthe development of the irrigated West. Ithas made possible a rational system ofagriculture, with the live-stock industryand the maintenance of soil fertility as thecentral considerations. Alfalfa is now beingrecognized as a desirable crop in humid aswell as in irrigated sections, and it isprobable that alfalfa will soon become thechief hay crop of the United States.

Originally , lucern came from the hot drycountries of Asia, where it supplied feed tothe animals of the first historical peoples.

Moreover, its long; tap roots, penetratingsometimes forty or fifty feet into theground, suggest that lucern may makeready use of deeply stored soil-moisture. Onthese considerations, alone, lucern shouldprove itself a crop well suited for

dryfarming. In fact, it has beendemonstrated that where conditions arefavorable, lucern may be made to y ieldprofitable crops under a rainfall betweentwelve and fifteen inches. Alfalfa preferscalcareous loamy soils; sandy and heavyclay soils are not so well adapted forsuccessful alfalfa production. Underdryfarm conditions the utmost care mustbe used to prevent too thick seeding. Thevast majority of alfalfa failures ondryfarms have resulted from aninsufficient supply of moisture for thethickly planted crop. The alfalfa field doesnot attain its maturity until after thesecond year, and a crop which looks justright the second year will probably bemuch too thick the third and fourth years.From four to six pounds of seed per acre areusually ample. Another main cause offailure is the common idea that the lucernfield needs little or no cultivation, when, infact, the alfalfa field should receive as

careful soil treatment as the wheat field.Heavy , thorough disking in spring or fall,or both, is advisable, for it leaves thetopsoil in a condition to preventevaporation and admit air. In Asiatic andNorth African countries, lucern isfrequently cultivated between rowsthroughout the hot season. This has beentried by Brand in this country and withvery good results. Since the crop shouldalways be sown with a drill, it iscomparatively easy to regulate thedistance between the rows so thatcultivating implements may be used. Ifthin seeding and thorough soil stirring arepracticed, lucern usually grows well, andwith such treatment should become one ofthe great dry farm crops.

The y ield of hay is not large, but sufficientto leave a comfortable margin of profit.Many farmers find it more profitable togrow dryfarm lucern for seed. In goodyears from fifty to one hundred and fifty

dollars may be taken from an acre oflucern seed. However, at the present, theprinciples of lucern seed production are notwell established, and the seed crop isuncertain.

Alfalfa is a leguminous crop and gathersnitrogen from the air. It is therefore a goodfertilizer. The question of soil fertility willbecome more important with the passing ofthe years, and the value of lucern as a landimprover will then be more ev ident than itis to-day .

Other leguminous crops

The group of leguminous or pod-bearingcrops is of great importance; first, becauseit is rich in nitrogenous substances which

are valuable animal foods, and, secondly ,because it has the power of gatheringnitrogen from the air, which can be usedfor maintaining the fertility of the soil.Dryfarming will not be a wholly safepractice of agriculture until suitableleguminous crops are found and made partof the crop system. It is notable that overthe whole of the dry farm territory of thisand other countries wild leguminousplants flourish. That is, nitrogen-gatheringplants are at work on the deserts. Thefarmer upsets this natural order of thingsby cropping the land with wheat andwheat only , so long as the land willproduce profitably . The leguminous plantsnative to dry farm areas have not as yetbeen subjected to extensive economicstudy , and in truth very little is knownconcerning leguminous plants adapted todryfarming.

In California, Colorado, and other dryfarmstates the field pea has been grown withgreat profit. Indeed it has been found muchmore profitable than wheat production.The field bean, likewise, has been grownsuccessfully under dry farm conditions,under a great variety of climates. InMexico and other southern climates, thenative population produce large quantitiesof beans upon their dry lands.

Shaw suggests that sanfoin, long famousfor its serv ice to European agriculture,may be found to be a profitable dry farmcrop, and that sand vetch promises tobecome an excellent dry farm crop. It isvery likely , however, that many of theleguminous crops which have beendeveloped under conditions of abundantrainfall will be valueless on dryfarm lands.Every year will furnish new and morecomplete information on this subject.

Leguminous plants will surely becomeimportant members of the association ofdryfarm crops.

Trees and shrubs

So far, trees cannot be said to be dry farmcrops, though facts are on record thatindicate that by the application of correctdryfarm principles trees may be made togrow and y ield profitably on dryfarmlands. Of course, it is a well-known factthat native trees of various kinds areoccasionally found growing on the deserts,where the rainfall is very light and the soilhas been given no care. Examples of suchvegetation are the native cedars foundthroughout the Great Basin region and themesquite tree in Arizona and theSouthwest. Few farmers in the arid region

have as yet undertaken tree culturewithout the aid of irrigation.

At least one peach orchard is known inUtah which grows under a rainfall of aboutfifteen inches without irrigation andproduces regularly a small crop of mostdelicious fruit. Parsons describes hisColorado dryfarm orchard in which, undera rainfall of almost fourteen inches, hegrows, with great profit, cherries, plums,and apples. A number of prospering youngorchards are growing without irrigation inthe Great Plains area. Mason discovered afew years ago two olive orchards in Arizonaand the Colorado desert which, plantedabout fourteen years previously , werethriv ing under an annual rainfall of eightand a half and four and a half inches,respectively . These olive orchards hadbeen set out under canals which laterfailed. Such attested facts lead to the

thought that trees may yet take theirplace as dry farm crops. This hope isstrengthened when it is recalled that thegreat nations of antiquity , liv ing incountries of low rainfall, grew profitablyand without irrigation many valuabletrees, some of which are still cultivated inthose countries. The olive industry , forexample, is even now being successfullydeveloped by modern methods in Asiaticand African sections, where the averageannual rainfall is under ten inches. Since1881, under French management, thedryfarm olive trees around Tunis haveincreased from 45,000 to 400,000

indiv iduals. Mason and also Aaronsohnsuggest as trees that do well in the aridparts of the old world the so-called “Chinesedate” or JuJube tree, the sycamore fig, andthe Carob tree, which y ields the “St. John’sBread” so dear to childhood.

Of this last tree, Aaronsolm says thattwenty trees to the acre, under a rainfall oftwelve inches, will produce 8000 pounds offruit containing 40 per cent of sugar and 7to 8 per cent of protein. This surpasses thebest harvest of alfalfa. Kearnley , who hasmade a special study of dry-land oliveculture in northern Africa, states that inhis belief a large variety of fruit trees maybe found which will do well under arid andsemiarid conditions, and may even y ieldmore profit than the grains.

It is also said that many shade andornamental and other useful plants can begrown on dryfarms; as, for instance,locust, elm, black walnut, silverpoplar,catalpa, live oak, black oak, yellow pine,red spruce, Douglas fir, and cedar.

The secret of success in tree growing ondryfarms seems to lie, first, in planting afew trees per acre,—the distance apartshould be twice the ordinary distance,—and, secondly , in apply ing v igorously andunceasingly the established principles ofsoil cultivation. In a soil stored deeply withmoisture and properly cultivated, mostplants will grow. If the soil has not beencarefully fallowed before planting, it maybe necessary to water the young treesslightly during the first two seasons.

Small fruits have been tried on manyfarms with great success.

Plums, currants, and gooseberries have allbeen successful. Grapes grow and y ield wellin many dryfarm districts, especiallyalong the warm foothills of the GreatBasin. Tree growing on dryfarm lands isnot yet well established and, therefore,

should be undertaken with great care.Varieties accustomed to the climaticenvironment should be chosen, and theprinciples outlined in the preceding pagesshould be carefully used.

Potatoes

In recent years, potatoes have become oneof the best dry farm crops. Almostwherever tried on lands under a rainfall oftwelve inches or more potatoes have givencomparatively large y ields.

To-day , the growing of dryfarm potatoes isbecoming an important industry . Theprinciples of light seeding and thoroughcultivation are indispensable for success.Potatoes are well adapted for use inrotations, where summer fallowing is not

thought desirable.

Macdonald enumerates the following as thebest varieties at present used on dryfarms:Ohio, Mammoth, Pearl, Rural New Yorker,and Burbank.

Miscellaneous

A further list of dry farm crops wouldinclude representatives of nearly alleconomic plants, most of them tried insmall quantity in various localities. Sugarbeets, vegetables, bulbous plants, etc.,have all been grown without irrigationunder dryfarm conditions.

Some of these will no doubt be found to beprofitable and will then be brought into thecommercial scheme of dry farming.

Meanwhile, the crop problems ofdryfarming demand that much carefulwork be done in the immediate future bythe agencies having such work in charge.The best varieties of crops already inprofitable use need to be determined. Morenew plants from all parts of the world needto be brought to this new dryfarmterritory and tried out. Many of the nativeplants need examination with a v iew totheir economic use. For instance, the segolily bulbs, upon which the Utah pioneerssubsisted for several seasons of famine,may possibly be made a cultivated crop.Finally , it remains to be said that it isdoubtful wisdom to attempt to grow themore intensive crops on dryfarms.Irrigation and dryfarming will always gotogether. They are supplementary systemsof agriculture in arid and semiarid regions.On the irrigated lands should be grown thecrops that require much labor per acre and

that in return y ield largely per acre. Newcrops and varieties should besought for theirrigated farms. On the dryfarms should begrown the crops that can be handled in alarge way and at a small cost per acre, andthat y ield only moderate acre returns. Bysuch cooperation between irrigation anddryfarming will the regions of the worldwith a scanty rainfall become thehealthiest, wealthiest, happiest, and mostpopulous on earth.

CHAPTER XIII

THE COMPOSITION OF DRYFARM CROPS

The acre-y ields of crops on dryfarms, evenunder the most favorable methods ofculture, are likely to be much smaller thanin humid sections with fertile soils. Thenecessity for frequent fallowing or restingperiods over a large portion of the dryfarmterritory further decreases the averageannual y ield. It does not follow from thiscondition that dry farming is less profitablethan humid-or irrigation-farming, for ithas been fully demonstrated that the profiton the investment is as high under properdryfarming as under any other similargenerally adopted system of farming inany part of the world. Yet the practice ofdryfarming would appear to be, and indeedwould be, much more desirable could the

crop y ield be increased. The discovery ofany condition which will offset the smallannual y ields is, therefore, of the highestimportance to the advancement ofdryfarming. The recognition of thesuperior quality of practically all cropsgrown without irrigation under a limitedrainfall has done much to stimulate faithin the great profitableness of dry farming.As the vary ing nature of the materialsused by man for food, clothing, and shelterhas become more clearly understood, moreattention has been given to the valuationof commercial products on the basis ofquality as well as of quantity . Sugar beets,for instance, are bought by the sugarfactories under a guarantee of a minimumsugar content; and many factories ofEurope vary the price paid according tothe sugar contained by the beets. Themillers, especially in certain parts of thecountry where wheat has deteriorated,distinguish carefully between the flour-

producing qualities of wheats from varioussections and fix the price accordingly .Even in the household, informationconcerning the real nutritive value ofvarious foods is being sought eagerly , andfoods let down to possess the highest valuein the maintenance of life are displacing,even at a higher cost, the inferior products.The quality valuation is, in fact, beingextended as rapidly as the growth ofknowledge will permit to the chief foodmaterials of commerce. As this practicebecomes fixed the dryfarmer will be able tocommand the best market prices for hisproducts, for it is undoubtedly true thatfrom the point of v iew of quality , dry farmfood products may be placed safely incompetition with any farm products on themarkets of the world.

Proportion of plant parts

It need hardly be said, after the discussionsin the preceding chapters, that the natureof plant growth is deeply modified by thearid conditions prevailing in dry farming.This shows itself first in the proportion ofthe various plant parts, such as roots,stems, leaves, and seeds. The root systemsof dryfarm crops are generally greatlydeveloped, and it is a common observationthat in adverse seasons the plants thatpossess the largest and most v igorous rootsendure best the drouth and burning heat.The first function of the leaves is to gathermaterials for the building andstrengthening of the roots, and only afterthis has been done do the stems lengthenand the leaves thicken. Usually , the shortseason is largely gone before the stem andleaf growth begins, and, consequently , asomewhat dwarfed appearance ischaracteristic of dry farm crops. The size ofsugar beets, potato tubers, and such

underground parts depends upon theavailable water and food supply when theplant has established a satisfactory rootand leaf system. If the water and food arescarce, a thin beet results; if abundant, awell-filled beet may result.

Dryfarming is characterized by asomewhat short season. Even if goodgrowing weather prevails, the decrease ofwater in the soil has the effect of hasteningmaturity . The formation of flowers andseed begins, therefore, earlier and iscompleted more quickly under arid thanunder humid conditions. Moreover, andresulting probably from the greaterabundance of materials stored in the rootsystem, the proportion of heads to leavesand stems is highest in dryfarm crops. Infact, it is a general law that the proportionof heads to straw in grain crops increases asthe water supply decreases. This is shown

very well even under humid or irrigationconditions when different seasons ordifferent applications of irrigation waterare compared. For instance, Hall quotesfrom the Rothamsted experiments to theeffect that in 1879, which was a wet year(41 inches), the wheat crop y ielded 38pounds of grain for every 100 pounds ofstraw; whereas, in 1893, which was a dryyear (23 inches), the wheat crop y ielded95 pounds of grain to every 100 pounds ofstraw. The Utah station likewise hasestablished the same law under aridconditions.

In one series of experiments it was shown asan average of three years’ trial that a fieldwhich had received 22.5 inches ofirrigation water produced a wheat cropthat gave 67 pounds of grain to every 100pounds of straw; while another field whichreceived only 7 .5 inches of irrigation waterproduced a crop that gave 100

pounds of grain for every 100 pounds ofstraw. Since wheat is grown essentially forthe grain, such a variation is oftremendous importance. The amount ofavailable water affects every part of theplant. Thus, as an illustration, Carletonstates that the per cent of meat in oatsgrown in Wisconsin under humidconditions was 67.24, while in NorthDakota, Kansas, and Montana, under aridand semiarid conditions, it was 71 .51.Similar variations of plant parts may beobserved as a direct result of vary ing theamount of available water. In generalthen, it may be said that the roots ofdryfarm crops are well developed; theparts above ground somewhat dwarfed; theproportion of seed to straw high, and theproportion of meat or nutritive materialsin the plant parts likewise high.

The water in dryfarm crops

One of the constant constituents of allplants and plant parts is water. Hay , flour,and starch contain comparatively largequantities of water, which can be removedonly by heat. The water in green plants isoften very large. In young lucern, forinstance, it reaches 85 per cent, and inyoung peas nearly 90 per cent, or morethan is found in good cow’s milk. The waterso held by plants has no nutritive valueabove ordinary water. It is, therefore,profitable for the consumer to buy dryfoods. In this particular, again, dry farmcrops have a distinct advantage: Duringgrowth there is not perhaps a greatdifference in the water content of plants,due to climatic differences, but afterharvest the dry ing-out process goes onmuch more completely in dryfarm than inhumid districts. Hay , cured in humidregions, often contains from 12 to 20 percent of water; in arid climates it contains

as little as 5 per cent and seldom more than12 per cent. The drier hay is naturallymore valuable pound for pound than themoister hay , and a difference in price,based upon the difference in water content,is already being felt in certain sections ofthe West.

The moisture content of dryfarm wheat,the chief dryfarm crop, is even moreimportant. According to Wiley the averagewater content of wheat for the UnitedStates is 10.62 per cent, ranging from 15to 7

per cent. Stewart and Greaves examined alarge number of wheats grown on thedryfarms of Utah and found that theaverage per cent of water in the commonbread varieties was 8.46 and in the durumvarieties 8.89. This means that the Utahdryfarm wheats transported to ordinary

humid conditions would take up enoughwater from the air to increase their weightone fortieth, or 2.2 per cent, before theyreached the average water content ofAmerican wheats. In other words,1 ,000,000 bushels of Utah dryfarm wheatcontain as much nutritive matter as1 ,025,000 bushels of wheat grown andkept under humid conditions. Thisdifference should be and now is recognizedin the prices paid. In fact, shrewd dealers,acquainted with the dryness of dry farmwheat, have for some years bought wheatfrom the dryfarms at a slightly increasedprice, and trusted to the increase in weightdue to water absorption in more humidclimates for their profits. The time shouldbe near at hand when grains and similarproducts should be purchased upon thebasis of a moisture test.

While it is undoubtedly true that dry farm

crops are naturally drier than those ofhumid countries, yet it must also be keptin mind that the driest dry farm crops arealways obtained where the summers arehot and rainless. In sections where theprecipitation comes chiefly in the springand summer the difference would not be sogreat.

Therefore, the crops raised on the GreatPlains would not be so dry as those raised inCalifornia or in the Great Basin. Yet,wherever the annual rainfall is so small asto establish dryfarm conditions, whether itcomes in the winter or summer, the curedcrops are drier than those produced underconditions of a much higher rainfall, anddry farmers should insist that, so far aspossible in the future, sales be based on drymatter.

The nutritive substances in crops

The dry matter of all plants and plantparts consists of three very distinct classesof substances: First, ash or the mineralconstituents. Ash is used by the body inbuilding bones and in supply ing the bloodwith compounds essential to the variouslife processes. Second, protein or thesubstances containing the elementnitrogen. Protein is used by the body inmaking blood, muscle, tendons, hair, andnails, and under certain conditions it isburned within the body for the productionof heat. Protein is perhaps the mostimportant food constituent. Third, non-nitrogenous substances, including fats,woody fiber, and nitrogen-free extract, aname given to the group of sugars,starehes, and related substances. Thesesubstances are used by the body in theproduction of fat, and are also burned forthe production of heat. Of these valuablefood constituents protein is probably the

most important, first, because it forms themost important tissues of the body and,secondly , because it is less abundant thanthe fats, starches, and sugars.

Indeed, plants rich in protein nearlyalways command the highest prices.

The composition of any class of plantsvaries considerably in different localitiesand in different seasons. This may be dueto the nature of the soil, or to the fertilizerapplied, though variations in plantcomposition resulting from soil conditionsare comparatively small. The greatervariations are almost wholly the result ofvary ing climate and water supply . As faras it is now known the strongest singlefactor in changing the composition ofplants is the amount of water available tothe growing plant.

Variations due to vary ing water supplyThe Utah station has conducted numerousexperiments upon the effect of water uponplant composition. The method in everycase has been to apply different amounts ofwater throughout the growing season oncontiguous plats of uniform land. [Lengthytable deleated from this edition.] Even acasual study of … [the results show] thatthe quantity of water used influenced thecomposition of the plant parts. The ash andthe fiber do not appear to be greatlyinfluenced, but the other constituents varywith considerable regularity with thevariations in the amount of irrigationwater. The protein shows the greatestvariation. As the irrigation water isincreased, the percentage of proteindecreases. In the case of wheat thevariation was over 9 per cent. Thepercentage of fat and nitrogen-free extract,on the other hand, becomes larger as the

water increases.

That is, crops grown with little water, as indryfarming, are rich in the importantflesh-and blood-forming substance protein,and comparatively poor in fat, sugar,stareh, and other of the more abundantheat and fat-producing substances. Thisdifference is of tremendous importance inplacing dryfarming products on the foodmarkets of the world. Not only seeds,tubers, and roots show this variation, butthe stems and leaves of plants grown withlittle water are found to contain a higherpercentage of protein than those grown inmore humid climates.

The direct effect of water upon thecomposition of plants has been observed bymany students. For instance, Mayer,working in Holland, found that, in a soilcontaining throughout the season 10 per

cent of water, oats was producedcontaining 10.6 per cent of protein; in soilcontaining 30 per cent of water, theprotein percentage was only 5.6 per cent,and in soil containing 70 per cent of water,it was only 5.2 per cent. Carleton, in astudy of analyses of the same varieties ofwheat grown in humid and semiariddistricts of the United States, found thatthe percentage of protein in wheat fromthe semiarid area was 14.4 per cent asagainst 11 .94 per cent in the wheat fromthe humid area. The average proteincontent of the wheat of the United States isa little more than 12 per cent; Stewart andGreaves found an average of 16.76 percent of protein in Utah dryfarm wheats ofthe common bread varieties and 17.14 percent in the durum varieties. Theexperiments conducted at Rothamsted,England, as given by Hall, confirm theseresults. For example, during 1893, a verydry year, barley kernels contained 12.99

per cent of protein, while in 1894, a wet,though free-growing year, the barleycontained only 9.81 per cent of protein.Quotations might be multiplied confirmingthe principle that crops grown with littlewater contain much protein and littleheat-and fat-producing substances.

Climate and composition

The general climate, especially as regardsthe length of the growing season andnaturally including the water supply , hasa strong effect upon the composition ofplants. Carleton observed that the samevarieties of wheat grown at Nephi, Utah,contained 16.61 per cent protein; atAmarillo, Texas, 15.25 per cent; and atMcPherson, Kansas, a humid station,13.04 per cent. This variation is

undoubtedly due in part to the vary ingannual precipitation but, also, and in largepart, to the vary ing general climaticconditions at the three stations.

An extremely interesting and importantexperiment, showing the effect of localityupon the composition of wheat kernels, isreported by LeClerc and Leavitt. Wheatgrown in 1905 in Kansas was planted in1906 in Kansas, California, and Texas In1907 samples of the seeds grown at thesethree points were planted side by side ateach of the three states All the crops fromthe three localities were analyzedseparately each year.

The results are striking and convincing.The original seed grown in Kansas in 1905contained 16.22 per cent of protein. The

1906 crop grown from this seed in Kansascontained 19.13 per cent protein; inCalifornia, 10.38 percent; and in Texas,12.18 percent. In 1907 the crop harvestedin Kansas from the 1906 seed from thesewidely separated places and of verydifferent composition contained uniformlysomewhat more than 22 per cent ofprotein; harvested in California, somewhatmore than 11 per cent; and harvested inTexas, about 18 per cent. In short, thecomposition of wheat kernels isindependent of the composition of the seedor the nature of the soil, but dependsprimarily upon the prevailing climaticconditions, including the water supply .The weight of the wheat per bushel, that is,the average size and weight of the wheatkernel, and also the hardness or flintycharacter of the kernels, were stronglyaffected by the vary ing climaticconditions. It is generally true thatdryfarm grain weighs more per bushel

than grain grown under humid conditions;hardness usually accompanies a highprotein content and is thereforecharacteristic of dryfarm wheat. Thesenotable lessons teach the futility ofbringing in new seed from far distantplaces in the hope that better and largercrops may be secured. The conditionsunder which growth occurs determinechiefly the nature of the crop. It is acommon experience in the West thatfarmers who do not understand thisprinciple send to the Middle West for seedcorn, with the result that great crops ofstalks and leaves with no ears are obtained.The only safe rule for the dryfarmer tofollow is to use seed which has been grownfor many years under dry farm conditions.

A reason for variation in composition

It is possible to suggest a reason for the highprotein content of dry farm crops. It is wellknown that all plants secure most of theirnitrogen early in the growing period. Fromthe nitrogen, protein is formed, and allyoung plants are, therefore, very rich inprotein. As the plant becomes older, littlemore protein is added, but more and morecarbon is taken from the air to form thefats, starches, sugars, and other non-nitrogenous substances.

Consequently , the proportion orpercentage of protein becomes smaller asthe plant becomes older. The impellingpurpose of the plant is to produce seed.Whenever the water supply begins to giveout, or the season shortens in any otherway , the plant immediately begins toripen. Now, the essential effect of dry farmconditions is to shorten the season; thecomparatively young plants, yet rich inprotein, begin to produce seed; and atharvest, seed, and leaves, and stalks are

rich in the flesh-and blood-formingelement of plants. In more humid countriesplants delay the time of seed productionand thus enable the plants to store up morecarbon and thus reduce the percent ofprotein. The short growing season, inducedby the shortness of water, is undoubtedlythe main reason for the higher proteincontent and consequently higher nutritivevalue of all dry farm crops.

Nutritive value of dryfarm hay , straw,and flour All the parts of dry farm crops arehighly nutritious. This needs to be moreclearly understood by the dryfarmers.Dryfarm hay , for instance, because of itshigh protein content, may be fed withcrops not so rich in this element, therebymaking a larger profit for the farmer.Dryfarm straw often has the feeding valueof good hay , as has been demonstrated byanalyses and by feeding tests conducted in

times of hay scarcity . Especially is theheader straw of high feeding value, for itrepresents the upper and more nutritiousends of the stalks. Dryfarm straw,therefore, should be carefully kept and fedto animals instead of being scattered overthe ground or even burned as is too oftenthe case. Only few feeding experimentshaving in v iew the relative feeding valueof dry farm crops have as yet been made,but the few on record agree in showing thesuperior value of dry farm crops, whetherfed singly or in combination.

The differences in the chemicalcomposition of plants and plant productsinduced by differences in the water-supplyand climatic environment appear in themanufactured products, such as flour,bran, and shorts. Flour made from Fifewheat grown on the dry farms of Utahcontained practically 16 per cent of

protein, while flour made from Fife wheatgrown in Lorraine and the Middle West isreported by the Maine Station ascontaining from 13.03 to 13.75 per cent ofprotein. Flour made from Blue Stem wheatgrown on the Utah dryfarms contained15.52 per cent of protein; from the samevariety grown in Maine and in the MiddleWest 11 .69 and 11 .51 per cent of proteinrespectively . The moist and dry gluten,the gliadin and the glutenin, all of whichmake possible the best and most nourishingkinds of bread, are present in largestquantity and best proportion in floursmade from wheats grown under typicaldryfarm conditions.

The by-products of the milling process,likewise, are rich in nutritive elements.

Future Needs

It has already been pointed out that thereis a growing tendency to purchase foodmaterials on the basis of composition. Newdiscoveries in the domains of plantcomposition and animal nutrition and theimproved methods of rapid and accuratevaluation will accelerate this tendency .Even now, manufacturers of food productsprint on cartons and in advertising matterquality reasons for the superior food valuesof certain articles. At least one firmproduces two parallel sets of itsmanufactured foods, one for the man whodoes hard physical labor, and the other forthe brain worker. Quality , as related to theneeds of the body , whether of beast or man,is rapidly becoming the first question injudging any food material.

The present era of high prices makes thismatter even more important.

In v iew of this condition and tendency , thefact that dryfarm products are unusuallyrich in the most valuable nutritivematerials is of tremendous importance tothe development of dry farming. The smallaverage y ields of dry farm crops do not lookso small when it is known that theycommand higher prices per pound incompetition with the larger crops of morehumid climates. More elaborateinvestigations should be undertaken todetermine the quality of crops grown indifferent dryfarm districts. As far aspossible each section, great or small, shouldconfine itself to the growing of a variety ofeach crop y ielding well and possessing thehighest nutritive value. In that mannereach section of the great dry farm territorywould soon come to stand for somedependable special quality that wouldcompel a first-class market. Further, thesuperior feeding value of dryfarm products

should be thoroughly advertised amongthe consumers in order to create a demandon the markets for a quality valuation. Afew years of such systematic honest workwould do much to improve the financialbasis of dry farming.

CHAPER XIV

MAINTAINING THE SOIL FERTILITY

All plants when carefully burned leave aportion of ash, ranging widely in quantity ,averaging about 5 per cent, and oftenexceeding 10 per cent of the dry weight ofthe plant. This plant ash representsinorganic substances taken from the soil bythe roots. In addition, the nitrogen ofplants, averaging about 2 per cent and

often amounting to 4 per cent, which, inburning, passes off in gaseous form, is alsousually taken from the soil by the plantroots. A comparatively large quantity ofthe plant is, therefore, drawn directly fromthe soil. Among the ash ingredients aremany which are taken up by the plantsimply because they are present in the soil;others, on the other hand, as has beenshown by numerous classicalinvestigations, are indispensable to plantgrowth. If any one of these indispensableash ingredients be absent, it is impossiblefor a plant to mature on such a soil. In fact,it is pretty well established that, providingthe physical conditions and the watersupply are satisfactory , the fertility of asoil depends largely upon the amount ofavailable ash ingredients, or plant-food.

A clear distinction must be made betweenthe_ total and available _plant-food. The

essential plant-foods often occur ininsoluble combinations, valueless to plants;only the plant-foods that are soluble in thesoil-water or in the juices of plant roots areof value to plants. It is true that practicallyall soils contain all the indispensable plant-foods; it is also true, however, that in mostsoils they are present, as available plant-foods, in comparatively small quantities.When crops are removed from the landyear after year, without any return beingmade, it naturally follows that underordinary conditions the amount ofavailable plant-food is diminished, with astrong probability of a correspondingdiminution in crop-producing power. Infact, the soils of many of the older countrieshave been permanently injured bycontinuous cropping, with nothingreturned, practiced through centuries.Even in many of the younger states,continuous cropping to wheat or othercrops for a generation or less has resulted

in a large decrease in the crop y ield.

Practice and experiment have shown thatsuch diminishing fertility may be retardedor wholly avoided, first, by so working orcultivating the soil as to set free much ofthe insoluble plant-food and, secondly , byreturning to the soil all or part of the plant-food taken away . The recent developmentof the commercial fertilizer industry is aresponse to this truth. It may be said that,so far as the agricultural soils of the worldare now known, only three of the essentialplant-foods are likely to be absent, namely ,potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen; ofthese, by far the most important isnitrogen. The whole question ofmaintaining the supply of plant-foods inthe soil concerns itself in the main with thesupply of these three substances.

The persistent fertility of dryfarms

In recent years, numerous farmers andsome investigators have stated that underdryfarm conditions the fertility of soils isnot impaired by cropping withoutmanuring. This v iew has been takenbecause of the well-known fact that inlocalities where dry farming has beenpracticed on the same soils from twenty-five to forty-five years, without theaddition of manures, the average cropyield has not only failed to diminish, but inmost cases has increased. In fact, it is thealmost unanimous testimony of the oldestdryfarmers of the United States, operatingunder a rainfall from twelve to twentyinches, that the crop y ields have increasedas the cultural methods have beenperfected. If any adverse effect of thesteady removal of plant-foods has occurred,it has been wholly overshadowed by other

factors. The older dryfarms in Utah, forinstance, which are among the oldest of thecountry , have never been manured, yetare y ielding better to-day than they did ageneration ago. Strangely enough, this isnot true of the irrigated farms, operatingunder like soil and climatic conditions.This behavior of crop production underdryfarm conditions has led to the beliefthat the question of soil fertility is not animportant one to dry farmers.Nevertheless, if our present theories ofplant nutrition are correct, it is also truethat, if continuous cropping is practiced onour dryfarm soils without some form ofmanuring, the time must come when theproductive power of the soils will be injuredand the only recourse of the farmer will beto return to the soils some of the plant-foodtaken from it.

The v iew that soil fertility is not

diminished by dryfarming appears at firstsight to be strengthened by the resultsobtained by investigators who have madedeterminations of the actual plant-food insoils that have long been dryfarmed. Thesparsely settled condition of the dryfarmterritory furnishes as yet an excellentopportunity to compare v irgin anddryfarmed lands and which frequentlymay be found side by side in even the olderdryfarm sections. Stewart found that Utahdryfarm soils, cultivated for fifteen to fortyyears and never manured, were in manycases richer in nitrogen than neighboringvirgin lands. Bradley found that the soils ofthe great dry farm wheat belt of EasternOregon contained, after having beenfarmed for a quarter of a century ,practically as much nitrogen as theadjoining v irgin lands. Thesedeterminations were made to a depth ofeighteen inches. Alway and Trumbull, onthe other hand, found in a soil from Indian

Head, Saskatchewan, that in twenty-fiveyears of cultivation the total amount ofnitrogen had been reduced about one third,though the alternation of fallow and crop,commonly practiced in dry farming, didnot show a greater loss of soil nitrogen thanother methods of cultivation. It must bekept in mind that the soil of Indian Headcontains from two to three times as muchnitrogen as is ordinarily found in the soilsof the Great Plains and from three to fourtimes as much as is found in the soils of theGreat Basin and the High Plateaus. It maybe assumed, therefore, that the IndianHead soil was peculiarly liable to nitrogenlosses. Headden, in an investigation of thenitrogen content of Colorado soils, has cometo the conclusion that arid conditions, likethose of Colorado, favor the directaccumulation of nitrogen in soils. All in all,the undiminished crop y ield and thecomposition of the cultivated fields lead tothe belief that soil-fertility problems under

dryfarm conditions are widely differentfrom the old well-known problems underhumid conditions.

Reasons for dry farming fertility

It is not really difficult to understand whythe y ields and, apparently , the fertility ofdryfarms have continued to increaseduring the period of recorded dryfarmhistory—nearly half a century .

First, the intrinsic fertility of arid ascompared with humid soils is very high.(See Chapter V.) The production andremoval of many successive bountifulcrops would not have as marked an effecton arid as on humid soils, for both y ieldand composition change more slowly on

fertile soils. The natural extraordinarilyhigh fertility of dry farm soils explains,therefore, primarily and chiefly , theincreasing y ields on dryfarm soils thatreceive proper cultivation.

The intrinsic fertility of arid soils is notalone sufficient to explain the increase inplant-food which undoubtedly occurs inthe upper foot or two of cultivated dryfarmlands. In seeking a suitable explanation ofthis phenomenon it must be recalled thatthe proportion of available plant-food inarid soils is very uniform to great depths,and that plants grown under properdryfarm conditions are deep rooted andgather much nourishment from the lowersoil layers. As a consequence, the drain of aheavy crop does not fall upon the upper fewfeet as is usually the case in humid soils.The dryfarmer has several farms, oneupon the other, which permit even

improper methods of farming to go onlonger than would be the case on shallowersoils.

The great depth of arid soils furtherpermits the storage of rain and snowwater, as has been explained in previouschapters, to depths of from ten to fifteenfeet. As the growing season proceeds, thiswater is gradually drawn towards thesurface, and with it much of the plant-fooddissolved by the water in the lower soillayers.

This process repeated year after yearresults in a concentration in the upper soillayers of fertility normally distributed inthe soil to the full depth reach by the soil-moisture. At certain seasons, especially inthe fall, this concentration may bedetected with greatest certainty . Ingeneral, the same action occurs in v irgin

lands, but the methods of dry farmcultivation and cropping which permit adeeper penetration of the naturalprecipitation and a freer movement of thesoil-water result in a larger quantity ofplant-food reaching the upper two or threefeet from the lower soil depths.

Such concentration near the surface, whenit is not excessive, favors the production ofincreased y ields of crops.

The characteristic high fertility and greatdepth of arid soils are probably the twomain factors explaining the apparentincrease of the fertility of dry farms undera system of agriculture which does notinclude the practice of manuring. Yet,there are other conditions that contributelargely to the result. For instance, everycultural method accepted in dry farming,such as deep plowing, fallowing, and

frequent cultivation, enables theweathering forces to act upon the soilparticles. Especially is it made easy for theair to enter the soil. Under such conditions,the plant-food unavailable to plantsbecause of its insoluble condition isliberated and made available. The practiceof dry farming is of itself more conducive tosuch accumulation of available plant foodthan are the methods of humidagriculture.

Further, the annual y ield of any cropunder conditions of dry farming is smallerthan under conditions of high rainfall. Lessfertility is, therefore, removed by eachcrop and a given amount of availablefertility is sufficient to produce a largenumber of crops without showing signs ofdeficiency . The comparatively smallannual y ield of dryfarm crops isemphasized in v iew of the common

practice of summer fallowing, whichmeans that the land is cropped only everyother year or possibly two years out ofthree. Under such conditions the y ield inany one year is cut in two to give anannual y ield.

The use of the header wherever possible inharvesting dryfarm grain also aidsmaterially in maintaining soil fertility . Bymeans of the header only the heads of thegrain are clipped off: the stalks are leftstanding. In the fall, usually , this stubbleis plowed under and gradually decays. Inthe earlier dryfarm days farmers fearedthat under conditions of low rainfall, thestubble or straw plowed under would notdecay , but would leave the soil in a loosedry condition unfavorable for the growthof plants. During the last fifteen years ithas been abundantly demonstrated that ifthe correct methods of dry farming are

followed, so that a fair balance of water isalways found in the soil, even in the fall,the heavy , thick header stubble may beplowed into the soil with the certainty thatit will decay and thus enrich the soil. Theheader stubble contains a very largeproportion of the nitrogen that the crop hastaken from the soil and more than half ofthe potash and phosphoric acid. Plowingunder the header stubble returns all thismaterial to the soil. Moreover, the bulk ofthe stubble is carbon taken from the air.This decays, forming various acidsubstances which act on the soil grains toset free the fertility which they contain. Atthe end of the process of decay humus isformed, which is not only a storehouse ofplant-food, but effective in maintaining agood physical condition of the soil. Theintroduction of the header in dry farmingwas one of the big steps in making thepractice certain and profitable.

Finally , it must be admitted that there area great many more or less poorlyunderstood or unknown forces at work inall soils which aid in the maintenance ofsoil-fertility . Chief among these are the lowforms of life known as bacteria. Many ofthese, under favorable conditions, appearto have the power of liberating food fromthe insoluble soil grains. Others have thepower when settled on the roots ofleguminous or pod-bearing plants to fixnitrogen from the air and convert it into aform suitable for the need of plants. Inrecent years it has been found that otherforms of bacteria, the best known of whichis azotobacter, have the power of gatheringnitrogen from the air and combining it forthe plant needs without the presence ofleguminous plants. These nitrogen-gathering bacteria utilize for their lifeprocesses the organic matter in the soil,such as the decay ing header stubble, andat the same time enrich the soil by the

addition of combined nitrogen. Now, it sohappens that these important bacteriarequire a soil somewhat rich in lime, wellaerated and fairly dry and warm. Theseconditions are all met on the vast majorityof our dry farm soils, under the system ofculture outlined in this volume. Hallmaintains that to the activ ity of thesebacteria must be ascribed the largequantities of nitrogen found in manyvirgin soils and probably the finalexplanation of the steady nitrogen supplyfor dry farms is to be found in the work ofthe azatobacter and related forms of lowlife. The potash and phosphoric acid supplycan probably be maintained for ages byproper methods of cultivation, though thephosphoric acid will become exhaustedlong before the potash. The nitrogensupply , however, must come from without.The nitrogen question will undoubtedlysoon be the one before the students ofdryfarm fertility . A liberal supply of

organic matter In the soil with culturalmethods favoring the growth of thenitrogen-gathering bacteria appears atpresent to be the first solution of thenitrogen question. Meanwhile, the activ ityof the nitrogen-gathering bacteria, likeazotobacter, is one of our best explanationsof the large presence of nitrogen incultivated dryfarm soils.

To summarize, the apparent increase inproductiv ity and plant-food content ofdryfarm soils can best be explained by aconsideration of these factors: (1) theintrinsically high fertility of the arid soils;(2) the deep feeding ground for the deeproot systems of dry farm crops; (3) theconcentration of the plant food distributedthroughout the soil by the upwardmovement of the natural precipitationstored in the soil; (4) the cultural methodsof dry farming which enable the

weathering agencies to liberate freely andvigorously the plant-food of the soil grains;(5) the small annual crops; (6) the plowingunder of the header straw, and (7) theactiv ity of bacteria that gather nitrogendirectly from the air.

Methods of conserving soil-fertility

In v iew of the comparatively small annualcrops that characterize dry farming it isnot wholly impossible that the factorsabove discussed, if properly applied, couldliberate the latent plant-food of the soil andgather all necessary nitrogen for theplants. Such an equilibrium, could it oncebe established, would possibly continue forlong periods of time, but in the end wouldno doubt lead to disaster; for, unless thevery cornerstone of modern agricultural

science is unsound, there will beultimately a diminution of crop producingpower if continuous cropping is practicedwithout returning to the soil a goodlyportion of the elements of soil fertilitytaken from it. The real purpose of modernagricultural researeh is to maintain orincrease the productiv ity of our lands; ifthis cannot be done, modern agriculture isessentially a failure. Dryfarming, as thenewest and probably in the future one ofthe greatest div isions of modernagriculture, must from the beginning seekand apply processes that will insuresteadiness in the productive power of itslands. Therefore, from the very beginningdryfarmers must look towards theconservation of the fertility of their soils.

The first and most rational method ofmaintaining the fertility of the soilindefinitely is to return to the soil

everything that is taken from it. Inpractice this can be done only by feedingthe products of the farm to live stock andreturning to the soil the manure, both solidand liquid, produced by the animals. Thisbrings up at once the much discussedquestion of the relation between the livestock industry and dryfarming. While it isundoubtedly true that no system ofagriculture will be wholly satisfactory tothe farmer and truly beneficial to thestate, unless it is connected definitely withthe production of live stock, yet it must beadmitted that the present prevailingdryfarm conditions do not always favorcomfortable animal life. For instance, overa large portion of the central area of thedryfarm territory the dryfarms are atconsiderable distances from running orwell water. In many cases, water is hauledeight or ten miles for the supply of the menand horses engaged in farming. Moreover,in these drier districts, only certain crops,

carefully cultivated, will y ield profitably ,and the pasture and the kitchen gardenare practical impossibilities from aneconomic point of v iew. Such conditions,though profitable dry farming is feasible,preclude the existence of the home and thebarn on or even near the farm. When feedmust be hauled many miles, the profits ofthe live stock industry are materiallyreduced and the dryfarmer usually prefersto grow a crop of wheat, the straw of whichmay be plowed under the soil to the greatadvantage of the following crop. Indryfarm districts where the rainfall ishigher or better distributed, or where theground water is near the surface, thereshould be no reason why dryfarming andlive stock should not go hand in hand.Wherever water is within reach, thehomestead is also possible. The recentdevelopment of the gasoline motor forpumping purposes makes possible a smallhome garden wherever a little water is

available. The lack of water for culinarypurposes is really the problem that hasstood between the joint development ofdryfarming and the live stock industry .The whole matter, however, looks muchmore favorable to-day , for the efforts of theFederal and state governments havesucceeded in discovering numeroussubterranean sources of water in dry farmdistricts. In addition, the development ofsmall irrigation systems in theneighborhood of dryfarm districts ishelping the cause of the live stockindustry . At the present time, dryfarmingand the live stock industry are rather farapart, though undoubtedly as the desert isconquered they will become more closelyassociated. The question concerning thebest maintenance of soil-fertility remainsthe same; and the ideal way ofmaintaining fertility is to return to the soilas much as is possible of the plant-foodtaken from it by the crops, which can best

be accomplished by the development of thebusiness of keeping live stock in connectionwith dryfarming.

If live stock cannot be kept on a dry farm,the most direct method of maintaining soil-fertility is by the application ofcommercial fertilizers. This practice isfollowed extensively in the Eastern statesand in Europe. The large areas of dry farmsand the high prices of commercialfertilizers will make this method ofmanuring impracticable on dryfarms, andit may be dismissed from thought untilsuch a day as conditions, especially withrespect to price of nitrates and potash, arematerially changed.

Nitrogen, which is the most importantplant-food that may be absent from

dryfarm soils, may be secured by theproper use of leguminous crops. All the pod-bearing plants commonly cultivated, suchas peas, beans, vetch, clover, and lucern,are able to secure large quantities ofnitrogen from the air through the activ ityof bacteria that live and grow on the rootsof such plants. The leguminous crop shouldbe sown in the usual way , and when it iswell past the flowering stage should beplowed into the ground. Naturally , annuallegumes, such as peas and beans, should beused for this purpose.

The crop thus plowed under contains muchnitrogen, which is gradually changed intoa form suitable for plant assimilation. Inaddition, the acid substances produced inthe decay of the plants tend to liberate theinsoluble plant-foods and the organicmatter is finally changed into humus. Inorder to maintain a proper supply ofnitrogen in the soil the dryfarmer willprobably soon find himself obliged to grow,

every five years or oftener, a crop oflegumes to be plowed under.

Non-leguminous crops may also be plowedunder for the purpose of adding organicmatter and humus to the soil, though thishas little advantage over the presentmethod of heading the grain and plowingunder the high stubble. The header systemshould be generally adopted on wheatdryfarms. On farms where corn is the chiefcrop, perhaps more importance needs to begiven to the supply of organic matter andhumus than on wheat farms. Theoccasional plowing under of leguminouscrops would he the most satisfactorymethod. The persistent application of theproper cultural methods of dry farmingwill set free the most important plant-foods, and on well-cultivated farmsnitrogen is the only element likely to beabsent in serious amounts.

The rotation of crops on dryfarms isusually advocated in districts like theGreat Plains area, where the annualrainfall is over fifteen inches and the majorpart of the precipitation comes in springand summer. The various rotationsordinarily include one or more crops ofsmall grains, a hoed crop like corn orpotatoes, a leguminous crop, andsometimes a fallow year. The leguminouscrop is grown to secure a fresh supply ofnitrogen; the hoed crop, to enable the airand sunshine to act thoroughly on the soilgrains and to liberate plant-food, such aspotash and phosphoric acid; and the graincrops to take up plant-food not reached bythe root systems of the other plants. Thesubject of proper rotation of crops hasalways been a difficult one, and very littleinformation exists on it as practiced ondryfarms. Chilcott has done considerablework on rotations in the Great Plains

district, hut he frankly admits that manyyears of trial will he necessary for theelucidation of trustworthy principles.Some of the best rotations found by Chilcottup to the present are:—

Corn—Wheat—Oats

Barley—Oats—Corn

Fallow—Wheat—Oats

Rosen states that rotation is verycommonly practiced in the dry sections ofsouthern Russia, usually including anoccasional Summer fallow. As a type of aneight-year rotation practiced at thePoltava Station, the following is given: (1)Summer tilled and manured; (2) winterwheat; (3) hoed crop; (4) spring wheat; (5)summer fallow; (6) winter rye; (7)

buckwheat or an annual legume; (8) oats.This rotation, it may be observed, includesthe grain crop, hoed crop, legume, andfallow every four years.

As has been stated elsewhere, any rotationin dryfarming which does not include thesummer fallow at least every third orfourth year is likely to be dangerous Inyears of deficient rainfall.

This rev iew of the question of dryfarmfertility is intended merely as a forecast ofcoming developments. At the present timesoil-fertility is not giv ing the dry farmersgreat concern, but as in the countries ofabundant rainfall the time will come whenit will be equal to that of waterconservation, unless indeed thedryfarmers heed the lessons of the past and

adopt from the start proper practices forthe maintenance of the plant-food stored inthe soil. The principle explained in ChapterIX, that the amount of water required forthe production of one pound of waterdiminishes as the fertility increases, showsthe intimate relationship that existsbetween the soil-fertility and the soil-waterand the importance of maintainingdryfarm soils at a high state of fertility .

CHAPTER XV

IMPLEMENTS FOR DRYFARMING

Cheap land and relatively small acrey ields characterize dry farming.Consequently Iarger areas must be farmedfor a given return than in humid farming,and the successful pursuit of dryfarmingcompels the adoption of methods thatenable a man to do the largest amount ofeffective work with the smallestexpenditure of energy . The carefulobservations made by Grace, in Utah, leadto the belief that, under the conditionsprevailing in the intermountain country ,one man with four horses and a sufficientsupply of machinery can farm 160 acres,half of which is summer-fallowed everyyear; and one man may, in favorableseasons under a carefully planned system,

farm as much as 200 acres. If one manattempts to handle a larger farm, the workis likely to be done in so slipshod a mannerthat the crop y ield decreases and the totalreturns are no larger than if 200 acres hadbeen well tilled.

One man with four horses would be unableto handle even 160 acres were it not for thepossession of modern machinery; anddryfarming, more than any other systemof agriculture, is dependent for its successupon the use of proper implements oftillage. In fact, it is very doubtful if thereclamation of the great arid and semiaridregions of the world would have beenpossible a few decades ago, before theinvention and introduction of labor-savingfarm machinery . It is undoubtedly furthera fact that the future of dry farming isclosely bound up with the improvementsthat may be made in farm machinery .

Few of the agricultural implements on themarket to-day have been made primarilyfor dry farm conditions. The best that thedryfarmer can do is to adapt theimplements on the market to his specialneeds. Possibly the best field ofinvestigation for the experiment stationsand inventive minds in the arid region isfarm mechanics as applied to the specialneeds of dry farming.

Clearing and breaking

A large portion of the dry farm territory ofthe United States is covered withsagebrush and related plants. It is always adifficult and usually an expensive problemto clear sagebrush land, for the shrubs arefrequently from two to six feet high,correspondingly deep-rooted, with very

tough wood. When the soil is dry , it isextremely difficult to pull out sagebrush,and of necessity much of the clearing mustbe done during the dry season. Numerousdevices have been suggested and tried forthe purpose of clearing sagebrush land.One of the oldest and also one of the mosteffective devices is two parallel railroadrails connected with heavy iron chains andused as a drag over the sagebrush land.The sage is caught by the two rails andtorn out of the ground. The clearing isfairly complete, though it is generallynecessary to go over the ground two orthree times before the work is completed.Even after such treatment a large numberof sagebrush clumps, found standing overthe field, must be grubbed up with the hoe.Another and effective device is the so-called “mankiller.” This implement pullsup the sage very successfully and drops itat certain definite intervals.

It is, however, a very dangerous

implement and frequently results ininjury to the men who work it. Of recentyears another device has been tried with agreat deal of success. It is made like a snowplow of heavy railroad irons to which anumber of large steel knives have beenbolted. Neither of these implements iswholly satisfactory , and an acceptablemachine for grubbing sagebrush is yet tobe devised.

In v iew of the large expense attached to theclearing of sagebrush land such a machinewould be of great help in the advancementof dry farming.

Away from the sagebrush country thevirgin dryfarm land is usually coveredwith a more or less dense growth of grass,though true sod is seldom found underdryfarm conditions. The ordinarybreaking plow, characterized by a long

sloping moldboard, is the best knownimplement for breaking all kinds of sod.(See Fig. 7a a.) Where the sod is very light,as on the far western prairies, the moreordinary forms of plows may be used. Instill other sections, the dryfarm land iscovered with a scattered growth of trees,frequently pinion pine and cedars, and inArizona and New Mexico the mesquite treeand cacti are to be removed. Such clearinghas to be done in accordance with thespecial needs of the locality .

Plowing

Plowing, or the turning over of the soil to adepth of from seven to ten inches for everycrop, is a fundamental operation ofdryfarming. The plow, therefore, becomesone of the most important implements on

the dryfarm. Though the plow as anagricultural implement is of greatantiquity , it is only within the last onehundred years that it has attained itspresent perfection. It is a question even to-day , in the minds of a great manystudents, whether the modern plow shouldnot be replaced by some machine evenmore suitable for the proper turning andstirring of the soil. The moldboard plow is,everything considered, the mostsatisfactory plow for dryfarm purposes. Aplow with a moldboard possessing a shortabrupt curvature is generally held to bethe most valuable for dryfarm purposes,since it pulverizes the soil mostthoroughly , and in dry farming it is not soimportant to turn the soil over as tocrumble and loosen it thoroughly .Naturally , since the areas of dry farms arevery large, the sulky or riding plow is theonly kind to be used. The same may be saidof all other dryfarm implements.

As far as possible, they should be of theriding kind since in the end it meanseconomy from the resulting saving ofenergy .

The disk plow has recently come intoprominent use throughout the land. Itconsists, as is well known, of one or morelarge disks which are believed to cause asmaller draft, as they cut into the ground,than the draft due to the sliding frictionupon the moldboard. Davidson and Chasesay , however, that the draft of a disk plowis often heavier in proportion to the workdone and the plow itself is more clumsythan the moldboard plow. For ordinarydryfarm purposes the disk plow has noadvantage over the modern moldboardplow. Many of the dry farm soils are of aheavy clay and become very sticky duringcertain seasons of the year. In such soils thedisk plow is very useful. It is also true that

dryfarm soils, subjected to the intense heatof the western sun become very hard. Inthe handling of such soils the disk plow hasbeen found to be most useful. The commonexperience of dryfarmers is that whensagebrush lands have been the firstplowing can be most successfully done withthe disk plow, but that after. the first crophas been harvested, the stubble land canbe best handled with the moldboard plow.All this, however, is yet to be subjected tofurther tests.

While subsoiling results in a better storagereservoir for water and consequentlymakes dryfarming more secure, yet thehigh cost of the practice will probablynever make it popular. Subsoiling isaccomplished in two ways: either by anordinary moldboard plow which follows theplow in the plow furrow and thus turns thesoil to a greater depth, or by some form of

the ordinary subsoil plow. In general, thesubsoil plow is simply a vertical piece ofcutting iron, down to a depth of ten toeighteen inches, at the bottom of which isfastened a triangular piece of iron like ashovel, which, when pulled through theground, tends to loosen the soil to the fulldepth of the plow.

The subsoil plow does not turn the soil; itsimply loosens the soil so that the air andplant roots can penetrate to greater depths.

In the choice of plows and their proper usethe dryfarmer must be guided wholly bythe conditions under which he is working.It is impossible at the present time to laydown definite laws stating what plows arebest for certain soils. The soils of the aridregion are not well enough known, nor has

the relationship between the plow and thesoil been sufficiently well established. Asabove remarked, here is one of the greatfields for investigation for both scientificand practical men for years to come.

Making and maintaining a soil-mulch

After the land has been so well plowed thatthe rains can enter easily , the nextoperation of importance in dry farming isthe making and maintaining of a soil-mulch over the ground to prevent theevaporation of water from the soil. For thispurpose some form of harrow is mostcommonly used. The oldest and best-knownharrow is the ordinary smoothing harrow,which is composed of iron or steel teeth ofvarious shapes set in a suitable frame. (SeeFig. 79.) For dry farm purposes the

implement must be so made as to enablethe farmer to set the harrow teeth to slantbackward or forward. It frequentlyhappens that in the spring the grain is toothick for the moisture in the soil, and itthen becomes necessary to tear out some ofthe young plants. For this purpose theharrow teeth are set straight or forwardand the crop can then be thinnedeffectively . At other times it may beobserved in the spring that the rains andwinds have led to the formation of a crustover the soil, which must be broken to letthe plants have full freedom of growth anddevelopment. This is accomplished byslanting the harrow teeth backward, andthe crust may then be broken withoutserious injury to the plants. The smoothingharrow is a very useful implement on thedryfarm. For following the plow, however,a more useful implement is the diskharrow, which is a comparatively recentinvention. It consists of a series of disks

which may be set at various angles withthe line of traction and thus be made toturn over the soil while at the same timepulverizing it. The best dry farm practice isto plow in the fall and let the soil lie in therough during the winter months. In thespring the land is thoroughly disked andreduced to a fine condition. Following thisthe smoothing harrow is occasionally usedto form a more perfect mulch. Whenseeding is to be done immediately afterplowing, the plow is followed by the diskharrow, and that in turn is followed by thesmoothing harrow. The ground is thenready for seeding. The disk harrow is alsoused extensively throughout the summerin maintaining a proper mulch. It does itswork more effectively than the ordinarysmoothing harrow and is, therefore,rapidly displacing all other forms ofharrows for the purpose of maintaining alayer of loose soil over the dry farm.

There are several kinds of disk harrows

used by dryfarmers. The full disk is,everything considered, the most useful.The cutaway harrow is often used incultivating old alfalfa land; the spade diskharrow has a very limited application indryfarming; and the orchard disk harrowis simply a modlfication of the full diskharrow whereby the farmer is able totravel between the rows of trees and so tocultivate the soil under the branches of thetrees without injuring the leaves or fruit.

One of the great difficulties in dry farmingconcerns itself with the prevention of thegrowth of weeds or volunteer crops. As hasbeen explained in previous chapters, weedsrequire as much water for their growth aswheat or other useful crops. During thefallow season, the farmer is likely to beovertaken by the weeds and lose much ofthe value of the fallow by losing soil-moisture through the growth of weeds.

Under the most favorable conditions weedsare difficult to handle. The disk harrowitself is not effective. The smoothingharrow is of less value. There is at thepresent time great need for someimplement that will effectively destroyyoung weeds and prevent their furthergrowth. Attempts are being made toinvent such implements, but up to thepresent without great success.

Hogenson reports the finding of animplement on a western dryfarmconstructed by the farmer himself whichfor a number of years has shown itself ofhigh efficiency in keeping the dryfarm freefrom weeds. Several improvedmodifications of this implement have beenmade and tried out on the famous dryfarmdistrict at Nephi, Utah, and with thegreatest success. Hunter reports a similarimplement in common use on thedryfarms of the Columbia Basin. Springtooth harrows are also used in a small way

on the dryfarms.

They have no special advantage over thesmoothing harrow or the disk harrow,except in places where the attempt is madeto cultivate the soil between the rows ofwheat. The curved knife tooth harrow isscareely ever used on dryfarms. It hassome value as a pulverizer, but does notseem to have any real advantage over theordinary disk harrow.

Cultivators for stirring the land on whichcrops are growing are not used extensivelyon dryfarms. Usually the spring toothharrow is employed for this work. Indryfarm sections, where corn is grown, thecultivator is frequently used throughoutthe season. Potatoes grown on dryfarmsshould be cultivated throughout the

season, and as the potato industry grows inthe dryfarm territory there will be agreater demand for suitable cultivators.The cultivators to be used on dryfarms areall of the riding kind. They should be soarranged that the horse walking betweentwo rows carries a cultivator that straddlesseveral rows of plants and cultivates thesoil between. Disks, shovels, or spring teethmay be used on cultivators. There is agreat variety on the market, and eachfarmer will have to choose such as meetmost definitely his needs.

The various forms of harrows andcultivators are of the greatest importancein the development of dryfarming. Unlessa proper mulch can be kept over the soilduring the fallow season, and as far aspossible during the growing season, first-class crops cannot be fully respected.

The roller is occasionally used indryfarming, especially in the uplands ofthe Columbia Basin. It is a somewhatdangerous implement to use where waterconservation is important, since thepacking resulting from the roller tends todraw water upward from the lower soillayers to be evaporated into the air.Wherever the roller is used, therefore, itshould be followed immediately by aharrow. It is valuable chiefly in thelocalities where the soil is very loose andlight and needs packing around the seeds topermit perfect germination.

Subsurface packing

The subsurface packer invented by

Campbell is [shown in Figure 83—notshown—ed.]. The wheels of this machineeighteen inches in diameter, with rims oneinch thick at the inner part, beveled twoand a half inches to a sharp outer edge, areplaced on a shaft, five inches apart. Inpractice about five hundred pounds ofweight are added.

This machine, according to Campbell,crowds a one-inch wedge into every fiveinches of soil with a lateral and adownward pressure and thus packs firmlythe soil near the bottom of the plow-furrow.

Subsurface packing aims to establish fullcapillary connection between the plowedupper soil and the undisturbed lower soil-layer; to bring the moist soil in closecontact with the straw or organic litterplowed under and thus to hastendecomposition, and to provide a firm seed

bed.

The subsurface packer probably has somevalue where the plowed soil containing thestubble is somewhat loose; or on soils whichdo not permit of a rapid decay of stubbleand other organic matter that may beplowed under from season to season. Onsuch soils the packing tendency of thesubsurface packer may help prevent loss ofsoil water, and may also assist infurnishing a more uniform mediumthrough which plant roots may force theirway . For all these purposes, the disk isusually equally efficient.

Sowing

It has already been indicated in previous

chapters that proper sowing is one of themost important operations of the dry farm,quite comparable in importance withplowing or the maintaining of a mulch forretaining soil-moisture. The old-fashionedmethod of broadcasting has absolutely noplace on a dry farm. The success ofdryfarming depends entirely upon thecontrol that the farmer has of all theoperations of the farm. By broadcasting,neither the quantity of seed used nor themanner of placing the seed in the groundcan be regulated. Drill culture, therefore,introduced by Jethro Tull two hundredyears ago, which gives the farmer fullcontrol over the process of seeding, is theonly system to be used.

The numerous seed drills on the market allemploy the same principles. Theirvariations are few and simple. In all seeddrills the seed is forced into tubes so placedas to enable the seed to fall into the furrowsin the ground. The drills themselves are

distinguished almost wholly by the type ofthe furrow opener and the covering deviceswhich are used. The seed furrow is openedeither by a small hoe or a so-called shoe ordisk. At the present time it appears thatthe single disk is the coming method ofopening the seed furrow and that the othermethods will gradually disappear. As theseed is dropped into the furrow thus madeit is covered by some device at the rear ofthe machine. One of the oldest methods aswell as one of the most satisfactory is aseries of chains dragging behind the drilland covering the furrow quite completely .It is, however, very desirable that the soilshould be pressed carefully around the seedso that germination may begin with theleast difficulty whenever the temperatureconditions are right. Most of the drills ofthe day are, therefore, provided with largelight wheels, one for each furrow, whichpress lightly upon the soil and force the soilinto intimate contact with the seed The

weakness of such an arrangement is thatthe soil along the drill furrows is leftsomewhat packed, which leads to a readyescape of the soil-moisture.

Many of the drills are so arranged thatpress wheels may be used at the pleasure ofthe farmer. The seed drill is already a veryuseful implement and is rapidly beingmade to meet the special requirements ofthe dryfarmer. Corn planters are usedalmost exclusively on dryfarms wherecorn is the leading crop. In principle theyare very much the same as the press drills.Potatoes are also generally planted bymachinery . Wherever seeding machineryhas been constructed based upon theprinciples of dry farming, it is a veryadvantageous adjunct to the dry farm.

Harvesting

The immense areas of dryfarms areharvested almost wholly by the mostmodern machinery . For grain, theharvester is used almost exclusively in thedistricts where the header cannot be used,but wherever conditions permit, theheader is and should be used. It has beenexplained in previous chapters howvaluable the tall header stubble is whenplowed under as a means of maintainingthe fertility of the soil. Besides, there is anease in handling the header which is notknown with the harvester. There are timeswhen the header leads to some waste as, forinstance, when the wheat is very low andheads are missed as the machine passesover the ground. In many sections of thedryfarm territory the climatic conditionsare such that the wheat cures perfectlywhile still standing. In such places thecombined harvester and thresher is used.The header cuts off the heads of the grain,

which are passed up into the thresher, andbags filled with threshed grain are droppedalong the path of the machine, while thestraw is scattered over the ground.Wherever such a machine can be used, ithas been found to be economical andsatisfactory . Of recent years corn stalkshave been used to better advantage thanin the past, for not far from one half of thefeeding value of the corn crop is in thestalks, which up to a few years ago werevery largely wasted. Corn harvesters arelikewise on the market and are quitegenerally used. It was manifestlyimpossible on large places to harvest cornby hand and large corn harvesters have,therefore, been made for this purpose.

Steam and other motive power

Recently numerous persons have suggestedthat the expense of running a dry farmcould be materially reduced by using somemotive power other than horses. Steam,gasoline, and electricity have all beensuggested. The steam traction engine isalready a fairly well-developed machineand it has been used for plowing purposeson many dryfarms in nearly all thesections of the dryfarm territory .

Unfortunately , up to the present it has notshown itself to be very satisfactory . First ofall it is to be remembered that theprinciples of dry farming require that thetopsoil be kept very loose and spongy . Thegreat traction engines have very widewheels of such tremendous weight thatthey press down the soil very compactlyalong their path and in that way defeatone of the important purposes of tillage.Another objection to them is that atpresent their construction is such as toresult in continual breakages. While these

breakages in themselves are small andinexpensive, they mean the cessation of allfarming operations during the hour or dayrequired for repairs. A large crew of men isthus left more or less idle, to the seriousinjury of the work and to the great expenseof the owner. Undoubtedly , the tractionengine has a place in dry farming, but ithas not yet been perfected to such a degreeas to make it satisfactory . On heavy soils itis much more useful than on light soils.When the traction engine workssatisfactorily , plowing may be done at acost considerably lower than when horsesare employed.

In England, Germany, and other Europeancountries some of the difficulties connectedwith plowing have been overcome by usingtwo engines on the two opposite sides of afield. These engines move synchronouslytogether and, by means of large cables,

plows, harrows, or seeders, are pulled backand forth over the field. This method seemsto give good satisfaction on many largeestates of the old world. Macdonald reportsthat such a system is in successfuloperation in the Transvaal in South Africaand is doing work there at a very knewcost. The large initial cost of such a systemwill, of course, prohibit its use except onthe very large farms that are beingestablished in the dryfarm territory .

Gasoline engines are also being tried out,but up to date they have not shownthemselves as possessing superioradvantages over the steam engines. Thetwo objections to them are the same as tothe steam engine: first, their great weight,which compresses in a dangerous degreethe topsoil and, secondly , the frequentbreakages, which make the operation slowand expensive.

Over a great part of the West, water poweris very abundant and the suggestion hasbeen made that the electric energy whichcan be developed by means of water powercould be used in the cultural operations ofthe dryfarm. With the development of thetrolley car which does not run on rails itwould not seem impossible that infavorable localities electricity could bemade to serve the farmer in themechanical tillage of the dryfarm.

The substitution of steam and other energyfor horse power is yet in the future.Undoubtedly , it will come, but only asimprovements are made in the machines.There is here also a great field for being ofhigh serv ice to the farmers who areattempting to reclaim the great deserts ofthe world. As stated at the beginning of

this chapter, dry farming would probablyhave been an impossibility fifty or ahundred years ago because of the absenceof suitable machinery . The future ofdryfarming rests almost wholly , so far asits profits are concerned, upon thedevelopment of new and more suitablemachinery for the tillage of the soil inaccordance with the established principlesof dry farming.

Finally , the recommendations made byMerrill may here be inserted. A dryfarmerfor best work should be supplied with thefollowing implements in addition to thenecessary wagons and hand tools:—

One Plow.

One Disk.

One Smoothing Harrow.

One Drill Seeder.

One Harvester or Header.

One Mowing Machine.

CHAPTER XVI

IRRIGATION AND DRYFARMING

Irrigation-farming and dryfarming areboth systems of agriculture devised for thereclamation of countries that ordinarilyreceive an annual rainfall of twenty inchesor less. Irrigation-farming cannot of itselfreclaim the arid regions of the world, forthe available water supply of aridcountries when it shall have beenconserved in the best possible way cannotbe made to irrigate more than one fifth ofthe thirsty land. This means that underthe highest possible development ofirrigation, at least in the United States,there will be five or six acres of unirrigatedor dryfarm land for every acre of irrigatedland. Irrigation development cannotpossibly , therefore, render the dryfarm

movement valueless. On the other hand,dryfarming is furthered by thedevelopment of irrigation farming, forboth these systems of agriculture arecharacterized by advantages that makeirrigation and dryfarming supplementaryto each other in the successful developmentof any arid region.

Under irrigation, smaller areas need to becultivated for the same crop returns, for ithas been amply demonstrated that theacre y ields under proper irrigation arevery much larger than the best y ieldsunder the most careful system ofdryfarming. Secondly , a greater variety ofcrops may be grown on the irrigated farmthan on the dryfarm. As has already beenshown in this volume, only certain drouthresistant crops can be grown profitablyupon dryfarms, and these must be grownunder the methods of extensive farming.

The longer growing crops, including trees,succulent vegetables, and a variety ofsmall fruits, have not as yet been made toy ield profitably under arid conditionswithout the artificial application of water.Further, the irrigation-farmer is notlargely dependent upon the weather and,therefore, carries on this work with afeeling of greater security . Of course, it istrue that the dry years affect the flow ofwater in the canals and that the frequentbreaking of dams and canal walls leavesthe farmer helpless in the face of theblistering heat. Yet, all in all, a greaterfeeling of security is possessed by theirrigation farmer than by the dry farmer.

Most important, however, are thetemperamental differences in men whichmake some desirous of giv ing themselves tothe cultivation of a small area of irrigatedland under intensive conditions and others

to dryfarming under extensive conditions.In fact, it is being observed in the aridregion that men, because of theirtemperamental differences, are graduallyseparating into the two classes ofirrigation-farmers and dryfarmers. Thedryfarms of necessity cover much largerareas than the irrigated farms. The land ischeaper and the crops are smaller. Themethods to be applied are those of extensivefarming. The profits on the investmentalso appear to be somewhat larger. Thevery necessity of pitting intellect againstthe fierceness of the drouth appears to haveattracted many-men to the dryfarms.Gradually the certainty of producing cropson dryfarms from season to season isbecoming established, and the essentialdifference between the two kinds offarming in the arid districts will then hethe difference between intensive andextensive methods of culture. Men will beattracted to one or other of these systems of

agriculture according to their personalinclinations.

The scarcity of water

For the development of a well-roundedcommonwealth in an arid region it is, ofcourse, indispensable that irrigation bepracticed, for dry farming of itself will findit difficult to build up populous cities and tosupply the great variety of cropsdemanded by the modern family . In fact,one of the great problems before thoseengaged in the development of dry farmingat present is the development ofhomesteads in the dry farms. A homesteadis possible only where there is a sufficientamount of free water available forhousehold and stock purposes. In theportion of the dry farm territory where the

rainfall approximates twenty inches, thisproblem is not so very difficult, sinceground water may be reached easily . Inthe drier portions, however, where therainfall is between ten and fifteen inches,the problem is much more important.

The conditions that bring the districtunder the dryfarm designation imply ascarcity of water. On few dryfarms iswater available for the needs of thehousehold and the barns. In the RockyMountain states numerous dryfarms havebeen developed from seven to fifteen milesfrom the nearest source of water, and themain expense of developing these farmshas been the hauling of water to the farmsto supply the needs of the men and beastsat work on them.

Naturally , it is impossible to establishhomesteads on the dryfarms unless at leasta small supply of water is available; anddryfarming will never he what it might be

unless happy homes can be establishedupon the farms in the arid regions thatgrow crops without irrigation. To make adryfarm homestead possible enough watermust be available, first of all, to supply theculinary needs of the household. This ofitself is not large and, as will be shownhereafter, may in most cases be obtained.However, in order that the family maypossess proper comforts, there should bearound the homestead trees, and shrubs,and grasses, and the family garden. Tosecure these things a certain amount ofirrigation water is required. It may beadded that dryfarms on which suchhomesteads are found as a result of theexistence of a small supply of irrigationwater are much more valuable, in case ofsale, than equally good farms without thepossibility of maintaining homesteads.Moreover, the distinct value of irrigationin producing a large acre y ield makes itdesirable for the farmer to use all the water

at his disposal for irrigation purposes. Noavailable water should be allowed to flowaway unused.

Available surface water

The sources of water for dryfarms fallreadily into classes: surface waters andsubterranean waters. The surface waters,wherever they may be obtained, aregenerally the most profitable. The simplestmethod of obtaining water in an irrigatedregion is from some irrigation canal. Incertain districts of the intermountainregion where the dry farms lie above theirrigation canals and the irrigated landsbelow, it is comparatively easy for thefarmers to secure a small but sufficientamount of water from the canal by the useof some pumping device that will force the

water through the pipes to the homestead.The dryfarm area that may be so suppliedby irrigation canals is, however, verylimited and is not to be considered seriouslyin connection with the problem.

A much more important method,especially in the mountainous districts, isthe utilization of the springs that occur ingreat numbers over the whole dryfarmterritory . Sometimes these springs arevery small indeed, and often, afterdevelopment by tunneling into the side ofthe hill, y ield only a trifling flow. Yet,when this water is piped to the homesteadand allowed to accumulate in smallreservoirs or cisterns, it may be amplysufficient for the needs of the family andthe live stock, besides having a surplus forthe maintenance of the lawn, the shadetrees, and the family garden.

Many dryfarmers in the intermountaincountry have piped water seven or eightmiles from small springs that wereconsidered practically worthless andthereby have formed the foundations forsmall v illage communities.

Of perhaps equal importance with theutilization of the naturally occurringsprings is the proper conservation of theflood waters. As has been stated before, aridconditions allow a very large loss of thenatural precipitation as run-off. Thenumerous gullies that characterize somany parts of the dry farm territory areevidences of the number and v igor of theflood waters. The construction of smallreservoirs in proper places for the purposeof catching the flood waters will usuallyenable the farmer to supply himself withall the water needed for the homestead.Such reservoirs may already be found in

great numbers scattered over the wholewestern America.

As dryfarming increases their numberswill also increase.

When neither canals, nor springs, nor floodwaters are available for the supply ofwater, it is yet possible to obtain a limitedsupply by so arranging the roof gutters onthe farm buildings that all the water thatfalls on the roofs is conducted through thespouts into carefully protected cisterns orreservoirs. A house thirty by thirty feet,the roof of which is so constructed that allthat water that falls upon it is carried intoa cistern will y ield annually under a arainfall of fifteen inches a maximumamount of water equivalent to about 8800gallons. Allowing for the unavoidablewaste due to evaporation, this will y ieldenough to supply a household and some

live stock with the necessary water. Inextreme cases this has been found to be avery satisfactory practice, though it is theone to be resorted to only in case no othermethod is available.

It is indispensable that some reservoir beprovided to hold the surface water thatmay be obtained until the time it may beneeded.

The water coming constantly from aspring in summer should be applied tocrops only at certain definite seasons of theyear. The flood waters usually come at atime when plant growth is not active andirrigation is not needed.

The rainfall also in many districts comesmost largely at seasons of no or little plant

growth. Reservoirs must, therefore, beprovided for the storing of the water untilthe periods when it is demanded by crops.Cement-lined cisterns are quite common,and in many places cement reservoirshave been found profitable. In other placesthe occurrence of impervious clay hasmade possible the establishment andconstruction of cheap reservoirs. Theskillful and permanent construction ofreservoirs is a very important subject.Reservoir building should be undertakenonly after a careful study of the prevailingconditions and under the advice of thestate or government officials having suchwork in charge. In general, the first cost ofsmall reservoirs is usually somewhat high,but in v iew of their permanent serv ice andthe value of the water to the dryfarm theypay a very handsome interest on theinvestment. It is always a mistake for thedryfarmer to postpone the construction of areservoir for the storing of the small

quantities of water that he may possess, inorder to save a little money . Perhaps thegreatest objection to the use of thereservoirs is not their relatively high cost,but the fact that since they are usuallysmall and the water shallow, too large aproportion of the water, even underfavorable conditions, is lost byevaporation. It is ordinarily assumed thatone half of the water stored in smallreservoirs throughout the year is lost bydirect evaporation.

Available subterranean water

Where surface waters are not readilyavailable, the subterranean water is offirst importance. It is generally knownthat, underly ing the earth’s surface atvarious depths, there is a large quantity of

free water. Those liv ing in humid climatesoften overestimate the amount of water soheld in the earth’s crust, and it is probablytrue that those liv ing in arid regionsunderestimate the quantity of water sofound. The fact of the matter seems to bethat free water is found everywhere underthe earth’s surface. Those familiar with thearid West have frequently been surprisedby the frequency with which water hasbeen found at comparatively shallowdepths in the most desert locations. Variousestimates have been made as to thequantity of underly ing water. The latestcalculation and perhaps the most reliableis that made by Fuller, who, after a carefulanalysis of the factors involved, concludesthat the total free water held in the earth’scrust is equivalent to a uniform sheet ofwater over the entire surface of the earthninety-six feet in depth. A quantity ofwater thus held would be equivalent toabout one hundredth part of the whole

volume of the ocean. Even though thethickness of the water sheet under aridsoils is only half this figure there is anamount, if it could be reached, that wouldmake possible the establishment ofhomesteads over the whole dryfarmterritory . One of the main efforts of the dayis the determination of the occurrence ofthe subterranean waters in the dryfarmterritory .

Ordinary dug wells frequently reach waterat comparatively shallow depths. Over thecultivated Utah deserts water is oftenfound at a depth of twenty-five or thirtyfeet, though many wells dug to a depth ofone hundred and seventy-five and twohundred feet have failed to reach water. Itmay be remarked in this connection thateven where the distance to the water issmall, the piped well has been found to besuperior to the dug well. Usually , water is

obtained in the dryfarm territory bydriv ing pipes to comparatively greatdepths, ranging from one hundred feet toover one thousand feet. At such depthswater is nearly always found. Often thegeological conditions are such as to forcethe water up above the surface as artesianwells, though more often the pressure issimply sufficient to bring the water withineasy pumping distance of the surface. Inconnection with this subject it must be saidthat many of the subterranean waters ofthe dryfarm territory are of a salinecharacter. The amount of substances heldin solution varies largely , but frequently isfar above the limits of safety for the use ofman or beast or plants. The dryfarmer whosecures a well of this type should,therefore, be careful to have a properexamination made of the constituents ofthe water before ordinary use is made of it.

Now, as has been said, the utilization of thesubterranean waters of the land is one ofthe liv ing problems of dry farming. Thetracing out of this layer of water is verydifficult to accomplish and cannot be doneby indiv iduals. It is a work that properlybelongs to the state and nationalgovernment. The state of Utah, which wasthe pioneer in appropriating money fordryfarm experiments, also led the way inappropriating money for the securing ofwater for the dryfarms from subterraneansources. The world has been progressing inUtah since 1905, and water has beensecured in the most unpromising localities.The most remarkable instance is perhapsthe finding of water at a depth of about fivehundred and fifty feet in the unusuallydry Dog Valley located some fifteen mileswest of Nephi.

Pumping water

The use of small quantities of water on thedryfarms carries with it, in most cases, theuse of small pumping plants to store and todistribute the water properly . Especially ,whenever subterranean sources of waterare used and the water pressure is notsufficient to throw the water above theground, pumping must be resorted to.

The pumping of water for agriculturalpurposes is not at all new.

According to Fortier, two hundredthousand acres of land are irrigated withwater pumped from driven wells in thestate of California alone. Seven hundredand fifty thousand acres are irrigated bypumping in the United States, and Meadstates that there are thirteen million acresof land in India which are irrigated bywater pumped from subterranean sources.The dryfarmer has a choice among several

sources of power for the operation of hispumping plant. In localities where windsare frequent and of sufficient strengthwindmills furnish cheap and effectivepower, especially where the lift is not verygreat. The gasoline engine is in a state ofconsiderable perfection and may be usedeconomically where the price of gasoline isreasonable. Engines using crude oil may bemost desirable in the localities where oilwells have been found. As the manufactureof alcohol from the waste products of thefarms becomes established, the alcohol-burning engine could become a veryimportant one. Over nearly the whole ofthe dryfarm territory coal is found in largequantities, and the steam engine fed bycoal is an important factor in the pumpingof water for irrigation purposes. Further,in the mountainous part of the dry farmterritory water Power is very abundant.Only the smallest fraction of it has as yetbeen harnessed for the generation of the

electric current. As electric generationincreases, it should be comparatively easyfor the farmer to secure sufficient electricpower to run the pump. This has alreadybecome an established practice in districtswhere electric power is available.

During the last few years considerablework has been done to determine thefeasibility of raising water for irrigation bypumping. Fortier reports that successfulresults have been obtained in Colorado,Wyoming, and Montana. He declares thata good type of windmill located in a districtwhere the average wind movement is tenmiles per hour can lift enough watertwenty feet to irrigate five acres of land.Wherever the water is near the surfacethis should be easy of accomplishment.Vernon, Lovett, and Scott, who workedunder New Mexico conditions, havereported that crops can be produced

profitably by the use of water raised to thesurface for irrigation. Fleming andStoneking, who conducted very carefulexperiments on the subject in New Mexico,found that the cost of raising through onefoot a quantity of water corresponding to adepth of one foot over one acre of landvaried from a cent and an eighth to nearlytwenty-nine cents, with an average of alittle more than ten cents. This means thatthe cost of raising enough water to coverone acre to a depth of one foot through adistance of forty feet would average $4.36.This includes not only the cost of the fueland supervision of the pump but the actualdeterioration of the plant. Smithinvestigated the same problem underArizona conditions and found that it costapproximately seventeen cents to raise oneacre foot of water to a height of one foot. Avery elaborate investigation of this naturewas conducted in California by Le Conteand Tait. They studied a large number of

pumping plants in actual operation underCalifornia conditions, and determined thatthe total cost of raising one acre foot ofwater one foot was, for gasoline power, fourcents and upward; for electric power, sevento sixteen cents, and for steam, four centsand upward. Mead has reportedobservations on seventy-two windmillsnear Garden City , Kansas, which irrigatedfrom one fourth to seven acres each at acost of seventy-five cents to $6 per acre. Allin all, these results justify the belief thatwater may be raised profitably bypumping for the purpose of irrigatingcrops. When the very great value of a littlewater on a dryfarm is considered, thefigures here given do not seem at allexcessive. It must be remarked again thata reservoir of some sort is practicallyindispensable in connection with apumping plant if the irrigation water is tobe used in the best way .

The use of small quantities of water inirrigation Now, it is undoubtedly true thatthe acre cost of water on dryfarms, wherepumping plants or similar devices must beused with expensive reservoirs, is muchhigher than when water is obtained fromgravity canals. It is, therefore, importantthat the costly water so obtained be used inthe most economical manner. This isdoubly important in v iew of the fact thatthe water supply obtained on dryfarms isalways small and insufficient for all thatthe farmer would like to do. Indeed, theprofit in storing and pumping water restslargely upon the economical application ofwater to crops. This necessitates thestatement of one of the first principles ofscientific irrigation practices, namely ,that the y ield of a crop under irrigation isnot proportional to the amount of waterapplied in the form of irrigation water. Inother words, the water stored in the soil bythe natural precipitation and the water

that falls during the spring and summercan either mature a small crop or bring acrop near maturity . A small amount ofwater added in the form of irrigation waterat the right time will usually complete thework and produce a well-matured crop oflarge y ield.

Irrigation should only be supplemented tothe natural precipitation.

As more irrigation water is added, theincrease in y ield becomes smaller inproportion to the amount of wateremployed. This is clearly shown by thefollowing table, which is taken from someof the irrigation experiments carried on atthe Utah Station:—

Effect of Vary ing Irrigations on Crop YieldsPer Acre Depth of Water Wheat CornAlfalfa Potatoes Sugar Beets Applied

(Inches) (Bushels) (Bushels) (Pounds)(Bushels) (Tons) 5.0 40 194 25

7.5 41 65

10.0 41 80 213 26

15.0 46 78 253 27

25.0 49 77 10,056 258

35.0 55 9,142 291 26

50 60 84 13,061

The soil was a typical arid soil of greatdepth and had been so cultivated as tocontain a large quantity of the naturalprecipitation. The first five inches of wateradded to the precipitation already stored inthe soil produced forty bushels of wheat.Doubling this amount of irrigation waterproduced only forty-one bushels of wheat.

Even with an irrigation of fifty inches, orten times that which produced fortybushels, only sixty bushels of wheat, or anincrease of one half, were produced. Asimilar variation may be observed in thecase of the other crops. The first lesson to bedrawn from this important principle ofirrigation is that if the soil be so treated asto contain at planting time the largestproportion of the natural precipitation,—that is, if the ordinary methods ofdryfarming be employed,—crops will beproduced with a very small amount ofirrigation water. Secondly , it follows thatit would be a great deal better for thefarmer who raises wheat, for instance, tocover ten acres of land with water to adepth of five inches than to cover one acreto a depth of fifty inches, for in the formercase four hundred bushels and in thesecond sixty bushels of wheat would beproduced. The farmer who desires to utilizein the most economical manner the small

amount of water at his disposal mustprepare the land according to dry farmmethods and then must spread the waterat his disposal over a larger area of land.The land must be plowed in the fall if theconditions permit, and fallowing should bepracticed wherever possible. If the farmerdoes not wish to fallow his family gardenhe can achieve equally good results byplanting the rows twice as far apart as isordinarily the case and by bringing theirrigation furrows near the rows of plants.Then, to make the best use of the water, hemust carefully cover the irrigation furrowwith dry dirt immediately after the waterhas been applied and keep the wholesurface well stirred so that evaporationwill be reduced to a minimum. Thebeginning of irrigation wisdom is alwaysthe storage of the natural precipitation.When that is done correctly , it is reallyremarkable how far a small amount ofirrigation water may be made to go.

Under conditions of water scarcity it isoften found profitable to carry water to thegarden in cement or iron pipes so that nowater may be lost by seepage orevaporation during the conveyance of thewater from the reservoir to the garden. Itis also often desirable to convey water toplants through pipes laid under theground, perforated at various intervals toallow the water to escape and soak into thesoil in the neighborhood of the plant roots.All such refined methods of irrigationshould be carefully investigated by thewho wants the largest results from hislimited water supply .

Though such methods may seemcumbersome and expensive at first, yetthey will be found, if properly arranged, tobe almost automatic in their operation andalso very profitable.

Forbes has reported a most interestingexperiment dealing with the economicaluse of a small water supply under the longseason and intense water dissipatingconditions of Arizona. The source of supplywas a well, 90 feet deep. A 3 by 14-inchpump cy linder operated by a 12-footgeared windmill lifted the water into a5000-gallon storage reservoir standing ona support 18 feet high.

The water was conveyed from thisreservoir through black iron pipes buried 1or 2 feet from the trees to be watered.Small holes in the pipe 332 inch indiameter allowed the water to escape atdesirable intervals. This irrigation plantwas under expert observation forconsiderable time, and it was found tofurnish sufficient water for domestic usefor one household, and irrigated in addition61 olive trees, 2 cottonwoods, 8 pepper

trees, 1 date palm, 19 pomegranates, 4grapevines, 1 fig tree, 9 eucalyptus trees, 1ash, and 13

miscellancous, making a total of 87 usefultrees, mainly fruit-bearing, and 32 v inesand bushes. (See Fig. 95.) If such a resultcan be obtained with a windmill and withwater ninety feet below the surface underthe arid conditions of Arizona, there shouldbe little difficulty in securing sufficientwater over the larger portions of thedryfarm territory to make possiblebeautiful homesteads.

The dryfarmer should carefully avoid thetemptation to decry irrigation practices.Irrigation and dryfarming of necessitymust go hand in hand in the developmentof the great arid regions of the world.Neither can well stand alone in thebuilding of great commonwealths on the

deserts of the earth.

CHAPTER XVII

THE HISTORY OF DRYFARMING

The great nations of antiquity lived andprospered in arid and semiarid countries.In the more or less rainless regions ofChina, Mesopotamia, Palestine, Egypt,Mexico, and Peru, the greatest cities andthe mightiest peoples flourished in ancientdays. Of the great civ ilizations of historyonly that of Europe has rooted in a humidclimate. As Hilgard has suggested, historyteaches that a high civ ilization goes handin hand with a soil that thirsts for water.

To-day , current events point to the aridand semiarid regions as the chiefdependence of our modern civ ilization.

In v iew of these facts it may be inferredthat dryfarming is an ancient practice. Itis improbable that intelligent men andwomen could live in Mesopotamia, forexample, for thousands of years withoutdiscovering methods whereby the fertilesoils could be made to produce crops in asmall degree at least without irrigation.

True, the low development of implementsfor soil culture makes it fairly certain thatdryfarming in those days was practicedonly with infinite labor and patience; andthat the great ancient nations found itmuch easier to construct great irrigationsystems which would make crops certainwith a minimum of soil tillage, than sothoroughly to till the soil with imperfectimplements as to produce certain y ieldswithout irrigation. Thus is explained thefact that the historians of antiquity speakat length of the wonderful irrigationsystems, but refer to other forms ofagriculture in a most casual manner.

While the absence of agriculturalmachinery makes it very doubtfulwhether dryfarming was practicedextensively in olden days, yet there can belittle doubt of the high antiquity of thepractice.

Kearney quotes Tunis as an example of thepossible extent of dry farming in earlyhistorical days. Tunis is under an averagerainfall of about nine inches, and there areno evidences of irrigation having beenpracticed there, yet at El Djem are theruins of an amphitheater large enough toaccommodate sixty thousand persons, andin an area of one hundred square milesthere were fifteen towns and forty-fivevillages. The country , therefore, musthave been densely populated. In theseventh century , according to the Romanrecords, there were two million fivehundred thousand acres of olive trees

growing in Tunis and cultivated withoutirrigation. That these stupendous grovesy ielded well is indicated by the statementthat, under the Caesar’s Tunis was taxedthree hundred thousand gallons of olive oilannually . The production of oil was sogreat that from one town it was piped tothe nearest shipping port. This historicalfact is borne out by the present rev ival ofolive culture in Tunis, mentioned inChapter XII.

Moreover, many of the primitive peoples ofto-day , the Chinese, Hindus, Mexicans, andthe American Indians, are cultivatinglarge areas of land by dryfarm methods,often highly perfected, which have beendeveloped generations ago, and have beenhanded down to the present day . Martinrelates that the Tarahumari Indians ofnorthern Chihuahua, who are among themost thriv ing aboriginal tribes of northern

Mexico, till the soil by dry farm methodsand succeed in raising annually largequantities of corn and other crops. A cropfailure among them is very uncommon.The early American explorers, especiallythe Catholic fathers, found occasionaltribes in various parts of Americacultivating the soil successfully withoutirrigation. All this points to the highantiquity of agriculture without irrigationin arid and semiarid countries.

Modern dryfarming in the United StatesThe honor of having originated moderndryfarming belongs to the people of Utah.On July 24th, 1847, Brigham Young withhis band of pioneers entered Great SaltLake Valley , and on that day ground wasplowed, potatoes planted, and a tinystream of water led from City Creek tocover this first farm. The early endeavorsof the Utah pioneers were devoted almost

wholly to the construction of irrigationsystems. The parched desert groundappeared so different from the moist soils ofIllinois and Iowa, which the pioneers hadcultivated, as to make it seem impossible toproduce crops without irrigation. Still, astime wore on, inquiring minds consideredthe possibility of growing crops withoutirrigation; and occasionally when a farmerwas deprived of his supply of irrigationwater through the breaking of a canal orreservoir it was noticed by the communitythat in spite of the intense heat the plantsgrew and produced small y ields.

Gradually the conviction grew upon theUtah pioneers that farming withoutirrigation was not an impossibility ; but thesmall population were kept so busy withtheir small irrigated farms that no seriousattempts at dry farming were made duringthe first seven or eight years. The

publications of those days indicate thatdryfarming must have been practicedoccasionally as early as 1854

or 1855.

About 1863 the first dry farm experimentof any consequence occurred in Utah. Anumber of emigrants of Scandinaviandescent had settled in what is now knownas Bear River City , and had turned upontheir farms the alkali water of MaladCreek, and naturally the crops failed. Indesperation the starv ing settlers plowed upthe sagebrush land, planted grain, andawaited results. To their surprise, fairy ields of grain were obtained, and sincethat day dryfarming has been anestablished practice in that portion of theGreat Salt Lake Valley . A year or two later,Christopher Layton, a pioneer who helpedto build both Utah and Arizona, plowed up

land on the famous Sand Ridge betweenSalt Lake City and Ogden anddemonstrated that dry farm wheat could begrown successfully on the deep sandy soilwhich the pioneers had held to be worthlessfor agricultural purposes. Since that daythe Sand Ridge has been famous as adryfarm district, and Major J. W. Powell,who saw the ripened fields of grain in thehot dry sand, was moved upon to makespecial mention of them in his volume onthe “Arid Lands of Utah,” published in1879.

About this time, perhaps a year or twolater, Joshua Salisbury and George L.Farrell began dryfarm experiments in thefamous Cache Valley , one hundred milesnorth of Salt Lake City . After some years ofexperimentation, with numerous failuresthese and other pioneers established thepractice of dry farming in Cache Valley ,

which at present is one of the most famousdryfarm sections in the United States. InTooele County , Just south of Salt Lake City ,dry farming was practiced in 1877—howmuch earlier is not known. In the northernUtah counties dryfarming assumedproportions of consequence only in thelater ‘70’s and early ‘80’s. During the ‘80’sit became a thoroughly established andextensive business practice in the northernpart of the state.

California, which was settled soon afterUtah, began dryfarm experiments a littlelater than Utah. The available informationindicates that the first farming withoutirrigation in California began in thedistricts of somewhat high precipitation.As the population increased, the practicewas pushed away from the mountainstowards the regions of more limitedrainfall. According to Hilgard, successful

dryfarming on an extensive scale has beenpracticed in California since about 1868.Olin reports that moisture-saving methodswere used on the Californian farms asearly as 1861. Certainly , California was aclose second in originating dryfarming.

The Columbia Basin was settled by MareusWhitman near Walla Walla in 1836, butfarming did not gain much headway untilthe railroad pushed through the greatNorthwest about 1880. Those familiarwith the history of the state of Washingtondeclare that dry farming was in successfuloperation in isolated districts in the late‘70’s. By 1890 it was a well-establishedpractice, but received a serious setback bythe financial panic of 1892-1893. Reallysuccessful and extensive dry farming in theColumbia Basin began about 1897. Thepractice of summer fallow had begun ayear or two before. It is interesting to note

that both in California and Washingtonthere are districts in which dryfarminghas been practiced successfully under aprecipitation of about ten inches whereasin Utah the limit has been more nearlytwelve inches.

In the Great Plains area the history ofdryfarming Is hopelessly lost in the greaterhistory of the development of the easternand more humid parts of that section of thecountry . The great influx of settlers on thewestern slope of the Great Plains areaoccurred in the early ‘80’s and overflowedinto eastern Colorado and Wyoming a fewyears later. The settlers of this regionbrought with them the methods of humidagriculture and because of the relativelyhigh precipitation were not forced into thecareful methods of moisture conservationthat had been forced upon Utah,California, and the Columbia Basin.

Consequently , more failures in dry farmingare reported from those early days in theGreat Plains area than from the driersections of the far West Dryfarming waspracticed very successfully in the GreatPlains area during the later ‘80’s.

According to Payne, the crops of 1889 werevery good; in 1890, less so; in 1891, better;in 1892 such immense crops were raisedthat the settlers spoke of the section asGod’s country ; in 1893, there was a partialfailure, and in 1894 the famous completefailure, which was followed in 1895 by apartial failure. Since that time fair cropshave been produced annually . The dryyears of 1893-1895 drove most of thediscouraged settlers back to humid sectionsand delayed, by many years, thesettlement and development of the westernside of the Great Plains area. That thesefailures and discouragements were duealmost entirely to improper methods of soilculture is very ev ident to the present day

student of dryfarming. In fact, from thevery heart of the section which wasabandoned in 1893-1895 come reliablerecords, dating back to 1886, which showsuccessful crop production every year. Thefamous Indian Head experimental farm ofSaskatchewan, at the north end of theGreat Plains area, has an unbroken recordof good crop y ields from 1888, and theearly ‘90’s were quite as dry there asfarther south. However, in spite of thevicissitudes of the section, dryfarming hastaken a firm hold upon the Great Plainsarea and is now a well-established practice.

The curious thing about the developmentof dry farming in Utah, California,Washington, and the Great Plains is thatthese four sections appear to haveoriginated dryfarming independently ofeach other. True, there was considerablecommunication from 1849 onward

between Utah and California, and there isa possibility that some of the many Utahsettlers who located in California broughtwith them accounts of the methods ofdryfarming as practiced in Utah. This,however, cannot be authenticated. It isvery unlikely that the farmers ofWashington learned dryfarming fromtheir California or Utah neighbors, foruntil 1880 communication betweenWashington and the colonies in Californiaand Utah was very difficult, though, ofcourse, there was always the possibility ofaccounts of agricultural methods beingcarried from place to place by the movingemigrants.

It is fairly certain that the Great Plainsarea did not draw upon the far West fordryfarm methods. The climatic conditionsare considerably different and the GreatPlains people always considered themselvesas liv ing in a very humid country ascompared with the states of the far West. It

may be concluded, therefore, that therewere four independent pioneers indryfarming in United States.

Moreover, hundreds, probably thousands,of indiv idual farmers over the semiaridregion have practiced dryfarming thirtyto fifty years with methods by themselves.

Although these different dry farm sectionswere developed independently , yet themethods which they have finally adoptedare practically identical and include deepplowing, unless the subsoil is very lifeless;fall plowing; the planting of fall grainwherever fall plowing is possible; and cleansummer fallowing. About 1895 the wordbegan to pass from mouth to mouth thatprobably nearly all the lands in the greatarid and semiarid sections of the UnitedStates could be made to produce profitablecrops without irrigation. At first it was

merely a whisper; then it was talked aloud,and before long became the great topic ofconversation among the thousands wholove the West and wish for its development.Soon it became a National subject ofdiscussion. Immediately after the close ofthe nineteenth century the newawakening had been accomplished anddryfarming was moving onward toconquer the waste places of the earth.

H. W. Campbell

The history of the new awakening indryfarming cannot well be writtenwithout a brief account of the work of H.W. Campbell who, in the public mind, hasbecome intimately identified with thedryfarm movement. H. W. Campbell camefrom Vermont to northern South Dakota in

1879, where in 1882 he harvested abanner crop,—twelve thousand bushels ofwheat from three hundred acres. In 1883,on the same farm he failed completely .This experience led him to a study of theconditions under which wheat and othercrops may be produced in the Great Plainsarea. A natural love for investigation anda dogged persistence have led him to givehis life to a study of the agriculturalproblems of the Great Plains area. Headmits that his direct inspiration camefrom the work of Jethro Tull, who laboredtwo hundred years ago, and his disciples.He conceived early the idea that if the soilwere packed near the bottom of the plowfurrow, the moisture would be retainedbetter and greater crop certainty wouldresult. For this purpose the first subsurfacepacker was invented in 1885. Later, about1895, when his ideas had crystallized intotheories, he appeared as the publisher ofCampbell’s “Soil Culture and Farm

Journal.” One page of each issue wasdevoted to a succinct statement of the“Campbell Method.”

It was in 1898 that the doctrine of summertillage was begun to be investigated byhim.

In v iew of the crop failures of the early‘90’s and the gradual dry farm awakeningof the later ‘90’s, Campbell’s work wasreceived with much interest. He soonbecame identified with the efforts of therailroads to maintain demonstration farmsfor the benefit of intending settlers. WhileCampbell has long been in the serv ice ofthe railroads of the semiarid region, yet itshould be said in all fairness that therailroads and Mr. Campbell have had fortheir primary object the determination ofmethods whereby the farmers could bemade sure of successful crops.

Mr. Campbell’s doctrines of soil culture,based on his accumulated experience, arepresented in Campbell’s “Soil CultureManual,” the first edition of whichappeared about 1904 and the latestedition, considerably extended, waspublished in 1907. The 1907 manual isthe latest official word by Mr. Campbell onthe principles and methods of the“Campbell system.” The essential featuresof the system may be summarized asfollows: The storage of water in the soil isimperative for the production of crops indry years. This may be accomplished byproper tillage. Disk the land immediatelyafter harvest; follow as soon as possiblewith the plow; follow the plow with thesubsurface packer; and follow the packerwith the smoothing harrow. Disk the landagain as early as possible in the spring andstir the soil deeply and carefully afterevery rain. Sow thinly in the fall with a

drill. If the grain is too thick in the spring,harrow it out. To make sure of a crop, theland should be “summer tilled,” whichmeans that clean summer fallow should bepracticed every other year, or as often asmay be necessary .

These methods, with the exception of thesubsurface packing, are sound and inharmony with the experience of the greatdryfarm sections and with the principlesthat are being developed by scientificinvestigation. The “Campbell system” as itstands to-day is not the system firstadvocated by him. For instance, in thebeginning of his work he advocated sowinggrain in April and in rows so far apart thatspring tooth harrows could be used forcultivating between the rows. Thismethod, though successful in conservingmoisture, is too expensive and is thereforesuperseded by the present methods.

Moreover, his farm paper of 1896,containing a full statement of the“Campbell method,” makes absolutely nomention of “summer tillage,” which is nowthe very keystone of the system.

These and other facts make it ev ident thatMr. Campbell has very properly modifiedhis methods to harmonize with the bestexperience, but also invalidate the claimthat he is the author of the dry farmsystem. A weakness of the “Campbellsystem” is the continual insistence uponthe use of the subsurface packer. As hasalready been shown, subsurface packing isof questionable value for successful cropproduction, and if valuable, the resultsmay be much more easily and successfullyobtained by the use of the disk and harrowand other similar implements now on themarket. Perhaps the one great weakness inthe work of Campbell is that he has notexplained the principles underly ing hispractices. His publications only hint at the

reasons. H. W. Campbell, however, hasdone much to popularize the subject ofdryfarming and to prepare the way forothers. His persistence in his work ofgathering facts, writing, and speaking hasdone much to awaken interest indryfarming. He has been as “a voice in thewilderness” who has done much to makepossible the later and more systematicstudy of dry farming. High honor should beshown him for his faith in the semiaridregion, for his keen observation, and hispersistence in the face of difficulties. He isjustly entitled to be ranked as one of thegreat workers in behalf of the reclamation,without irrigation, of the rainless sectionsof the world.

The experiment stations

The brave pioneers who fought therelentless dryness of the Great AmericanDesert from the memorable entrance of theMormon pioneers into the valley of theGreat Salt Lake in 1847 were not the onlyones engaged in preparing the way for thepresent day of great agriculturalendeavor. Other, though perhaps moreindirect, forces were also at work for thefuture development of the semiaridsection. The Morrill Bill of 1862, making itpossible for agricultural colleges to becreated in the various states andterritories, indicated the beginning of apublic feeling that modern methods shouldbe applied to the work of the farm. Thepassage in 1887 of the Hatch Act, creatingagricultural experiment stations in all ofthe states and territories, finally initiateda new agricultural era in the UnitedStates. With the passage of this bill,stations for the application of modernscience to crop production were for the first

time authorized in the regions of limitedrainfall, with the exception of the stationconnected with the University ofCalifornia, where Hilgard from 1872 hadbeen laboring in the face of greatdifficulties upon the agricultural problemsof the state of California. During the firstfew years of their existence, the stationswere busy finding men and problems.

The problems nearest at hand were thosethat had been attacked by the olderstations founded under an abundantrainfall and which could not be of v italinterest to arid countries. The westernstations soon began to attack their moreimmediate problems, and it was not longbefore the question of producing cropswithout irrigation on the great unirrigatedstretches of the West was discussed amongthe station staffs and plans were projectedfor a study of the methods of conqueringthe desert.

The Colorado Station was the first todeclare its good intentions in the matter ofdryfarming, by inaugurating definiteexperiments. By the action of the StateLegislature of 1893, during the time of thegreat drouth, a substation was establishedat Cheyenne Wells, near the west border ofthe state and within the foothills of theGreat Plains area. From the summer of1894 until 1900 experiments wereconducted on this farm. The experimentswere not based upon any definite theory ofreclamation, and consequently the workconsisted largely of the comparison ofvarieties, when soil treatment was the all-important problem to be investigated.True in 1898, a trial of the “Campbellmethod” was undertaken. By the time thisStation had passed its pioneer period andwas ready to enter upon more systematicinvestigation, it was closed. Bulletin 59 ofthe Colorado Station, published in 1900 by

J. E. Payne, gives a summary ofobservations made on the Cheyenne Wellssubstation during seven years. Thisbulletin is the first to deal primarily withthe experimental work relating todryfarming in the Great Plains area.

It does not propose or outline any system ofreclamation. Several later publications ofthe Colorado Station deal with theproblems peculiar to the Great Plains.

At the Utah Station the possible conquest ofthe sagebrush deserts of the Great Basinwithout irrigation was a topic of commonconversation during the years 1894 and1895. In 1896 plans were presented forexperiments on the principles ofdryfarming. Four years later these planswere carried into effect. In the summer of1901, the author and L. A. Merrillinvestigated carefully the practices of the

dryfarms of the state. On the basis of theseobservations and by the use of theestablished principles of the relation ofwater to soils and plants, a theory ofdryfarming was worked out which waspublished in Bulletin 75 of the UtahStation in January , 1902. This is probablythe first systematic presentation of theprinciples of dry farming. A year later theLegislature of the state of Utah madeprovision for the establishment andmaintenance of six experimental dry farmsto investigate in different parts of the statethe possibility of dryfarming and theprinciples underly ing the art. Thesestations, which are still maintained, havedone much to stimulate the growth ofdryfarming in Utah. The credit of firstundertaking and maintaining systematicexperimental work in behalf of dry farmingshould be assigned to the state of Utah.Since dryfarm experiments began in Utahin 1901, the subject has been a leading one

in the Station and the College. A largenumber of men trained at the Utah Stationand College have gone out as investigatorsof dry farming under state and Federaldirection.

The other experiment stations in the aridand semiarid region were not slow to takeup the work for their respective states.Fortier and Linfield, who had spent anumber of years in Utah and had becomesomewhat familiar with the dryfarmpractices of that state, initiated dryfarminvestigations in Montana, which havebeen prosecuted with great v igor since thattime. Vernon, under the direction ofFoster, who had spent four years in Utah asDirector of the Utah Station, initiated thework in New Mexico. In Wyoming theexperimental study of dry farm landsbegan by the private enterprise of H. B.Henderson and his associates. Later V. T.

Cooke was placed in charge of the workunder state auspices, and thedemonstration of the feasibility ofdryfarming in Wyoming has been going onsince about 1907. Idaho has also recentlyundertaken dryfarm investigations.Nevada, once looked upon as the only statein the Union incapable of producing cropswithout irrigation, is demonstrating bymeans of state appropriations that largeareas there are suitable for dryfarming. InArizona, small tracts in this sun-bakedstate are shown to be suitable for dryfarmlands. The Washington Station isinvestigating the problems of dryfarmingpeculiar to the Columbia Basin, and thestaff of the Oregon Station is carry ing onsimilar work. In Nebraska, some veryimportant experiments dry farming arebeing conducted. In North Dakota therewere in 1910 twenty-one dryfarmdemonstration farms. In South Dakota,Kansas, and Texas, provisions are similarly

made for dryfarm investigations. In fact,up and down the Great Plains area thereare stations maintained by the state orFederal government for the purpose ofdetermining the methods under whichcrops can be produced without irrigation.

At the head of the Great Plains area atSaskatchewan one of the oldest dry farmstations in America is located (since 1888).In Russia several stations are devoted verylargely to the problems of dry landagriculture. To be especially mentioned forthe excellence of the work done are thestations at Odessa, Cherson, and Poltava.

This last-named Station has beenestablished since 1886.

In connection with the work done by the

experiment stations should be mentionedthe assistance given by the railroads.Many of the railroads owning land alongtheir respective lines are greatly benefitedin the selling of these lands by a knowledgeof the methods whereby the lands may bemade productive. However, the railroadsdepend chiefly for their success upon theincreased prosperity of the populationalong their lines and for the purpose ofassisting the settlers in the arid Westconsiderable sums have been expended bythe railroads in cooperation with thestations for the gathering of information ofvalue in the reclamation of arid landswithout irrigation.

It is through the efforts of the experimentstations that the knowledge of the day hasbeen reduced to a science of dryfarming.

Every student of the subject admits that

much is yet to be learned before the lastword has been said concerning the methodsof dry farming in reclaiming the wasteplaces of the earth. The future ofdryfarming rests almost wholly upon theenergy and intelligence with which theexperiment stations in this and othercountries of the world shall attack thespecial problems connected with thisbranch of agriculture.

The United States Department ofAgriculture The Commissioner ofAgriculture of the United States was givena secretaryship in the President’s Cabinetin 1889. With this added dignity , new lifewas given to the department. Under thedirection of J. Sterling Morton preliminarywork of great importance was done.

Upon the appointment of James Wilson asSecretary of Agriculture, the department

fairly leaped into a fullness of organizationfor the investigation of the agriculturalproblems of the country . From thebeginning of its new growth the UnitedStates Department of Agriculture hasgiven some thought to the special problemsof the semiarid region, especially that partwithin the Great Plains.

Little consideration was at first given tothe far West. The first method adopted toassist the farmers of the plains was to findplants with drouth resistant properties. Forthat purpose explorers were sent over theearth, who returned with great numbers ofnew plants or varieties of old plants, someof which, such as the durum wheats, haveshown themselves of great value inAmerican agriculture. The Bureaus ofPlant Industry , Soils, Weather, andChemistry have all from the first givenconsiderable attention to the problems ofthe arid region. The Weather Bureau, longestablished and with perfected methods,

has been invaluable in guidinginvestigators into regions whereexperiments could be undertaken withsome hope of success. The Department ofAgriculture was somewhat slow, however,in recognizing dryfarming as a system ofagriculture requiring specialinvestigation. The final recognition of thesubject came with the appointment, in1905, of Chilcott as expert in charge of dry-land investigations. At the present time anoffice of dry-land investigations has beenestablished under the Bureau of PlantIndustry , which cooperates with a numberof other div isions of the Bureau in theinvestigation of the conditions andmethods of dryfarming. A large number ofstations are maintained by theDepartment over the arid and semiaridarea for the purpose of studying specialproblems, many of which are maintainedin connection with the state experimentstations. Nearly all the departmental

experts engaged in dryfarm investigationhave been drawn from the service of thestate stations and in these stations hadreceived their special training for theirwork. The United States Department ofAgriculture has chosen to adopt a strongconservatism in the matter of dry farming.It may be wise for the Department, as theofficial head of the agricultural interests ofthe country , to use extreme care inadvocating the settlement of a region inwhich, in the past, farmers had failed tomake a liv ing, yet this conservatism hastended to hinder the advancement ofdryfarming and has placed thedepartmental investigations of dry farmingin point of time behind the pioneerinvestigations of the subject.

The Dryfarming Congress

As the great dry farm wave swept over thecountry , the need was felt on the part ofexperts and laymen of some meanswhereby dryfarm ideas from all parts ofthe country could be exchanged. Privateindiv iduals by the thousands andnumerous state and governmental stationswere working separately and seldom had achance of comparing notes and discussingproblems. A need was felt for some centraldryfarm organization. An attempt to fillthis need was made by the people ofDenver, Colorado, when Governor Jesse F.McDonald of Colorado issued a call for thefirst Dryfarming Congress to be held inDenver, January 24, 25, and 26, 1907.These dates were those of the annual stockshow which had become a permanentinstitution of Denver and, in fact, some ofthose who were instrumental in the callingof the Dryfarming Congress thought that itwas a good scheme to bring more people tothe stock show. To the surprise of many the

Dryfarming Congress became the leadingfeature of the week. Representatives werepresent from practically all the statesinterested in dry farming and from some ofthe humid states. Utah, the pioneerdryfarm state, was represented by adelegation second in size only to that ofColorado, where the Congress was held.The call for this Congress was inspired, inpart at least, by real estate men, who sawin the dryfarm movement an opportunityto relieve themselves of large areas ofcheap land at fairly good prices. TheCongress proved, however, to be abusinesslike meeting which took hold of thequestions in earnest, and from the veryfirst made it clear that the real estateagent was not a welcome member unlesshe came with perfectly honest methods.

The second Dryfarming Congress was heldJanuary 22 to 25, 1908, in Salt Lake City ,

Utah, under the presidency of FisherHarris. It was even better attended thanthe first. The proceedings show that it wasa Congress at which the dryfarm experts ofthe country stated their findings. A largeexhibit of dry farm products was held inconnection with this Congress, whereocular demonstrations of the possibility ofdryfarming were given any doubtingThomas.

The third Dryfarming Congress was heldFebruary 23 to 25, 1909, at Cheyenne,Wyoming, under the presidency ofGovernor W. W. Brooks of Wyoming. Anunusually severe snowstorm preceded theCongress, which prevented many fromattending, yet the number presentexceeded that at any of the precedingCongresses. This Congress was madenotable by the number of foreign delegateswho had been sent by their respective

countries to investigate the methodspursued in America for the reclamation ofthe arid districts. Among these delegateswere representatives from Canada,Australia, The Transvaal, Brazil, andRussia.

The fourth Congress was held October 26 to28, 1909, in Billings, Montana, under thepresidency of Governor Edwin L. Morris ofMontana. The uncertain weather of thewinter months had led the previousCongress to adopt a time in the autumn asthe date of the annual meeting. ThisCongress became a session at which manyof the principles discussed during the threepreceding Congresses were crystallized intodefinite statements and agreed upon byworkers from various parts of the country .A number of foreign representatives werepresent again. The problems of theNorthwest and Canada were given special

attention. The attendance was larger thanat any of the preceding Congresses.

The fifth Congress will be held under thepresidency of Hon. F. W.

Mondell of Wyoming at Spokane,Washington, during October, 1910. Itpromises to exceed any preceding Congressin attendance and interest.

The Dryfarming Congress has made itselfone of the most important factors in thedevelopment of methods for thereclamation of the desert. Its publishedreports are the most valuable publicationsdealing with dry-land agriculture. Onlysimple justice is done when it is stated thatthe success of the Dryfarming Congress isdue in a large measure to the untiring and

intelligent efforts of John T.

Burns, who is the permanent secretary ofthe Congress, and who was a member ofthe first executive committee.

Nearly all the arid and semiarid stateshave organized state dryfarmingcongresses. The first of these was the UtahDryfarming Congress, organized about twomonths after the first Congress held inDenver. The president is L. A. Merrill, oneof the pioneer dry farm investigators of theRockies.

Jethro Tull (see frontispiece)

A sketch of the history of dry farmingwould be incomplete without a mention of

the life and work of Jethro Tull. Theagricultural doctrines of this man,interpreted in the light of modern science,are those which underlie moderndryfarming. Jethro Tull was born inBerkshire, England, 1674, and died in1741. He was a lawyer by profession, buthis health was so poor that he could notpractice his profession and therefore spentmost of his life in the seclusion of a quietfarm. His life work was done in the face ofgreat physical sufferings. In spite ofphysical infirmities, he produced a systemof agriculture which, v iewed in the light ofour modern knowledge, is little short ofmarvelous. The chief inspiration of hissystem came from a v isit paid to south ofFrance, where he observed “nearFrontignan and Setts, Languedoc” that thevineyards were carefully plowed and tilledin order to produce the largest crops of thebest grapes. Upon the basis of thisobservation he instituted experiments

upon his own farm and finally developedhis system, which may be summarized asfollows: The amount of seed to be usedshould be proportional to the condition ofthe land, especially to the moisture that isin it. To make the germination certain, theseed should be sown by drill methods. Tull,as has already been observed, was theinventor of the seed drill which is now afeature of all modern agriculture. Plowingshould be done deeply and frequently ; twoplowings for one crop would do no injuryand frequently would result in anincreased y ield. Finally , as the mostimportant principle of the system, the soilshould be cultivated continually , theargument being that by continuouscultivation the fertility of the soil would beincreased, the water would be conserved,and as the soil became more fertile lesswater would be used. To accomplish suchcultivation, all crops should be placed inrows rather far apart, so far indeed that a

horse carry ing a cultivator could walkbetween them. The horse-hoeing idea of thesystem became fundamental and gave thename to his famous book, “The HorseHoeing Husbandry ,” by Jethro Tull,published in parts from 1731 to 1741. Tullheld that the soil between the rows wasessentially being fallowed and that thenext year the seed could be plantedbetween the rows of the preceding year andin that way the fertility could bemaintained almost indefinitely . If thismethod were not followed, half of the soilcould lie fallow every other year and besubjected to continuous cultivation. Weedsconsume water and fertility and,therefore, fallowing and all the culturemust be perfectly clean. To maintainfertility a rotation of crops should bepracticed. Wheat should be the main graincrop; turnips the root crop; and alfalfa avery desirable crop.

It may be observed that these teachingsare sound and in harmony with the bestknowledge of to-day and that they are thevery practices which are now beingadvocated in all dry farm sections.

This is doubly curious because Tull lived ina humid country .

However, it may be mentioned that hisfarm consisted of a very poor chalk soil, sothat the conditions under which he laboredwere more nearly those of an arid countrythan could ordinarily be found in acountry of abundant rainfall. While thepractices of Jethro Tull were in themselvesvery good and in general can be adopted to-day , yet his interpretation of the principlesinvolved was wrong. In v iew of the limitedknowledge of his day , this was only to beexpected.

For instance, he believed so thoroughly inthe value of cultivation of the soil, that he

thought it would take the place of all othermethods of maintaining soil-fertility . Infact, he declared distinctly that “tillage ismanure,” which we are very certain atthis time is fallacious. Jethro Tull is one ofthe great investigators of the world. Inrecognition of the fact that, though liv ingtwo hundred years ago in a humidcountry , he was able to develop thefundamental practices of soil culture nowused in dryfarming, the honor has beendone his memory of placing his portrait asthe frontispiece of this volume.

CHAPTER XX

DRYFARMING IN A NUTSHELL

Locate the dryfarm in a section with anannual precipitation of more than teninches and, if possible, with small windmovement. One man with four horses andplenty of machinery cannot handle morethan from 160 to 200 acres. Farm feweracres and farm them better.

Select a clay loam soil. Other soils may beequally productive, but are cultivatedproperly with somewhat more difficulty .

Make sure, with the help of the soil auger,that the soil is of uniform structure to a

depth of at least eight feet. If streaks of loosegravel or layers of hardpan are near thesurface, water may be lost to the plantroots.

After the land has been cleared and brokenlet it lie fallow with clean cultivation, forone year. The increase in the first and latercrops will pay for the waiting.

Always plow the land early in the fall,unless abundant experience shows that fallplowing is an unwise practice in thelocality .

Always plow deeply unless the subsoil isinfertile, in which case plow a little deepereach year until eight or ten inches arereached Plow at least once for each crop.Spring plowing; if practiced, should be

done as early as possible in the season.

Follow the plow, whether in the fall orspring, with the disk and that with thesmoothing harrow, if crops are to be sownsoon afterward. If the land plowed in thefall is to lie fallow for the winter, leave it inthe rough condition, except in localitieswhere there is little or no snow and thewinter temperature is high.

Always disk the land in early spring, toprevent evaporation. Follow the disk withthe harrow. Harrow, or in some other waystir the surface of the soil after every rain.If crops are on the land, harrow as long asthe plants will stand it. If hoed crops, likecorn or potatoes, are grown, use thecultivator throughout the season. A deepmulch or dry soil should cover the land as

far as possible throughout the summer.Immediately after harvest disk the soilthoroughly .

Destroy weeds as soon as they showthemselves. A weedy dryfarm is doomed tofailure.

Give the land an occasional rest, that is, aclean summer fallow.

Under a rainfall of less than fifteen inches,the land should be summer fallowed everyother year; under an annual rainfall offifteen to twenty inches, the summerfallow should occur every third or fourthyear. Where the rainfall comes chiefly inthe summer, the summer fallow is lessimportant in ordinary years than wherethe summers are dry and the winters wet.

Only an absolutely clean fallow should bepermitted.

The fertility of dry farm soils must bemaintained. Return the manure; plowunder green leguminous crops occasionallyand practice rotation. On fertile soils plantsmature with the least water.

Sow only by the drill method. Whereverpossible use fall varieties of crops. Plantdeeply—three or four inches for grain.Plant early in the fall, especially if the landhas been summer fallowed. Use only aboutone half as much seed as is recommendedfor humid-farming.

All the ordinary crops may be grown bydryfarming. Secure seed that has been

raised on dryfarms. Look out for newvarieties, especially adapted fordryfarming, that may be brought in.Wheat is king in dryfarming; corn a closesecond. Turkey wheat promises the best.

Stock the dryfarm with the best modernmachinery . Dryfarming is possible onlybecause of the modern plow, the disk, thedrill seeder, the harvester, the header, andthe thresher.

Make a home on the dryfarm. Store theflood waters in a reservoir; or pump theunderground waters, for irrigating thefamily garden.

Set out trees, plant flowers, and keep somelive stock.

Learn to understand the reasons back ofthe principles of dry farming, apply theknowledge v igorously , and the crop cannotfail.

Always farm as if a year of drouth werecoming.

Man, by his intelligence, compels the lawsof nature to do his bidding, and thus heachieves joy .

“And God blessed them—and God said untothem, Be fruitful and multiply andreplenish the earth, and subdue it.”

CHAPTER XIX

THE YEAR OF DROUTH

The Shadow of the Year of Drouth stillobscures the hope of many a dryfarmer.From the magazine page and the publicplatform the prophet of ev il, thinkinghimself a friend of humanity , solemnlywarns against the arid region anddryfarming, for the year of drouth, hesays, is sure to come again and then will berepeated the disasters of 1893-1895.Beware of the year of drouth. Evensuccessful dryfarmers who have obtainedgood crops every year for a generation ormore are half led to expect a dry year orone so dry that crops will fail in spite of allhuman effort. The question is continuallyasked, “Can crop y ields reasonably beexpected every year, through a succession

of dry years, under semiarid conditions, ifthe best methods of dry farming bepracticed?” In answering this question, itmay be said at the very beginning, thatwhen the year of drouth is mentioned inconnection with dryfarming, sad referenceis always made to the experience on theGreat Plains in the early years of the ‘90’s.Now the fact of the matter is, that whilethe years of 1893,1894, and 1895 weredry years, the only complete failure camein 1894. In spite of the improper methodspracticed by the settlers, the willing soilfailed to y ield a crop only one year.

Moreover, it should not be forgotten thathundreds of farmers in the driest sectionduring this dry period, who instinctivelyor otherwise farmed more nearly right,obtained good crops even in 1894. Thesimple practice of summer fallowing, hadit been practiced the year before, wouldhave insured satisfactory crops in thedriest year. Further, the settlers who did

not take to their heels upon the arrival ofthe dry year are still liv ing in largenumbers on their homesteads and innumerous instances have accumulatedcomfortable fortunes from the land whichhas been held up so long as a warningagainst settlement beyond a humidclimate. The failure of 1894 was due asmuch to a lack of proper agriculturalinformation and practice as to theoccurrence of a dry year.

Next, the statement is carelessly madethat the recent success in dry farming isdue to the fact that we are now liv ing in acycle of wet years, but that as soon as thecycle of dry years strikes the countrydryfarming will vanish as a dismal failure.Then, again, the theory is proposed thatthe climate is permanently changingtoward wetness or dryness and the past hasno meaning in reading the riddle of the

future. It is doubtless true that no manmay safely predict the weather for futuregenerations; yet, so far as humanknowledge goes, there is no perceptibleaverage change in the climate from periodto period within historical time; neitherare there protracted dry periods followedby protracted wet periods. The fact is, dryand wet years alternate. A succession ofsomewhat wet years may alternate with asuccession of somewhat dry years, but theaverage precipitation from decade todecade is very nearly the same.

True, there will always be a dry year, thatis, the driest year of a series of years, andthis is the supposedly fearful and fatefulyear of drouth. The business of thedryfarmer is always to farm so as to beprepared for this driest year whenever itcomes. If this be done, the farmer willalways have a crop: in the wet years hiscrop will be large; in the driest year it willbe sufficient to sustain him.

So persistent is the half-expressed fear thatthis driest year makes it impossible to relyupon dryfarming as a permanent systemof agriculture that a search has been madefor reliable long records of the production ofcrops in arid and semiarid regions. Publicstatements have been made by manyperfectly reliable men to the effect thatcrops have been produced in diversesections over long periods of years, some aslong as thirty-five or forty year’s, withoutone failure having occurred. Most of thesestatements, however, have been general intheir nature and not accompanied by theexact y ields from year to year. Only threesatisfactory records have been found in asomewhat careful search. Others no doubtexist.

The first record was made by Senator J. G.

M. Barnes of Kaysville, Utah. Kaysville islocated in the Great Salt Lake Valley ,about fifteen miles north of Salt Lake City .The climate is semiarid; the precipitationcomes mainly in the winter and earlyspring; the summers are dry , and theevaporation is large. Senator Barnespurchased ninety acres of land in thespring of 1887 and had it farmed under hisown supervision until 1906. He is engagedin commercial enterprises and did not,himself, do any of the work on the farm,but employed men to do the necessarylabor. However, he kept a close supervisionof the farm and decided upon the practiceswhich should be followed. From seventy-eight to eighty-nine acres were harvestedfor each crop, with the exception of 1902,when all but about twenty acres was firedby sparks from the passing railroad train.The plowing, harrowing, and weedingwere done very carefully .

The complete record of the Barnes dryfarm

from 1887 to 1905 is shown in the table onthe following page.

Record of the Barnes Dryfarm, Salt LakeValley , Utah (90 acres) Year Annual YieldWhen When Rainfall per Acre Plowed Sown(Inches) (Bu.)

1887 11 .66 – May Sept.

1888 13.62 Failure May Sept.

1889 18.46 22.5 – Volunteer+

1890 10.38 15.5 – –

1891 15.92 Fallow May Fall 1892 14.0819.3 – –

1893 17 .35 Fallow May Fall 1894 15.2726.0 – –

1895 11 .95 Fallow May Aug.

1896 18.42 22.0 – –

1897 16.74 Fallow Spring Fall 1898 16.0926.0 – –

1899 17 .57 Fallow May Fall 1900 11 .5323.5 – –

1901 16.08 Fallow Spring Fall 1902 11 .4128.9 Sept. Fall 1903 14.62 12.5 – –

1904 16.31 Fallow Spring Fall 1905 14.2325.8 – –

+About four acres were sown on stubble.

The first plowing was given the farm inMay of 1887, and, with the exception of1902, the land was invariably plowed inthe spring.

With fall plowing the y ields wouldundoubtedly have been better. The firstsowing was made in the fall of 1887, andfall grain was grown during the wholeperiod of observation. The seed sown in thefall of 1887 came up well, but was winter-killed. This is ascribed by Senator Barnes tothe very dry winter, though it is probablethat the soil was not sufficiently well storedwith moisture to carry the crop through.The farm was plowed again in the spring of1888, and another crop sown in Septemberof the same year. In the summer of 1889,22-1/2 bushels of wheat were harvested tothe acre. Encouraged by this good crop Mr.Barnes allowed a volunteer crop to growthat fall and the next summer harvestedas a result 15-1/2 bushels of wheat to theacre. The table shows that only one cropsmaller than this was harvested duringthe whole period of nineteen years,namely , in 1903, when the same thingwas done, and one crop was made to follow

another without an intervening fallowperiod. This observation is an ev idence infavor of clean summer fallowing. Thelargest crop obtained, 28.9 bushels peracre in 1902, was gathered in a year whenthe next to the lowest rainfall of the wholeperiod occurred, namely , 11 .41 inches.

The precipitation varied during thenineteen years from 10.33 inches to 18.46inches. The variation in y ield per acre wasconsiderably less than this, not countingthe two crops that were grownimmediately after another crop. All in all,the unique record of the Barnes dryfarmshows that through a period of nineteenyears, including dry and comparativelywet years, there was absolutely no sign offailure, except in the first year, whenprobably the soil had not been put inproper condition to support crops. Inpassing it maybe mentioned that,

according to the records furnished bySenator Barnes, the total cost of operatingthe farm during the nineteen years was$4887.69; the total income was$10,144.83. The difference, $5257.14, is avery fair profit on the investment of $1800—the original cost of the farm.

The Indian Head farm

An equally instructive record is furnishedby the experimental farm located at IndianHead in Saskatchewan, Canada, in thenorthern part of the Great Plains area.According to Alway , the country is inappearance very much like westernNebraska and Kansas; the climate isdistinctly arid, and the precipitation comesmainly in the spring and summer. It is theonly experimental dryfarm in the Great

Plains area with records that go backbefore the dry years of the early ‘90’s. In1882 the soil of this farm was broken, andit was farmed continuously until 1888,when it was made an experimental farmunder government supervision. Thefollowing table shows the y ields obtainedfrom the year 1891, when theprecipitation records were first kept, to1909:—

RECORD OF INDIAN HEADEXPERIMENTAL FARM ANDMOTHERWELL’S FARM,SASKATCHEWAN, CANADA

Year Annual Bushels of Wheat Bushels ofWheat Bushels of Wheat Rainfall per Acreper Acre per Acre (Inches)+ ExperimentalExperimental Motherwell’s Farm Farm—

Fallow Farm—Stubble 1891 14.03 35 3230

1892 6.92 28 21 28

1893 10.11 35 22 34

1894 3.90 17 9 24

1895 12.28 41 22 26

1896 10.59 39 29 31

1897 14.62 33 26 35

1898 18.03 32 – 27

1899 9.44 33 – 33

1900 11 .74 17 5 25

1901 20.22 49 38 51

1902 10.73 38 22 28

1903 15.55 35 15 31

1904 11 .96 40 29 35

1905 19.17 42 18 36

1906 13.21 26 13 38

1907 15.03 18 18 15

1908 13.17 29 14 16

1909 13.96 28 15 23

+Snowfall not included. This has variedfrom 2.3 to 1 .3 inches of water.

The annual rainfall shown in the secondcolumn does not include the water whichfell in the form of snow. According to therecords at hand, the annual snow fallvaried from 2.3 to 1 .3 inches of water,which should be added to the rainfall given

in the table. Even with this addition therainfall shows the district to be of adistinctly semiarid character. It will beobserved that the precipitation variedfrom 3.9 to 20.22 inches, and that duringthe early ‘90’s several rather dry yearsoccurred. In spite of this large variationgood crops have been obtained during thewhole period of nineteen years. Not onefailure is recorded. The lowest y ield of 17bushels per acre came during the very dryyear of 1894 and during the somewhat dryyear of 1900. Some of the largest y ieldswere obtained in seasons when the rainfallwas only near the average. As a recordshowing that the year of drouth need notbe feared when dryfarming is done right,this table is of very high interest. It may benoted, incidentally , that throughout thewhole period wheat following a fallowalways y ielded higher than wheatfollowing the stubble. For the nineteenyears, the difference was as 32.4 bushels is

to 20.5

bushels.

The Mother well farm

In the last column of the table are shownthe annual y ields of wheat obtained on thefarm of Commissioner Motherwell of theprovince of Saskatchewan. This privatefarm is located some twenty-five milesaway from Indian Head, and the rainfallrecords of the experimental farm are,therefore, only approximately accurate forthe Motherwell farm. The results on thisfarm may well be compared to the Barnesresults of Utah, since they were obtainedon a private farm. During the period ofnineteen years good crops were invariablyobtained; even during the very dry year of

1894, a y ield of twenty-four bushels ofwheat to the acre was obtained. Curiouslyenough, the lowest y ields of fifteen andsixteen bushels to the acre were obtained in1907 and 1908 when the precipitation wasfairly good, and must be ascribed to someother factor than that of precipitation. Therecord of this farm shows conclusively thatwith proper farming there is no need tofear the year of drouth.

The Utah drouth of 1910

During the year of 1910 only 2.7 inches ofrain fell in Salt Lake City from March 1 tothe July harvest, and all of this in March,as against 7 .18 inches during the sameperiod the preceding year. In other parts ofthe state much less rain fell; in fact, in thesouthern part of the state the last rain fell

during the last week of December, 1909.The drouth remained unbroken until longafter the wheat harvests. Great fear wasexpressed that the dryfarms could notsurvive so protracted a period of drouth.Agents, sent out over the various dryfarmdistricts, reported late in June thatwherever clean summer fallowing hadbeen practiced the crops were in excellentcondition; but that wherever carelessmethods had been practiced, the cropswere poor or killed. The reports of theharvest in July of 1910 showed that fully85 per cent of an average crop wasobtained in spite of the protracted drouthwherever the soil came into the spring wellstored with moisture, and in manyinstances full crops were obtained.

Over the whole of the dryfarm territory ofthe United States similar conditions ofdrouth occurred. After the harvest,

however, every state reported that thecrops were well up to the averagewherever correct methods of culture hadbeen employed.

These well-authenticated records from truesemiarid districts, covering the two chieftypes of winter and summer precipitation,prove that the year of drouth, or the driestyear in a twenty-year period, does notdisturb agricultural conditions seriously inlocalities where the average annualprecipitation is not too low, and whereproper cultural methods arc followed. Thatdryfarming is a system of agriculturalpractice which requires the application ofhigh skill and intelligence is admitted; thatit is precarious is denied. The year ofdrouth is ordinarily the year in which theman failed to do properly his share of thework.

CHAPTER XVIII

THE PRESENT STATUS OF DRYFARMING

It is difficult to obtain a correct v iew of thepresent status of dryfarming, first, becausedryfarm surveys are only beginning to bemade and, secondly , because the areaunder dryfarm cultivation is increasingdaily by leaps and bounds. All arid andsemiarid parts of the world are reachingout after methods of soil culture wherebyprofitable crops may be produced withoutirrigation, and the practice of dry farming,according to modern methods, is nowfollowed in many diverse countries. TheUnited States undoubtedly leads at presentin the area actually under dryfarming,but, in v iew of the immense dryfarmdistricts in other parts of the world, it isdoubtful if the United States will always

maintain its supremacy in dryfarmacreage. The leadership in thedevelopment of a science of dryfarmingwill probably remain with the UnitedStates for years, since the numerousexperiment stations established for thestudy of the problems of farming withoutirrigation have their work well under way ,while, with the exception of one or twostations in Russia and Canada, no othercountries have experiment stations for thestudy of dry farming in full operation. Thereports of the Dryfarming Congress furnishpractically the only general information asto the status of dry farming in the statesand territories of the United States and inthe countries of the world.

California

In the state of California dry farming hasbeen firmly established for more than ageneration. The chief crop of the Californiadryfarms is wheat, though the othergrains, root crops, and vegetables are alsogrown without irrigation under acomparatively small rainfall. The chiefdryfarm areas are found in theSacramento and the San Joaquin valleys.In the Sacramento Valley the precipitationis fairly large, but in the San JoaquinValley it is very small. Some of the mostsuccessful dryfarms of California haveproduced well for a long succession of yearsunder a rainfall of ten inches and less.California offers a splendid example of thegreat danger that besets all dry farmsections. For a generation wheat has beenproduced on the fertile Californian soilswithout manuring of any kind. As aconsequence, the fertility of the soils hasbeen so far depleted that at present it isdifficult to obtain pay ing crops without

irrigation on soils that formerly y ieldedbountifully . The liv ing problem of thedryfarms in California is the restoration ofthe fertility which has been removed fromthe soils by unwise cropping. All otherdryfarm districts should take to heart thislesson, for, though crops may be producedon fertile soils for one, two, or even threegenerations without manuring, yet thetime will come when plant-food must beadded to the soil in return for that whichhas been removed by the crops.Meanwhile, California offers, also, anexcellent example of the possibility ofsuccessful dryfarming through longperiods and under vary ing climaticconditions. In the Golden State dryfarmingis a fully established practice; it has longsince passed the experimental stage.

Columbia River Basin

The Columbia River Basin includes thestate of Washington, most of Oregon, thenorthern and central part of Idaho,western Montana, and extends into BritishColumbia. It includes the section oftencalled the Inland Empire, which alonecovers some one hundred and fiftythousand square miles. The chief dry farmcrop of this region is wheat; in fact,western Washington or the “Palousecountry” is famous for its wheat-producingpowers. The other grains, potatoes, roots,and vegetables are also grown withoutirrigation. In the parts of this dryfarmdistrict where the rainfall is the highest,fruits of many kinds and of a high qualityare grown without irrigation. It isestimated that at least two million acresare being dryfarmed in this district.Dryfarming is fully established in theColumbia River Basin. One farmer isreported to have raised in one year on his

own farm two hundred and fifty thousandbushels of wheat. In one section of thedistrict where the rainfall for the last fewyears has been only about ten or eleveninches, wheat has been producedsuccessfully . This corroborates theexperience of California, that wheat mayreally be grown in localities where theannual rainfall is not above ten inches.The most modern methods of dry farmingare followed by the farmers of theColumbia River Basin, but little attentionhas been given to soil-fertility , since soilsthat have been farmed for a generationstill appear to retain their high productivepowers. Undoubtedly , however, in thisdistrict, as in California, the question ofsoil-fertility will be an important one inthe near future. This is one of the greatdryfarm districts of the world.

The Great Basin

The Great Basin includes Nevada, thewestern half of Utah, a small part ofsouthern Oregon and Idaho, and also a partof Southern California. It is a great interiorbasin with all its rivers draining into saltlakes or dry sinks. In recent geologicaltimes the Great Basin was filled withwater, forming the great Lake Bonnevillewhich drained into the Columbia River. Infact, the Great Basin is made up of a seriesof great valleys, with very level floors,representing the old lake bottom. On thebench lands are seen, in many places, theeffects of the wave action of the ancientlake. The chief dry farm crop of this districtis wheat, but the other grains, includingcorn, are also produced successfully . Othercrops have been tried with fair success, butnot on a commercial scale. Grapevineshave been made to grow quite successfullywithout irrigation on the bench lands.Several small orchards bearing luscious

fruit are growing on the deep soils of theGreat Basin without the artificialapplication of water. Though the firstdryfarming by modern peoples wasprobably practiced in the Great Basin, yetthe area at present under cultivation is notlarge, possibly a little more than fourhundred thousand acres.

Dryfarming, however, is well established.There are large areas, especially inNevada, that receive less than ten inchesof rainfall annually , and one of the leadingproblems before the dryfarmers of thisdistrict is the determination of thepossibility of producing crops upon suchlands without irrigation. On the olderdryfarms, which have existed in somecases from forty to fifty years, there are nosigns of diminution of soil-fertility .Undoubtedly , however, even under theconditions of extremely high fertility

prevailing in the Great Basin, the time willsoon come when the dryfarmer must makeprovision for restoring to the soil some ofthe fertility taken away by crops. Thereare millions of acres in the Great Basin yetto be taken up and subjected to the will ofthe dryfarmer.

Colorado and Rio Grande River Basins

The Colorado and Rio Grande River Basinsinclude Arizona and the western part ofNew Mexico. The chief dry farm crops ofthis dry district are wheat, corn, andbeans. Other crops have also been grown insmall quantities and with some success.The area suitable for dryfarming in thisdistrict has not yet been fully determinedand, therefore, the Arizona and NewMexico stations are undertaking dryfarm

surveys of their respective states. In spiteof the fact that Arizona is generally lookedupon as one of the driest states of theUnion, dry farming is making considerableheadway there. In New Mexico, five sixthsof all the homestead applications duringthe last year were for dry farm lands; and,in fact, there are several prosperouscommunities in New Mexico which aresubsisting almost wholly on dryfarming. Itis only fair to say , however, thatdryfarming is not yet well established inthis district, but that the prospects are thatthe application of scientific principles willsoon make it possible to produce profitablecrops without irrigation in large parts ofthe Colorado and Rio Grande River Basins.

The mountain states

This district includes a part of Montana,nearly the whole of Wyoming andColorado, and part of eastern Idaho. It islocated along the backbone of the RockyMountains. The farms are located chieflyin valleys and on large rolling table-lands.The chief dry farm crop is wheat, thoughthe other crops which are grown elsewhereon dryfarms may be grown here also. InMontana there is a very large area of landwhich has been demonstrated to be welladapted for dry farm purposes. InWyoming, especially on the eastern as wellas on the far western side, dryfarming hasbeen shown to be successful, but the areacovered at the present time iscomparatively small. In Idaho,dryfarming is fairly well established. InColorado, likewise, the practice is very wellestablished and the area is tolerably large.All in all, throughout the mountain statesdryfarming may be said to be wellestablished, though there is a great

opportunity for the extension of thepractice. The sparse population of thewestern states naturally makes itimpossible for more than a small fraction ofthe land to be properly cultivated.

The Great Plains Area

This area includes parts of Montana, NorthDakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas,Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico,Oklahoma, and Texas. It is the largest areaof dry farm land under approximatelyuniform conditions. Its drainage is into theMississippi, and it covers an area of not lessthan four hundred thousand square miles.

Dryfarm crops grow well over the wholearea; in fact, dry farming is wellestablished in this district. In spite of the

failures so widely advertised during thedry season of 1894, the farmers whoremained on their farms and since thattime have employed modern methods havesecured wealth from their labors. Theimportant question before the farmers ofthis district is that of methods for securingthe best results. From the Dakotas to Texasthe farmers bear the testimony thatwherever the soil has been treated right,according to approved methods, there havebeen no crop failures.

Canada

Dryfarming has been pushed v igorously inthe semiarid portions of Canada, and withgreat success. Dryfarming is nowreclaiming large areas of formerlyworthless land, especially in Alberta,

Saskatchewan, and the adjoiningprovinces. Dryfarming is comparativelyrecent in Canada, yet here and there aresemiarid localities where crops have beenraised without irrigation for upwards of aquarter of a century . In Alberta and otherplaces it has been now practicedsuccessfully for eight or ten years, and itmay be said that dry farming is a well-established practice in the semiarid regionsof the Dominion of Canada.

Mexico

In Mexico, likewise, dry farming has beentried and found to be successful. Thenatives of Mexico have practiced farmingwithout irrigation for centuries—andmodern methods are now being applied inthe zone midway between the extremely

dry and the extremely humid portions.The irregular distribution of theprecipitation, the late spring and early fallfrosts, and the fierce winds combine tomake the dryfarm problem somewhatdifficult, yet the prospects are that, withgovernment assistance, dryfarming in thenear future will become an establishedpractice in Mexico. In the opinion of thebest students of Mexico it is the onlymethod of agriculture that can be made toreclaim a very large portion of thecountry .

Brazil

Brazil, which is greater in area than theUnited States, also has a large arid andsemiarid territory which can be reclaimedonly by dryfarm methods. Through the

activ ity of leading citizens experiments inbehalf of the dryfarm movement havealready been ordered. The dryfarm districtof Brazil receives an annual precipitationof about twenty-five inches, butirregularly distributed and under atropical sun. In the opinion of those whoare familiar with the conditions themethods of dryfarming may be so adaptedas to make dryfarming successful in Brazil.

Australia

Australia, larger than the continentalUnited States, is v itally interested indryfarming, for one third of its vast area isunder a rainfall of less than ten inches, andanother third is under a rainfall of betweenten and twenty inches. Two thirds of thearea of Australia, if reclaimed at all, must

be reclaimed by dryfarming.

The realization of this condition has ledseveral Australians to v isit the UnitedStates for the purpose of learning themethods employed in dryfarming. Thereports on dryfarming in America bySurveyor-General Strawbridge andSenator J. H. McColl have done much toinitiate a v igorous propaganda in behalf ofdryfarming in Australia. Investigation hasshown that occasional farmers are found inAustralia, as in America, who havediscovered for themselves many of themethods of dryfarming and havesucceeded in producing crops profitably .Undoubtedly , in time, Australia will be oneof the great dry farming countries of theworld.

Africa

Up to the present, South Africa only hastaken an active interest in the dryfarmmovement, due to the enthusiastic laborsof Dr. William Macdonald of the Transvaal.The Transvaal has an average annualprecipitation of twenty-three inches, witha large district that receives betweenthirteen and twenty inches. The raincomes in the summer, making theconditions similar to those of the GreatPlains.

The success of dry farming has alreadybeen practically demonstrated. Thequestion before the Transvaal farmers isthe determination of the best application ofwater conserving methods under theprevailing conditions. Under properleadership the Transvaal and otherportions of Africa will probably join theranks of the larger dryfarming countries ofthe world.

Russia

More than one fourth of the whole of Russiais so dry as to be reclaimable only bydryfarming. The arid area of southernEuropean Russia has a climate very muchlike that of the Great Plains.

Turkestan and middle Asiatic Russia havea climate more like that of the Great Basin.In a great number of localities in bothEuropean and Asiatic Russia dryfarminghas been practiced for a number of years.The methods employed have not been ofthe most refined kind, due, possibly , to thecondition of the people constituting thefarming class. The government is nowbecoming interested in the matter andthere is no doubt that dryfarming will alsobe practiced on a very large scale in

Russia.

Turkey

Turkey has also a large area of arid landand, due to American assistance,experiments in dryfarming are beingcarried on in various parts of the country .It is interesting to learn that theexperiments there, up to date, have beeneminently successful and that theprospects now are that modern dryfarmingwill soon be conducted on a large scale inthe Ottoman Empire.

Palestine

The whole of Palestine is essentially aridand semiarid and dryfarming there hasbeen practiced for centuries. With theapplication of modern methods it should bemore successful than ever before. Dr.Aaronsohn states that the original wildwheat from which the present varieties ofwheat have descended has been discoveredto be a native of Palestine.

China

China is also interested in dry farming. Theclimate of the drier portions of China ismuch like that of the Dakotas. Dryfarmingthere is of high antiquity , though, ofcourse, the methods are not those thathave been developed in recent years.Under the influence of the more modernmethods dryfarming should spread

extensively throughout China and becomea great source of profit to the empire.

The results of dry farming in China areamong the best.

These countries have been mentionedsimply because they have beenrepresented at the recent DryfarmingCongresses. Nearly all of the greatcountries of the world having extensivesemiarid areas are directly interested indryfarming. The map on pages 30 and 31shows that more than 55 per cent of theworld’s surface receives an annual rainfallof less than twenty inches. Dryfarming is aworld problem and as such is beingreceived by the nations.

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