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Directional Drilling PPI

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Page 1: Directional Drilling PPI
Page 2: Directional Drilling PPI

i

Table of Contents

Foreword iii

Introduction 1

Background 1

Horizontal Directional Drilling Process 2

Pilot Hole 2Pilot Hole Reaming 2Drilling Mud 2Pull-Back 3Mini-Horizontal Directional Drilling 3

Geotechnical Investigation 4Geotechnical Data For River Crossings 5Summary 5

Product Design: DR Selection 5

Design Considerations for Net External Loads 7

Earth and Groundwater Pressure 8

Stable Borehole - Groundwater Pressure Only 9Borehole Conforms/Collapse With Arching Mobilized 9Borehole Collapse with Prism Load 11Combination of Earth and Groundwater Pressure 11Live Loads 12

Performance Limits of HDD Installed Pipe 13

Time-Dependent Behavior 13

Ring Deflection (Ovalization) 14

Ring Deflection Due to Buoyancy 15Ring Deflection Due to Earth Load 15Ring Deflection Limits (Ovality Limits) 16Unconstrained Buckling 17Wall Compressive Stress 18

Example Calculations 19

Installation Design Considerations 19

Pull-Back Force 20

Friction Drag Resistance 20Capstan Force 21Hydrokinetic Force 22

Tensile Stress During Pull-Back 22

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ii

External Pressure During Installation 24

Resistance to External Collapse Pressure During Pull-Back 25Installation

Bending Stress 25

Thermal Stresses and Strains 26

Torsion Stress 26

Example Calculations 27

References 29

Appendix A 31

Appendix B 37

FIGURES

Figure 1 - Borehole Deformation 6

Figure 2 - Performance Limits of HDD Pipe Subjected to Service Loads 13

Figure 3 - Ovality Compensation Factor 17

Figure 4 - Estimated Pull-Back Force Calculation 22

TABLES

Table 1 - H20 Loading Under Rigid Pavement (AISI) 12

Table 2 - Apparent Modulus of Elasticity and Safe Pull Tensile Stress 14 @ 730F

Table 3 - Design Deflection Limits of Buried Polyethylene Pipe 16 Long Term, %

Table 4 - Critical Buckling (Collapse) Pressure for Unconstrained HDPE 18Pipe @ 730F

Table 5 - Safe Pull Loads for HDPE Pipes 24

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iii

Foreword

Polyethylene Pipe for Horizontal Directional Drilling is one of the chapters being pre-pared for inclusion in the Plastics Pipe Institute�s PPI Handbook of Polyethylene Pip-ing, which will be issued as a complete volume in the future. This handbook will coverother uses of polyethylene piping systems including municipal, mining, and industrialapplications. Other topics to be addressed in the handbook will include engineeringprinciples, design and installation of polyethylene piping systems, and relevant codesand standards.

PPI is a division of The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. (SPI), the major U.S. tradeassociation representing all segments of the plastics industry.

The Municipal and Industrial (M&I) subgroup of PPI are producing the PPI Handbookof Polyethylene Piping. M&I membership consist s of major North American manufac-turers of polyethylene (PE) pipe and fittings, PE piping materials, machinery, andequipment used for joining and installing PE piping, related test laboratories, andprofessional organizations.

PPI maintains additional subgroups, which address other applications, such as gasdistribution. PPI and its subgroups provide technical and promotional support for theeffective use and continued application of thermoplastics pipe and related products,consistent with the best public interest. PPI membership also includes producers ofpolyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), polybutylene (PB),and crosslinked PE (PEX) piping products and materials.

For a list of other publications available from PPI and/or further information, pleasecontact:

The Plastics Pipe Institute, a Division ofThe Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.

1801 K St. N. W., Suite 600KWashington, D.C. 20006Toll Free: (888) 314-6774

Phone: (202) 974-5318Fax: (202) 293-0048

http://www.plasticpipe.org

The information in the publication was prepared by SPI as a service to its members andthe industry. While prepared in good faith and believed to be accurate, SPI, its mem-bers, and contributors disclaim all liability for any loss or damage arising from relianceon this information by any person. SPI does not endorse the proprietary products orprocesses of any manufacturer. Consult the product manufacturer for specific informa-tion.

August, 1998

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Horizontal Directional Drilling 11 - 1

INTRODUCTION

The Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD) Industry has experienced so much growthin the past decade, that HDD has become commonplace as a method of installation.One source reported that the number of units in use increased by more than a hun-dred-fold in the decade following 1984. This growth has been driven by the benefitsoffered to utility owners (such as the elimination of traffic disruption) and by the inge-nuity of contractors in developing this technology. To date, HDD pipe engineeringhas focused on installation techniques and rightfully so. In many cases, the pipeexperiences its maximum lifetime loads during the back-pulling operation.

The purpose of this document is to acquaint the reader with some of the importantconsiderations in selecting the proper polyethylene pipe. Proper selection of pipeinvolves consideration not only of installation design factors such as pull-back forcelimits and collapse resistance, but also of the long-term performance of the pipeonce installed in the bore-hole. The information herein is not all inclusive; there maybe parameters not discussed that will have significant bearing on the proper engi-neering of an application and the pipe selection. For specific projects, the reader isadvised to consult with a qualified engineer to evaluate the project and prepare aspecification including design recommendations and pipe selection.

Background

Some of the earliest uses of large diameter polyethylene pipe in directional drillingwere for river crossings. These are major engineering projects requiring thoughtfuldesign, installation, and construction while offering the owner the security of deepriver bed cover with minimum environmental damage or exposure, and no disruptionof river traffic. Polyethylene pipe is suited for these installations because of its scratchtolerance and the fused joining system which gives a zero-leak-rate joint with designtensile capacity equal to that of the pipe.

To date, directional drillers have installed polyethylene pipe for gas, water, and sewermains; electrical conduits; and a variety of chemical lines. These projects involvednot only river crossings but also highway crossings and right-of-ways through devel-oped areas so as not to disturb streets, driveways, and business entrances.

Chapter 11 gives information on the pipe selection and design process. It is notintended to be a primer on directional drilling. The reader seeking such informationcan refer to the bibliography of this document. A suggested document is the �Mini-Horizontal Directional Drilling Manual� published by the North American Society forTrenchless Technology (NASTT).

Chapter 11

POLYETHYLENE PIPE FOR HORIZONTAL DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

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HORIZONTAL DIRECTIONAL DRILLING PROCESS

Knowledge of the directional drilling process by the reader is assumed but somereview may be of value in establishing common terminology.

Briefly, the HDD process begins with boring a small, horizontal hole (pilot hole) underthe crossing obstacle (i.e. a highway) with a continuous string of steel drill rod. Whenthe bore head and rod emerge on the opposite side of the crossing, a special cutter,called a back reamer, is attached and pulled back through the pilot hole. The reamerbores out the pilot hole so that the pipe can be pulled through. The pipe is usuallypulled through from the side of the crossing opposite the drill rig.

Pilot Hole

Drilling the pilot hole establishes the path of the drill rod (�drill-path�) and subse-quently the location of the PE pipe. Typically, the bore-head is tracked electronicallyso as to guide the hole to a pre-designed configuration. One of the key consider-ations in the design of the drill-path is creating as large a radius of curvature aspossible within the limits of the right-of-way, thus minimizing curvature. Curvatureinduces bending stresses and increases the pull-back load due to the capstan effect.The capstan effect is the increase in frictional drag when pulling the pipe around acurve due to a component of the pulling force acting normal to the curvature. Highertensile stresses reduce the pipe�s collapse resistance. The drill-path normally hascurvature along its vertical profile. Curvature requirements are dependent on sitegeometry (crossing length, required depth to provide safe cover, staging site loca-tion, etc.) But, the degree of curvature is limited by the bending radius of the drill rodand the pipe. For small size pipes the stiff drill rod usually controls the curvature andthus significant bending stresses do not occur in the pipe. The designer shouldminimize the number of curves and maximize their radii of curvature in the right-of-way by carefully choosing the entry and exit points.

Pilot Hole Reaming

The REAMING operation consists of using an appropriate tool to open the pilot holeto a slightly larger diameter than the carrier pipeline. The percentage oversize de-pends on many variables including soil types, soil stability, depth, drilling mud, bore-hole hydrostatic pressure, etc. Normal over-sizing may be from 120% to 150% of thecarrier pipe diameter. While the over-sizing is necessary for insertion, it means thatthe inserted pipe will have to sustain vertical earth pressures without significant side-support from the surrounding soil.

Drilling Mud

Usually a �drilling mud� such as fluid bentonite clay is forced down the hole to stabi-lize the hole and remove soil cuttings. Drilling mud can be made from clay or poly-mers. The primary clay for drilling mud is sodium montmorillonite (bentonite). Prop-erly ground and refined bentonite is added to fresh water to produce a �mud�. The

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mud reduces drilling torque, imparts lubrication to the pipe, provides annular flushing ofthe freshly cut borehole soil debris, and gives stability and support to the bored hole.

Drilling muds are thixotropic and thus thicken when left undisturbed after pull-back.However, unless cementitious agents are added, the thickened mud is no stiffer thanvery soft clay. Drilling mud provides little to no soil side-support for the pipe.

Pull-back

The pull-back operation involves pulling the entire pipeline length in one segment(usually) back through the drilling mud along the reamed-hole pathway. Proper pipehandling, cradling, bending minimization, surface inspection, and fusion welding pro-cedures need to be followed. Axial tension force readings, constant insertion veloc-ity, mud flow circulation/exit rates, and footage length installed should be recorded.The pullback speed ranges usually between 1 to 2 feet per minute.

Mini-Horizontal Directional Drilling

The Industry distinguishes between mini-HDD and conventional HDD, which is some-times referred to as maxi-HDD. Mini-HDD rigs can typically handle pipes up to 10" or12" and are used primarily for utility construction in urban areas, whereas HDD rigsare typically capable of handling pipes as large as 48". These machines have signifi-cantly larger pullback forces ranging up to several hundred thousand pounds.

General Guidelines

The designer will achieve the most efficient design for an application by consultingwith an experienced contractor and a qualified engineer. Here are some generalconsiderations that may help particularly in regard to site location for PE pipes:

1. Select the crossing route to keep it to the shortest reasonable distance.

2. Find routes and sites where the pipeline can be constructed in one con-tinuous length; or at least in long multiple segments fused together dur-ing insertion.

3. Although compound curves have been done, try to use as straight a drillpath as possible.

4 Avoid entry and exit elevation differences in excess of 50 feet; both pointsshould be as close as possible to the same elevation.

5. Locate all buried structures and utilities within 10 feet of the drill-path formini-HDD applications and within 25 feet of the drill-path for maxi-HDDapplications. Crossing lines are typically exposed for exact location.

6. Observe and avoid above-ground structures, such as power lines, whichmight limit the height available for construction equipment.

7. The HDD process takes very little working space versus other methods.However, actual site space varies somewhat depending upon the crossing

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distance, pipe diameter, and soil type.

8. Long crossings with large diameter pipe needs bigger, more powerfulequipment and drill rig.

9. As pipe diameter increases, large volumes of drilling fluids must bepumped requiring more/larger pumps and mud-cleaning and storageequipment.

10.Space requirements for Maxi-HDD rigs can range from a 100 feet wideby 150 feet long entry plot for a 1000 ft crossing up to 200 feet wide by300 feet long area for crossing of 3000 or more feet.

11. On the pipe side of the crossing sufficient temporary space should berented to allow fusing and joining the polyethylene carrier pipe in a con-tinuous string beginning about 75 feet beyond the exit point with a widthof 35 to 50 feet depending on the pipe diameter. Space requirements forcoiled pipe are considerably less. Larger pipe sizes require larger andheavier construction equipment which need more maneuvering room (useof polyethylene minimizes this though). The initial pipe side �exit� loca-tion should be about 50' W x 100" L for most crossings up to 100' W x150' L for equipment needed in large diameter crossings.

12.Obtain �As-Built� drawings based on the final course followed by thereamer and the installed pipeline. The gravity forces may have causedthe reamer to go slightly deeper than the pilot hole and the buoyant pipemay be resting on the crown of the reamed hole. The as-built drawingsare essential to know the exact pipeline location and to avoid future thirdparty damage.

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION

Before any serious thought is given to the pipe design or installation, the designer willnormally conduct a comprehensive geotechnical study to identify soil formations atthe potential bore sites. The purpose of the investigation is not only to determine ifdirectional drilling is feasible but to establish the most efficient way to accomplish it.With this information the best crossing route can be determined, drilling tools andprocedures selected, and the pipe designed. The extent of the geotechnical investi-gation often depends on the pipe diameter, bore length and the nature of the cross-ing.

During the survey, the geotechnical consultant will identify a number of relevant itemsincluding the following:

a. Soil identification to locate rock, rock inclusions, gravelly soils, loose de-posits, discontinuities and hardpan.

b. Soil strength and stability characteristics

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c. Groundwater

(Supplemental geotechnical data may be obtained from existing records, i.e. recentnearby bridge constructions, other pipeline/cable crossings in the area.)

For long crossings, borings are typically taken at 700 ft intervals. For short crossings(1000 ft or less), as few as three borings may suffice. The borings should be near thedrill-path to give accurate soil data, but sufficiently far from the bore hole to avoidpressurized mud from following natural ground fissures and rupturing to the groundsurface through the soil-test bore hole. A rule-of -thumb is to take borings at least 30ft to either side of bore path. Although these are good general rules, the number,depth and location of boreholes is best determined by the geotechnical engineer.

Geotechnical Data For River Crossings

River crossings require additional information such as a study to identify river bed,depth, stability (lateral as well as scour), and river width. Typically, pipes are installedto a depth of at least 20 ft below the expected future river bottom, considering scour,soil borings for geotechnical investigation are generally conducted to 40 ft belowriver bottom.

Summary

The best conducted projects are handled by a team approach with the design engi-neer, bidding contractors and geotechnical engineer participating prior to the prepa-ration of contract documents. The geotechnical investigation is usually the first stepin the boring project. Once the geotechnical investigation is completed a determina-tion can be made whether HDD can be used. At that time, design of both the HDPEpipe and the installation can begin.

The preceding paragraphs represent general guidance and considerations for plan-ning and designing an HDD polyethylene pipeline project. These overall topics canbe very detailed in nature. Individual HDD contractors and consultant engineeringfirms should be contacted and utilized in the planning and design stage. Commonsense along with a rational in-depth analysis of all pertinent considerations shouldprevail. Care should be given in evaluating and selecting an HDD contractor basedupon successful projects, qualifications, experience and diligence. A team effort,strategic partnership and risk-sharing may be indicated.

PRODUCT DESIGN: DR SELECTION

After completion of the geotechnical investigation and determination that HDD isfeasible, the designer turns attention to selecting the proper pipe. The proper pipemust satisfy all hydraulic requirements of the line including flow capacity, workingpressure rating, and surge or vacuum capacity. These considerations have to bemet regardless of the method of installation. Design of the pipe for hydraulic consid-erations can be found elsewhere such as in AWWA C906 or the pipe manufacturer�sliterature and will not be addressed in this chapter. For HDD applications, in addition

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to the hydraulic requirements, the pipe must be able to withstand (1) pull-back loadswhich include tensile pull forces, external hydrostatic pressure, and tensile bendingstresses, and (2) external service loads (post-installation soil, groundwater, and sur-charge loads occurring over the life of the pipeline). Often the load the pipe seesduring installation such as the combined pulling force and external pressure will bethe largest load experienced by the pipe during its life. The remainder of this docu-ment will discuss the DR selection based on pull-back and external service loads.(Polyethylene pipe is classified by DR. The DR is the �dimension ratio� and equalsthe pipe�s outer diameter divided by the minimum wall thickness.)

While Chapter 11 gives guidelines to assist the designer, the designer assumesall responsibility for determining the appropriateness and applicability of theequations and parameters given in this chapter for any specific application.Directional drilling is an evolving technology and Industry-wide design proto-cols are still developing. Proper design requires considerable professional judg-ment beyond the scope of this chapter.

Normally, the designer starts the DR selection process by determining the DR re-quirement for the internal pressure (or other hydraulic requirements). The designerwill then determine if this DR is sufficient to withstand earth, live, and groundwaterservice loads, if so, then the installation (pull-back) forces are considered. Ultimately,the designer chooses a DR that will satisfy all three requirements; the pressure, theservice loads, and the pull-back load.

Although there can be some pipe wall stresses generated by the combination ofinternal pressurization and wall bending or localized bearing, generally internal pres-sure and external service load stresses are treated as independent. This is permis-sible primarily since PE is a ductile material and failure is usually driven by the aver-age stress rather than local maximums, there is a high safety factor applied to theinternal pressure, and internal pressurization significantly reduces stresses due toexternal loads by re-rounding. (One exception to this is internal vacuum, which mustbe combined with the external pressure.)

Figure 1 - Borehole Deformation

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR NET EXTERNAL LOADS

This and the following sections will discuss external buried loads that occur on direc-tional drilled pipes. One important factor in determining what load reaches the pipeis the condition of the borehole, i.e. whether it stays round and open or collapses.This will depend in great part on the type of ground, the boring techniques, and thepresence of slurry (drilling mud and cutting mixture). If the borehole does not deform(stays round) after drilling, earth loads are arched around the borehole and little soilpressure is transmitted to the pipe. The pressure acting on the pipe is the hydrostaticpressure due to the slurry or any groundwater present. The slurry itself may act tokeep the borehole open. If the borehole collapses or deforms substantially, earthpressure will be applied to the pipe. The resulting pressure could exceed the slurrypressure unless considerable tunnel arching occurs above the borehole. Where notunnel arching occurs, the applied external pressure is equal to the combined earth,groundwater, and live-load pressure. For river crossings, little arching is anticipateddue to the unconsolidated and saturated river bed soils. The applied pressure likelyequals the geostatic stress (sometimes called the prism load.) In consolidated soils,arching above the borehole may occur and the applied pressure will likely be lessthan the geostatic stress, even after total collapse of the borehole crown onto thepipe. If the soil deposit is a stiff clay, cemented, or partially lithified, the borehole maystay open with little or no deformation. In this case, the applied pressure is likely tobe just the slurry head or groundwater head.

In addition to the overt external pressures such as slurry head and groundwater,internal vacuum in the pipe results in an increase in external pressure due to theremoval of atmospheric pressure from inside the pipe. On the other hand, a positiveinternal pressure in the pipe may mediate the external pressure. The following equa-tions can be used to establish the net external pressure or, as it is sometimes called,the differential pressure between the inside and outside of the pipe.

Depending on the borehole condition, the net external pressure is defined by eitherEq. 1 (deformed/collapsed borehole) or Eq. 2 (open borehole):

PN = P

E + P

GW + P

SUR - P

I(1)

PN = P

MUD - P

I(2)

Where: PN = Net external pressure, psi

PE = External pressure due to earth pressure, psi

PGW

= Groundwater pressure (including the height of river water),psi

PSUR

= Surcharge and live loads, psiP

I = Internal pressure, psi (negative in the event of vacuum)

PMUD

= Hydrostatic pressure of drilling slurry or groundwater pres-sure, if slurry can carry shear stress, psi

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Earth, ground water, and surcharge pressures used in Eq. 1 are discussed in a follow-ing section of this chapter.

gMUD

HB

PMUD

= (3) inches2

ft2

Where: gMUD

= Unit weight of slurry (drilling mud and cuttings), pcfH

B= Elevation difference between lowest point in borehole andentry or exit pit, ft (144 is included for units conversion.)

When calculating the net external pressure, the designer will give careful consider-ation to enumerating all applied loads and their duration. In fact, most pipelines gothrough operational cycles that include (1) unpressurized or being drained, (2) oper-ating at working pressure, (3) flooding, (4) shutdowns, and (5) vacuum and peakpressure events. As each of these cases could result in a different net externalpressure, the designer will consider all phases of the line�s life to establish the designcases.

In addition to determining the load, careful consideration must be given to the dura-tion of each load. PE pipe is viscoelastic, that is, it reacts to load with time-depen-dent properties. For instance, an HDD conduit resists constant groundwater and soilpressure with its long-term stiffness. On the other hand, an HDD force-main may besubjected to pressure surges resulting in cavitation. When cavitation occurs, the netexternal pressure equals the sum of the external pressure plus the vacuum. Sincecavitation is instantaneous, it is resisted by the pipe�s short-term stiffness, which canbe four times higher than the long-term stiffness.

For pressure lines, consideration should be given to the time the line sits unpressurizedafter construction. This may be several months. Most directional drilled lines thatcontain fluid will have a static head, which will remain in the line once filled. Thishead may be subtracted from the external pressure due to earth/groundwater load.The designer should keep in mind that the external load also may vary with time, forexample, flooding.

EARTH AND GROUNDWATER PRESSURE

Earth loads can reach the pipe when the borehole deforms and contacts the pipe.The amount of soil load transmitted to the pipe will depend on the extent of deforma-tion and the relative stiffness between the pipe and the soil. Earth loading may notbe uniform. Due to this complexity, there is not a simple equation for relating earthload to height of cover. Groundwater loading will occur whether the hole deforms ornot, the only question is whether or not the slurry head is higher and thus may in factcontrol design. Thus, what loads reach the pipe will depend on the stability of the

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borehole.

As the loads reaching the pipe depend on detailed knowledge of the soil, the de-signer may wish to consult a geotechnical engineer for assistance in determiningearth and groundwater loads.

Stable Borehole � Groundwater Pressure Only

A borehole is called stable if it remains round and deforms little after drilling. Forinstance, drilling in competent rock will typically result in a stable borehole. Stableboreholes may occur in some soils where the slurry exerts sufficient pressure tomaintain a round and open hole. Since the deformations around the hole are small,soil pressures transmitted to the pipe are negligible. The external load applied to thepipe consists only of the hydrostatic pressure due to the slurry or the groundwater, ifpresent. Equation 4 gives the hydrostatic pressure due to groundwater or grout.Standing surface water should be added to the groundwater.

gWHW

PGW

= (4)

144 inches2

ft2

Where: PGW

= Hydrostatic fluid pressure due to ground and surface water, psig

w = Unit weight of water, pcf

HW

= Height to free water surface above pipe, ft(144 is included forcorrect units conversion.)

Borehole Deforms/Collapse With Arching Mobilized

When the crown of the hole deforms sufficiently to place soil above the hole in theplastic state, arching is mobilized. In this state, hole deformation is limited. If no soiltouches the pipe, there is no earth load on the pipe. However, when deformation issufficient to transmit load to the pipe, it becomes the designer�s chore to determinehow much earth load is applied to the pipe. At the time of this writing, there has beenno published reports giving calculation methods for finding earth load on directionaldrilled pipes. Based on the successful performance of directional drilled PE pipes itis reasonable to assume that some form of arching occurs in many applications.(One noted exception is river crossings.) The designer of HDD pipes may gain someknowledge from the approaches developed for determining earth pressure on augerbored pipes and on jacked pipes. It is suggested that the designer become familiarwith all of the assumptions used with these methods.

O�Rourke et. al. published an equation for determining the earth pressure on augerbored pipes assuming a borehole approximately 10% larger than the pipe. In thismodel, arching occurs above the pipe similar to that in a tunnel where zones ofloosened soil fall onto the pipe. The volume of the cavity is eventually filled with soil

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that is slightly less dense than the insitu soil, but still capable of transmitting soil load.This method of load calculation gives a minimal loading. The method published hereis more conservative. It is based on trench type arching as opposed to tunnel arch-ing and is used by Stein to calculate loads on jacked pipe In Stein�s model the maxi-mum earth load (effective stress) is found using the modified form of Terzhaghi�sequation given by Eq. 6. External groundwater pressure must be added to the effec-tive earth pressure. Stein and O�Rourke�s methods should only be considered wherethe depth of cover is sufficient to develop arching (typically exceeding five (5) pipediameters), dynamic loads such as traffic loads are insignificant, the soil has suffi-cient internal friction to transmit arching, and confirmed by a geotechnical engineer.Using the equations given in Stein, the external pressure is given below:

kgSE

HC

PEV

= (5)

144 inches2

ft2

1 - exp ( - 2 KHC

tan ( ))k = (6)

2 KHC

tan ( )

Where: PEV

= external earth pressure, psig

SE = effective soil weight, pcf

HC = depth of cover, ft

k = arching factorB = �silo� width, ftd = angle of wall friction, degrees (For HDD, d = f)f = angle of internal friction, degreesK = earth pressure coefficient given by:

K = tan2 (45 - )

The �silo� width should be estimated based on the application. It varies between thepipe diameter and the borehole diameter. A conservative approach is to assume thesilo width equals the borehole diameter. (The effective soil weight is the dry unitweight of the soil for soil above the groundwater level, it is the saturated unit weightless the weight of water for soil below the groundwater level.)

d2B

Bd2

f2

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Borehole Collapse with Prism Load

In the event that arching in the soil above the pipe breaks down, considerable earthloading may occur on the pipe. In the event that arching does not occur, the upperlimit on the load is the weight of the soil prism (P

E = g

SEH

C) above the pipe. The prism

load is most likely to develop in shallow applications subjected to live loads, boreholesin unconsolidated sediments such as river crossings, and holes subjected to dynamicloads. The �prism� load is given by Eq. 7.

gSE

HC

PE = (7)

144 inches2

ft2

Where: PE

= earth pressure on pipe, psig

SE= effective weight of soil, pcf

HC

= soil height above pipe crown, ft(Note: 144 is included for units conversion.)

Combination of Earth and Groundwater Pressure

Where groundwater is present in the soil formation, its pressure must be accountedfor in the external load term. For instance, in a river crossing one can assume withreasonable confidence that the directionally drilled pipe is subjected to the earthpressure from the sediments above it combined with the water pressure.

Case(1): Water level at or below ground surface

gBHW + gD (HC - HW) + gWHW

PE + P

GW = (8)

144 inches2

ft2

Case (2): Water level at or above ground surface (i.e. pipe in river bottom)

gBHC + gWHW

PE + P

GW = (9)

144 inches2

ft2

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Where: H W

= Height of Ground water above pipe springline, ftH

C = Height of Cover, ft

gB = buoyant weight of soil, pcf

gW = weight of water, pcf

gD

= dry unit weight of soil, pcf

Live Loads

Wheel loads from trucks or other vehicles are significant for pipe buried at shallowdepths and they may be significant for shallow HDD pipes. Live load pressures areapplied to the pipe only when earth loads are applied. The live load applied to thepipe depends on the vehicle weight, the tire pressure and size, vehicle speed, sur-face smoothness, pavement and distance from the pipe to the point of loading. Inorder to develop proper soil structure interaction, pipe subject to vehicular loadingshould be installed at least 18" or one pipe diameter (whichever is larger) under theroad surface. This is assumed to be the case for HDD pipes.

For pipes installed under rigid pavement and subjected to H20 loadings, Table 1gives the vertical earth pressure at the pipe crown as determined by AISI [3]. Liveloads under flexible pavement and unpaved roads can be calculated. (See Spanglerand Handy in references.)

Table 1 - H20 Loading Under Rigid Pavement (AISI)

Height of Cover(ft.) (ft)Load (psf)

1 1800

2 800

3 600

4 400

5 250

6 200

7 175

8 100

The live-load pressure can be obtained from Table 1 by selecting the load based on theheight of cover and converting the load to units of �psi� by dividing the load in �psf� by144.

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Figure 2 - Performance Limits of HDDPipe Subjected to Service Loads

PERFORMANCE LIMITS OF HDD INSTALLED PIPE

The design process normally consists of calculating the loads applied to the pipe,selecting a trial pipe DR, then calculating the safety factor for the trial DR. If thesafety factor is adequate, the design is complete. If not, the designer selects a lowerDR and repeats the process. The safety factor is established for each performancelimit of the pipe by taking the ratio of the pipe�s ultimate strength or resistance andthe applied load.

Typically, polyethylene pipe is installed in a bore hole 1.25 to 1.5 times larger indiameter than the pipe itself. Drilling mud and cuttings fill the annular space. Thismixture is thixotropic, but with the exception of cementatious grouts its viscosity is atbest similar to very soft clay. It does not provide soil support for the pipe as does pipeembedment material. Therefore, the designer normally ignores any support from theannular space mixture and selects pipe, which has sufficient ring stiffness to resistthe net external pressure without support of the surrounding soil. External pressureapplied to the HDD pipe produces (1) a compressive ring thrust in the pipe wall and(2) ring bending deflection. Understanding the consequences of the compressivethrust and the bending are essential to designing pipe for HDD applications. The per-formance limit of unsupported PE pipe subjected to compressive thrust is ring buckling(collapse). The performance limit of a PE pipe subjected to ring bending (a result ofnon-uniform external load, i.e. earth load) is ring deflection.

Time-Dependent Behavior

The performance limits for PE pipe in directional drilled applications are dependenton either the modulus of elasticity or the tensile strength. Both of these propertiesare time-dependent. PE pipe�s resistance to a newly applied load increment de-creases with time as the molecular structure rearranges due to viscoelasticity. Thisresults in a higher resistance to short-term loading than to long-term loading. Careful

PERFORMANCE LIMITS

HYDROSTATICBUCKLING OR

COLLAPSE

RINGDEFORMATION

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consideration must be given to the duration and frequency of each load, so that theperformance limit associated with that load can be calculated using PE material prop-erties representative of that time period. For instance, during pull-back, the pipe�stensile yield strength decreases with pulling time, so the safe (allowable) pulling stressis a function of time. See Table 2 for typical values for high density PE (HDPE) andmedium density PE (MDPE).

For viscoelastic materials, the ratio of the applied stress to strain is called the appar-ent modulus of elasticity, because the ratio varies with load rate. Typical values forthe apparent modulus of elasticity at 73oF (23oC) are presented in Table 2. Consultthe manufacturer for specific applications.

Table 2 - Apparent Modulus of Elasticity and Safe Pull Tensile Stress @ 73o F

Typical Apparent Modulus of Elasticity Typical Safe Pull Stress

Duration HDPE MDPE Duration HDPE MDPE

Short-term 110,000 psi 87,000 psi 30 min 1300 psi 1000 psi (800 MPa) (600 MPa) (9.0 MPa) (6.9 MPa)

10 hours 57,500 psi 43,500 psi 60 min 1200 psi 900 psi(400 MPa) (300 MPa) (8.3 MPa) (6.2 MPa)

100 hours 51,200 psi 36,200 psi 12 hours 1150 psi 850 psi(350 MPa) (250 Mpa) (7.9 Mpa) (5.9 Mpa)

50 years 28,200 psi 21,700 psi 24 hours 1100 psi 800 psi(200 Mpa) (150 Mpa) (7.6 MPa) (5.5 MPa)

RING DEFLECTION (OVALIZATION)

Non-uniform pressure acting on the pipe�s circumference causes bending deflectionof the pipe ring. Normally, the deflected shape is that of an oval. Ovalization mayoccur in non-rerounded coiled pipe and to a lesser degree in straight lengths thathave been stacked but the primary sources of ovalization of directional drilled pipesare (1) buoyant deflection due to the fluid in the borehole and (2) ring deflection dueto earth load in a deformed or collapsed borehole. Ovalization may also occur duringpullback due to bending the pipe around a curved path in the borehole. Ovalizationreduces the pipes hydrostatic collapse resistance and creates tensile bending stressesin the pipe wall. It is normal and expected for buried PE pipes to undergo ovalization(or as it is often called �ring deflection�). Proper design and installation will limitovalization to prescribed values so that it has no adverse effect on the pipe.

Ring Deflection Due To Buoyancy

A pressure difference occurs when pipe is submerged in grout due to the difference ingrout head between the invert and the crown of the pipe. The pressure difference ap-

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plies a force, which deflects the invert upward toward the crown, thus creating ovality.This deflection is referred to as �buoyant deflection�. The resistance to buoyant deflec-tion is given by Equation 10.

D =

0.1169 W ( )4

(10)D EI

Where: D = ring deflection, inD = pipe diameter, ing

W = weight of fluid in borehole, lbs/in3

E = modulus of elasticity, psiI = moment of inertia of pipe wall cross-section (t3/12), in4/in(To convert fluid weight from lbs/ft3 to lbs/in3 divide by 1728.)

Ring Deflection Due To Earth Load

The earth load applied to directional drilled pipes depends on insitu soil characteris-tics and borehole stability. Methods for calculating estimated earth loads, when theyoccur, are given in the previous section on �Earth and Groundwater Pressure�. Gen-erally, earth load is applied to the pipe crown with a reaction occurring at the invert.As slurry provides essentially no side-support, there is little pressure at the springlineto restrain vertical deflection. The primary resistance to deflection is provided by thepipe�s stiffness.

At the time of this writing, there is no mathematical expression relating an HDDpipe�s ring deflection to the earth load. Formulas used for entrenched pipe are likelynot suited. Spangler�s Iowa formula is difficult to apply as the slurry stiffness (E�) isnot known and often may be nearly zero. Since the pipe will be the major loadcarrying element, the customary practice of using the short-term pipe stiffness in theIowa formula is unconservative. Pipe creep will govern deflection and therefore thelong-term stiffness should be used.

The pipe stiffness equation (also called the parallel-plate load equation) is one rea-sonable candidate for determining ring deflection, but it is based on a point load atthe crown and invert. Whereas actual soil loads will be applied over a good portion ofthe top and bottom halves of the pipe. Watkins and Anderson give two ring deflec-tion formulas for uniform loading on the top half of a pipe in the Appendix of their text.One formula assumes the pipe�s invert is supported on a rigid, flat base while theother assumes the invert reaction load is uniform around the bottom half of the pipe.Neither case accurately models what occurs, as there is likely to be some settlementof the bottom of the pipe into the insitu soil. Equation 11 is based on using a coefficientthat is the average of the two formulas. (Coincidentally, Equation 11 gives the samedeflection as the Iowa formula with an E� of zero.)

D2

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D =

0.0125PE

(11)D E

12 (DR - 1)3

Where: D = ring deflection, inD = pipe diameter, in P

E = Earth pressure, psi

DR = Pipe Dimension Ratio E = modulus of elasticity, psi

Ring Deflection Limits (Ovality Limits)

The limiting ovalization or ring deflection (in percent) is determined by the strainoccurring in the pipe wall, the pipe�s hydraulic capacity, and the geometric stability ofthe pipe. Jansen observed that for PE, pressure-rated pipe, subjected to soil pres-sure only, �no upper limit from a practical design point of view seems to exist for thebending strain� [7]. On the other hand, pressurized pipes are subject to strains fromboth soil induced deflection and internal pressure. The combined strain may pro-duce a high, localized outer-fiber tensile stress. However, as the internal pressure isincreased the pipe tends to re-round and the bending strain is reduced. Due to thispotential for combined strain (bending and hoop tensile), it is conservative to limitdeflection of pressure pipes to less than non-pressure pipes. In lieu of an exactcalculation for allowable deflection limits, the limits in Table 3 can be used.

Table 3Design Deflection Limits of Buried Polyehtylene Pipe, Long Term, %*

DR or SDR 21 17 15.5 13.5 11 9 7.3

Deflection Limit (%Dia) 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5Non-Pressure Applications

Deflection Limit (%Dia) 7.5 6.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0Pressure Appliations

*Deflection limits for pressure applications are equal to 1.5 times the short-term deflection limitsgiven in TableX2.1 of ASTM F-714.

Design deflections are for use in selecting DR and for field quality control. (Fieldmeasured deflections exceeding the design deflection do not necessarily indicateunstable or over-strained pipe. In this case, an engineering analysis of such pipeshould be performed before acceptance.)

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Unconstrained Buckling

The application of a uniform external pressure to the pipe creates a ring compressivehoop stress in the pipe�s wall. Buckling occurs as the compressive hoop stress in thewall increases and the pipe reaches a point of instability where increasing the stresscauses a sudden and large inward deformation of the wall. Constraining the pipe byembedding it in soil or cementatious grout will increase the pipe�s buckling strength.However, drilling mud or slurry are not sufficiently stiff to provide such support. Thefollowing equation, known as Levy�s equation, may be used to determine the allow-able external pressure (or negative internal pressure) for a HDD pipe in a non-cementatious slurry or grout:

2 E 1 foPUA = ( )3

(12)

(1 - m 2) DR - 1 N

Where: Pua

= Allowable unconstrained pressure, psiE = Modulus of elasticity (apparent), psim = Poisson�s Ratio

Long term loading - 0.45 Short term loading - 0.35

DR = Dimension ratio (Do/t)

fo = ovality compensation factor (see figure 3)

N = Safety factor, generally 2.0 or higher

Figure 3 - Ovality Compensation Factor

Note that the modulus of elasticity and Poisson�s ratio are a function of the durationof the anticipated load. If the safety factor in Levy�s equation is set equal to one, the

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equation gives the critical buckling pressure for the pipe. Table 4 below gives values ofthe critical buckling (collapse) pressure for different DR�s of PE pipe. For design pur-poses, the designer must reduce the values by a safety factor and by ovality compensa-tion. When using this table for determining pipe�s resistance to buckling during pull-back and additional reduction for tensile stresses is required, which is discussed in alater section of this chapter.

Table 4 - Critical Buckling (Collapse) Pressure for unconstrained HDPE Pipe*@730F

ServicePipe SDR Life Units 7.3 9 11 13.5 15.5 17 21

Short- psi 1003 490 251 128 82 61 31

term ft H2O 2316 1131 579 297 190 141 72

in Hg 2045 999 512 262 168 125 64

100 hrs psi 488 238 122 62 40 30 15

ft H2O 1126 550 282 144 92 69 35

in Hg 995 486 249 127 82 61 31

50 yrs psi 283 138 71 36 23 17 9

ft H2O 653 319 163 84 54 40 20

in Hg 577 282 144 74 47 35 18

(Table does not include ovality compensation or safety factor.)

* Full Vacuum is 14.7 psi, 34 ft water, 30 in Hg. *Axial Tension during pull-* Multipliers for Temperature Rerating: back reduces collapse strength.

600F (160C) 73.40F (230C) 1000F (380C) 1200F (490C)

1.08 1.00 0.78 0.63

Wall Compressive Stress

The compressive stress in the wall of a directional drilled PE pipe rarely controlsdesign and it is normally not checked. However, it is included here because in somespecial cases such as directional drilling at very deep depths such as in landfills itmay control design.

The earth pressure applied to a buried pipe creates a compressive thrust stress inthe pipe wall. When the pipe is pressurized the stress is reduced due to the internalpressure creating tensile thrust stresses. The net stress can be positive or negativedepending on the depth of cover. Buried pressure lines may be subject to net com-pressive stress when shut down or when experiencing vacuum. These are usuallyshort term conditions and are not typically considered significant for design, sincethe short term design stress of polyolefins is considerably higher than the long termdesign stress. Pipes with large depths of cover and operating at low pressures may

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have net compressive stresses in the pipe wall. The following equation can be used todetermine the net compressive stress:

PSDO PDS

C = - (13)

288t 2t

Where: SC = Compressive wall stress, psi

PS = Earth load pressures, psf

DO = Pipe outside diameter, in

t = Wall thickness, inP = (Positive) internal pressure, psiD = Mean diameter, D

O-t, in

The compressive wall stress should be kept less than the allowable compressivestress of the material. A conservative approach is to assume that the allowablecompressive stress is equal to the allowable hydrostatic design stress. For PE3408HDPE pipe grade resins, 800 psi is a safe allowable stress.

EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS

An example calculation for selecting the DR for a HDD pipe is given in the Appendix.

INSTALLATION DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

After determining the DR required for long-term service the designer must determineif this DR is sufficient for installation. Since installation forces are so significant, alower DR (stronger pipe) may be required. Proper installation procedures may re-duce some of these forces to an inconsequential level.

During pull-back the pipe is subjected to axial tensile forces caused by the frictionaldrag between the pipe and the borehole or slurry, the frictional drag on the groundsurface, the capstan effect around drill-path bends, and hydrokinetic drag. In addi-tion, the pipe may be subjected to external hoop pressures due to net external fluidhead and bending stresses. The pipe�s collapse resistance to external pressuregiven in Levy�s equation is reduced by the axial pulling force. Furthermore, the drillpath curvature may be limited by the pipe�s bending radius. (Torsional forces occurbut are usually negligible when back-reamer swivels are properly designed.) Con-siderable judgment is required to predict the pull-back force because of the complexinteraction between pipe and soil. Sources for information include experienced drill-ers and engineers, programs such as DRILLPATH (1) and publications. Typically,pull-back force calculations are approximations that depend on considerable experi-ence and judgment.

Because of the large number of variables involved and the sensitivity of pull-backforces to installation techniques, the formulas presented in this document are forguidelines only and are given only to familiarize the designer with the interaction thatoccurs during pullback. Pull-back values obtained should be considered only as quali-

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tative values and used only for preliminary estimates. The designer is advised to con-sult with an experienced driller or with an engineer familiar with calculating these forces.

PULL-BACK FORCE

Large HDD rigs can exert between 100,000 lbs. to 200,000 lbs. pull force. Themajority of this power is applied to the cutting face of the reamer device/tool, whichprecedes the pipeline segment into the borehole. It is difficult to predict what portionof the total pull-back force is actually transmitted to the pipeline being inserted.

The pulling force which overcomes the combined frictional drag, capstan effect, andhydrokinetic drag, is applied to the pull-head and first joint of HDPE pipe. The axialtensile stress grows in intensity over the length of the pull. The duration of the pull-load is longest at the pull-nose. The tail end of the pipe segment has zero appliedtensile stress for zero time. The incremental time duration of stress intensity alongthe length of the pipeline from nose to tail causes a varying degree of recoverableelastic strain and viscoelastic stretch per foot of length along the pipe.

The DR must be selected so that the tensile stress due to the pull-back force doesnot exceed the permitted tensile stress for the pipe. Increasing the pipe wall thick-ness will allow for a greater total pull-force, but the thicker wall also increases theweight per foot of the pipe in direct proportion. Hence, thicker wall pipe may notnecessarily reduce stress, only increase the absolute value of the pull force or ton-nage. The designer should carefully check all proposed DR�s.

Frictional Drag Resistance

Pipe resistance to pull-back in the borehole depends primarily on the frictional forcecreated between the pipe and the borehole or the pipe and the ground surface in theentry area, the frictional drag between pipe and drilling slurry, the capstan effect atbends, and the weight of the pipe. Equation 14 gives the frictional resistance orrequired pulling force for pipe pulled in straight, level bores or across level ground.

FP = mw

BL (14)

Where: FP = pulling force, lbs

m = coefficient of friction between pipe and slurry (typically 0.25) orbetween pipe and ground (typically 0.40)

wB = net downward (or upward) force on pipe, lb/ft

L = length, ft

When a slurry is present, wB, is the upward buoyant force of the pipe and its con-

tents. Filling the pipe with fluid significantly reduces the buoyancy force and thus thepulling force. Polyethylene pipe has a density near that of water. If the pipe isinstalled �dry� (empty) using a closed nose-pull head, the pipe will want to �float� onthe crown of the borehole leading to the sidewall loading and frictional drag throughthe buoyancy-per-foot force and the wetted soil to pipe coefficient of friction. If the pipe

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is installed full of water, or better yet, full of drilling mud using an open-end pulling-head,the net buoyant force is drastically reduced (see the calculation examples). The overallfrictional drag force is reduced to less than about 10% of the weight of the polyethylenepipe or just a few percent of the buoyant (empty) pipe frictional drag.

[Note that the buoyant force pushing the empty pipe to the borehole crown will cause thePE pipe to �rub� the borehole crown. During pull-back, the moving drill mud lubricatesthe contact zone. If the drilling stops, the pipe stops, or the mud flow stops, the pipe,slightly ring deflected by the buoyant force, can push up and squeeze out the lubricatingmud. The resultant �start-up� friction is measurably increased. The pulling load to loosenthe PE pipe from being �stuck� in the now decanted (moist) mud can be very high. Thissituation is best avoided by using higher ring stiffness pipes, inserting full pipe not emptypipe, and continuous drilling progress.]

Capstan Force

For curves in the borehole, the force can be factored into horizontal and verticalcomponents. Huey et al.(3) shows an additional frictional force that occurs in steelpipe due to the pressure required by the borehole to keep the steel pipe curved. Forbores with a radius of curvature similar to that used for steel pipe, these forces arelikely insignificant for PE pipe. For very tight bends, it may be prudent to considerthem. The frictional resistance during a pull is compounded by the capstan effect.As the pipe is pulled around a curve or bend creating an angle q, there is a compound-ing of the forces due to the direction of the pulling vectors. The pulling force, F

C, due to

the capstan effect is given in Eq. 15. Equations 14 and 15 are applied recursively to thepipe for each section along the pull-back distance as shown in Figure 4. This method iscredited to Larry Slavin of Bellcore (Middletown, NJ).

FC = emq(mwBL) (15)

Where: e = Natural logarithm base (e=2.71828)m = coefficient of frictionq = angle of bend in pipe, radiansw

B = weight of pipe or buoyant force on pipe, lbs/ft

L = Length of pull, ft

F1 = exp(mg · a) · [mg · wP

(L1 + L

2 + L

3 + L

4)]

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F2 = exp(mb · a) · (F

1 + mb · wb

· L2 + w

b · H - mg · wp

· L2 · exp(mg · a) )

F3 = F

2 + mb · wb

· L3 - exp(mb · a) · ( mg · wp

· L3 · exp(mg · a) )

F4 = exp(mb ·b) [F

3 + mb · wb

· L4 - w

b · H - exp(mb · a) · ( mg · wp

· L4 · exp(mg · a) )]

Where: H = Depth of boreFi = Pull Force on pipe at Point iLi = Horizontal distance of Pull from point to pointm = Coeff. of friction (ground (g) and borehole (b))w = Pipe weight (p) and Buoyant pipe weight (b)a, b = Entry and Exit angles

Figure 4Estimated Pull-back Force Calculation

Hydrokinetic Force

During pulling, pipe movement is resisted by the drag force of the drilling fluid. Thishydrokinetic force is difficult to estimate and depends on the drilling slurry, slurry flowrate, and borehole and pipe sizes. Typically, the hydrokinetic pressure is in the 30 to60 kPa (4 to 8 psi) range.

pFHK = p (DH

2 - OD2) (16) 8

Where: FHK

= hydrokinetic force, lbs p = hydrokinetic pressure, psiD

H = borehole diameter, in

OD = pipe outside diameter, in

The total pull back force, FT, then is the combined pull-back force, F

P, plus the hydro-

kinetic force, FHK

. For the example shown in Figure 4, FP equals F

4.

TENSILE STRESS DURING PULL-BACK

The maximum outer fiber tensile stress should not exceed the safe pull stress. Themaximum outer fiber tensile stress is obtained by taking the sum of the tensile stressin the pipe due to the pull-back force, the hydrokinetic pulling force, and the tensilebending stress due to pipe curvature. During pull-back it is advisable to monitor thepulling force and to use a �weak link� (such as a pipe of higher DR) or other failsafemethod to prevent over-stressing the pipe.

The tensile stress occurring in the pipe wall during pull-back is given by Eq. 17.

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FT ETDODsT = + (17) p t (D

OD - t) 2R

Where: sT = Axial tensile stress, psi

FT = Total pulling force, lbs

t = Minimum wall thickness, inD

OD = Outer diameter of pipe, in

ET = Time-dependent tensile modulus, psi

R = Minimum radius of curvature in bore path, in

The axial tensile stress due to the pulling forces should not exceed the safe pull load.Values in Table 5 can be used or the designer can calculate a safe pull load based ona different pull time. As discussed in a previous section, the tensile strength of PEpipe is load-rate sensitive and therefore values of �safe� pull loads which might besatisfactory for slip lining or insert renewal where the pull load is imposed for a maxi-mum of 30 min. to 60 min may not be satisfactory for directional drilling. With direc-tional drilling, the time duration of stress intensity may be longer between 4 hours to24 hours. The �safe� pull-load is time dependent. Hence, the 60 min. or less �safe�pull load (to limit elongation in the forward portion of the pipeline where the pull forceis largest), is inappropriate for longer duration pulls. Table 5 gives safe tensile stressvalues for time intervals. The 24 hour value will normally keep the pull-nose �stretch�low and avoid localized herniation of the HDPE pipeline. Allowable safe pull-backvalues for gas pipe are given in ASTM F-1807, �Practice for Determining AllowableTensile Load for Polyethylene (PE) Gas Pipe during Pull-In Installation�.

After pull back, pipe may take several hours (typically equal to the duration of thepull) to recover from the axial strain. When pulled from the reamed borehole, thepull-nose should be pulled out about 3% longer than the total length of the pull. Theelastic strain will recover immediately and the viscoelastic stretch will �remember� itsoriginal length and recover overnight. One does not want to come back in the morn-ing to discover the pull-nose sucked back below the borehole exit level due to stretchrecovery and thermal-contraction to an equilibrium temperature. In the worst case,the driller may want to pull out about 4% extra length (40 feet per 1000 feet) to insurethe pull-nose remains extended beyond the borehole exit.

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Table 5. Safe Pull Load for HDPE Pipes

Pipe Safe Pull Load @ 24 hrs

1-1/4" SDR 11 800 lbs

2" SDR 11 1,600 lbs

4" SDR 11 6,000 lbs

8" SDR 17 14,000 lbs

8" SDR 11 21,000 lbs

12" SDR 17 31,000 lbs

12" SDR 11 46,000 lbs

24" SDR 17 110,000 lbs

24" SDR 11 164,000 lbs

36" SDR 17 248,000 lbs

EXTERNAL PRESSURE DURING INSTALLATION

During pull-back it is reasonable to assume that the borehole remains stable andopen and that the borehole is full of drilling slurry. The net external pressure due tofluid in the borehole, then, is the slurry head, P

MUD. This head can be offset by pulling

the pipe with an open nose or filling the pipe with water for the pull-back. However,this may not always be possible, for instance when installing electrical conduit. Inaddition to the fluid head in the borehole, there are also dynamic sources of externalpressure:

1. If the pulling end of the pipe is capped, a plunger action occurs duringpulling which creates a mild surge pressure. The pressure is difficult tocalculate. The pipe will resist such an instantaneous pressure with itsrelatively high short-term modulus. If care is taken to pull the pipe smoothlyat a constant speed, this calculation can be ignored. If the pipe nose isleft open, this surge is eliminated.

2. External pressure will also be produced by the frictional resistance of thedrilling mud flow. Some pressure is needed to pump drilling mud fromthe reamer tool into the borehole, then into the pipe annulus, and alongthe pipe length while conveying reamed soil debris to the mud recoverypit. An estimate of this short term hydrokinetic pressure may be calcu-lated using annular flow pressure loss formulas borrowed from the oilwell drilling industry. This external pressure is dependent upon specificdrilling mud properties, flow rates, annular opening, and hole configura-tion. This is a short term installation condition. Thus, HDPE pipe�s shortterm external differential pressure capabilities are compared to the ac-tual short term total external pressure during this installation condition.

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Under normal conditions, the annular-flow back pressure component is lessthan 4-8 psi.

In consideration of the dynamic or hydrokinetic pressure, PHK

, the designer will addadditional external pressure to the slurry head:

PN = P

MUD + P

HK - P

I(18)

Where the terms have been defined previously.

Resistance to External Collapse Pressure During Pull-Back Installation

The allowable external buckling pressure equation, Eq.12, with the appropriate time-dependent modulus value can be used to calculate the pipe�s resistance to the exter-nal pressure, P

N, given by Eq. 18 during pull-back. The following reductions in strength

should be taken:

1. If the pipe is empty, the buoyant force will cause a reduction in thevertical diameter. The deflection fraction due to buoyancy can be cal-culated using Eq. 10. This value can be converted to percent ovality bymultiplying the deflection fraction by 100. Ovality reduces bucklingresistance. The appropriate ovality compensation factor for Eq.12 isfound in Fig 3.

2. The tensile pulling force reduces the buckling resistance. This can beaccounted for by an additional reduction factor, f

R. The pulling load in

the pipe creates a hoop strain as described by Poisson�s ratio. Thehoop strain reduces the buckling resistance. Multiply Eq. 12 by thereduction factor, f

R to obtain the allowable external buckling pressure

during pull-back.

fR = (5.57 - (r + 1.09)2) - 1.09 (19)

sTr = (20) 2s

Where sT = calculated tensile stress during pull-back (psi)

s = safe pull stress (psi)

Since the pull-back time is typically several hours, a modulus value consistent withthe pull-back time can be selected from Table 2.

BENDING STRESS

HDD river crossings incorporate radii-of-curvature, which allow the HDPE pipe to

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cold bend within its elastic limit. These bends are so long in radius as to be well withinthe flexural bending capability of polyethylene pipe. PE3408 of SDR 11 can be coldbent to 25 times its nominal OD (example: for a 12" SDR 11 HDPE pipe, the radius ofcurvature could be from infinity down to the minimum of 25 feet, i.e., a 50-foot diametercircle). Because the drill stem and reaming rod are less flexible, normally polyethylenecan bend easily to whatever radius the borehole steel drilling and reaming shafts canbend because these radii are many times the pipe OD. However, in order to minimizethe effect of ovaling some manufacturers limit the radius of curvature to a minimum of 40to 50 times the pipe diameter. As in a previous section, the tensile stress due to bend-ing is included in the calculations.

THERMAL STRESSES AND STRAINS

HDD pipeline river crossings are considered to be fully restrained in the axial direc-tion by the friction of the surrounding soil. This is generally accepted to be the case,though, based on uncased borings through may soil types with the progressive sedi-mentation and borehole reformation over a few hours to several months. This as-sumption is valid for the vast majority of soil conditions, although it may not be com-pletely true for each and every project. During pipe installation, the moving pipelineis not axially restrained by the oversize borehole. However, the native soil tends tosediment and embed the pipeline when installation velocity and mud flow are stopped,thus allowing the soil to grip the pipeline and prevent forward progress or removal.Under such unfortunate stoppage conditions, many pipelines may become stuckwithin minutes to only a few hours.

The degree to which the pipeline will be restrained after completed installation is inlarge part a function of the sub-surface soil conditions and behavior, and the soil-pressure at the depth of installation. Although the longitudinal displacement due tothermal expansion or contraction is minimal, the possibility of its displacement shouldbe recognized. The polyethylene pipe should be cut to length only after it is in thermalequilibrium with the surrounding soil (usually overnight). In this way the �installed� versus�operating� Temperature difference is dropped to nearly zero and the pipe will haveassumed its natural length at the existing soil/water temperature. Additionally, the ther-mal inertia of the pipe and soil will oppose any brief temperature changes from the flowstream. Seasonal temperature changes happen so slowly that actual thermally inducedstresses are usually insignificant within polyethylene for design purposes.

TORSION STRESS

A typical value for torsional shear stress is 50% of the tensile strength. Divide thetransmitted torque by the wall area to get the torsional shear stress intensity. Duringthe pull-back and reaming procedure, a swivel is typically used to separate the rotat-ing cutting head assembly from the pipeline pull segment. Swivels are not 100%efficient and some minor percent of torsion will be transmitted to the pipeline. Forthick wall HDPE pipes of SDR 17, 15.5, 11, 9 and 7 this torsion is not significant andusually does not merit a detailed engineering analysis.

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EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS

Example Calculations are given in the Appendix.

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REFERENCES:

Huey, D.P., Hair, J.D., McLeod, K.B. (1996). �Installation Loading and Stress Analy-sis Involved with Pipelines Installed by Horizontal Directional Drilling�, No-Dig �96,New Orleans, LA.

Kirby, M.J., Kramer, S.R., Pittard, G.T., and Mamoun, M. (1996). �Design Guidelinesand Procedures for Guided Horizontal Drilling�, Proceedings of the International No-Dig �96 Conf., New Orleans, La.

(1995) Mini-Horizontal Directional Drilling Manual, North American Society ofTrenchless Technology (NASTT), Chicago, IL.

O�Rourke, T.D., El-Gharbawy, S.L., Stewart, H.E. (1991). �Soil Loads at PipelineCrossings�, ASCE Speciality Conference on Pipeline Crossings, Denver, CO.

Petroff, L.J. (1997). �Design Guidelines for Directional Drilled PE Pipe�, ASCE Con-gress on Trenchless Technology, Boston, MA.

Petroff, L.J. and Dreher, P.L. (1997). �Design Considerations for HDPE for TrenchlessApplications�, No-Dig �97, Seattle, WA.

Rybel V. �Directional Drilling for Trenchless Construction�, CH2M Hill, Corvalis, Or-egon.

Sener, E.M. and Stein, R. (1995). �Mini-Horizontal Directional Drilling Manual�, NorthAmerican Society for Trenchless Technology, Chicago, Il.

Spangler, M. G. and Handy, R. L. (1973). �Soil Engineering,� Intext, Harper and Row,New York, NY.

Stein, D., Mollers , K., Bielecki, R. (1989). �Microtunnelling�, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin.

Svetlik, H. (1995). �Design Considerations for HDPE Pipe Used in Directional Drill-ing�, No-Dig Engineering, Vol.2, No.3, March.

Watkins, R.K. (1994). �Structural Mechanics of Buried Pipes�, Buried Pipes Semi-nar, University of Colorado at Denver.

Watkins, R.K. and Anderson, L.R. (1995). Structural Mechanics of Buried Pipes,Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Utah State University, Logan, UT.

Page 33: Directional Drilling PPI

Horizontal Directional Drilling 11 - 29

APPENDIX A

DESIGN CALCULATION EXAMPLE FOR SERVIC LOADS

(POST-INSTALLATION)

Example 1: A 6� IPS DR 11 HDPE pipe is being pulled under a railroad track. Theminimum depth under the track is 10 ft. Determine the safety factoragainst buckling.

Given Parameters:

OD = 6.625 in Nominal Pipe OD DR = 11 Pipe Dimension Ratio

H = 10 ft. Max. Borehole Depth

g = 120 lbf/ft3 Unit Weight of Soil PLive

= 1100 Ibf/ft2 E-80 Live Load

PE Material Parameters:

Wheel loading from train will be applied for several minutes without relaxation. Re-petitive trains crossing may accumulate. A conservative choice for the apparentmodulus is the 1000-hour modulus.

Emid

= 43700 psi m = 0.45 Long Term Poisson�s Ration

Soil and Live Load Pressure on Pipe (Assuming that the earth load equals the prismload is perhaps too conservative except for a calculation involving dynamic surfaceloading.)

P = (gH+ PLive

) 1 ft2/144 in2 P = 15.972 psi

Ring Deflection resulting from soil and live load pressures assuming no side support.

%VD = %VD = 5.482 Percent deflection from soil loads

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Horizontal Directional Drilling 11 - 30

Determine critical unconstrained buckling pressure based on deflection from loadingand safety factor

fo = 0.56 Ovality compensation factor for 5.5% ovality from Figure 3

PUC

= 61.372 psi Critical unconstrained buckling pressure (no safety factor)

PUCSF

cr = SF

cr = 3 842 Safety factor against buckling

P

Example 2: A 6� IPS DR 13.5 HDPE pipe is being pulled under a small river for useas an electrical duct. At its lowest point, the pipe will be 18 feet belowthe river surface. Assume the slurry weight is equal to 75 Ib/cu.ft.. Theduct is empty during the pull. Calculate a) the maximum pulling force andb) the safety factor against buckling for the pipe. Assume that the pipe�sovality is 3% and that the pulling time will not exceed 10 hours.

Solution:

Calculate the safe pull strength

OD = 6.625in. Pipe outside diameter

DR = 13.5 Pipe dimension ratio

Tallow

= 1150 psi Typical safe pull stress for HDPE for 12-hour pull duration

1 1

FS = pT

allow OD2( - )

DR DR

2

Fs = 1.088·104 lbf Safe pull strength for 6� IPS DR 13.5 HDPE pipe assuming

10-hour maximum pull duration

Step 1: Determine the critical buckling pressure during Installation for the pipe(include tensile reduction factor assuming the frictional drag duringpull results in 1000 psi longitudinal pipe stress)

E = 57500 psi Apparent modulus of elasticity ( for 10 hours at 73 degrees F)

m = 0.45 Poisson�s ratio (long term value)

fo = 0.76 Ovality compensation factor (for 3% ovality)

2E

mid 1

PUC

= ( )3 f

o

(1 - m2) DR - 1

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Horizontal Directional Drilling 11 - 31

R = 0.435 Tensile ratio (based on assumed 1000 psi pull stress calculation)

Step 2: Determine expected loads on pipe (assume only static drilling fluidhead acting on pipe, and borehole intact with no soil loading)

gslurry

= 75 lbf/ft3 Drilling fluid weight H = 18 ft Maximum bore depth

Step 3: Determine the resulting safety factor against critical buckling duringinstallation

Pcr

SFcr = SF

cr = 4.257

Pslurry

ExampIe 3: Determine the safety factor for long term performance for the commu-nication duct in example 2. Assume there are 10 feet of riverbed de-posits above the borehole having a saturated unit weight of 110 Ib/cu.ft..(18 feet deep, 3% initial ovality)

Solution:

Step 1: Determine the pipe soil load (Warning requires Input of ovality com-pensation in step 4.)

E long = 28200 psi Long term apparent modulus

gw = 62.4 lbf/ft.3 Unit weight of water

H = 18 ft Max. borehole depth

gs = 110 lbf/ft.3 Saturated unit weight of sediments

Tensile reduction factor

Critical unconstrainedbuckling pressure forDR 13.5 pipe withoutsafety factor

Total static drillingfluid head pressure ifdrilled from surface

Safety factor against critical bucklingduring pull. Most designers considera SF of 2 adequate for buckling.

1ft2

Pslurry

= Hgslurry

( ) Pslurry

= 9.375 psi

144in

2

2E 1Pcr = ( )3

. fO . f

R P

Cr = 39.907

(1 - m2) DR - 1

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Horizontal Directional Drilling 11 - 32

GW = 18 ft Groundwater heightC = 10ft. Height of soil coverOD = 6.625 in Nominal pipe ODDR = 13.5 Pipe dimension ratiom = 0.45 Long Term Poisson�s ratio

Step 2: Calculate the ring deflection. Use the larger of the deflection result-ing from (a) soil loads assuming no side support or from (b) buoyantdeflection due to mud weight.

t = OD/DR t =0.491 in

Step 3: Determine the long-term hydrostatic loads on the pipe

GWP

W = ( ) + P

soilP

W = 11.098

2.31ft/psi

gslurry

= 75 lb/cu.ft.3 Unit weight of drilling fluid

1ft2

Pslurry

= gslurry

H ( ) Pslurry

= 9.375 psi

144in

2

PW > Pslurry, therefor use PW for buckling load

Psoil

= 3.306 psi Prism load on pipe from10�of saturated cover (includingbuoyant force on submergedsoil)

Percent deflection from soilloads

Percent deflectionform buoyancy force

External pressure due to ground-water head

External pressure due to slurryhead

0.0125 . Psoil%DVb = . 100 %DVb = 3.434

[ Elong ] 12 (DR - 1)3

%DVb = 0.465%DVb = 100

Elong ( )

0.2337gSS ( )4OD - 1.06t2

t3

12

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Horizontal Directional Drilling 11 - 33

Step 4: Determine critical unconstrained buckling pressure based on deflec-tion from loading

fo =0.64 5% Ovality Compensation based on 3% initial ovality and 2% deflec-

tion

2E

long 1

PUC

= ( )3

fo

PUC

= 23.174psi

(1 - m2) DR - 1

Safety factor against buckling pres-sure of highest load (slurry)

Critical unconstrainedbuckling pressure (nosafety factor)

PUC

SFCR = SFCR = 2.088

PW

Page 38: Directional Drilling PPI

Horizontal Directional Drilling 11 - 34

APPENDIX B:

DESIGN CALCULATIONS EXAMPLE FOR PULL-BACK FORCE

Example 1: Find the estimated force required to pull-back pipe for the above theoreti-cal river crossing using Slavin�s Method. Determine the safety factor against col-lapse. Assume the HDPE pipe is 35 ft deep and approximately 870 ft long with a 10deg. entry angle and a 15 deg. exit angle. Actual pull-back force will vary dependingon backreamer size, selection, and use; bore hole staying open; soil conditions;lubrication with betonnite; driller expertise; and other application circumstances.

Pipe Properties

Outside Diameter: OD = 24 in Long-term Modulus Elong

= 28250 psi

Standard Dimension Ratio DR = 11 24 hr Modulus E24hr

= 56500 psi

Minimum wall thickness t = 2.182 in Poisson�s ratio (long term) m = 0.45

Safe Pull Stress (24 hr) spb

= 1100 psi

Path Profile:

H = 35 ft Depth of bore

qin = 10 deg Pipe entry angle

qex

= 15 deg Pipe exit angle

L1 = 100 ft Pipe drag on surface (This value starts at total length of

pull, approximately 870 ft. then decreases with time. As-sume 100 fit remaining at end of pull)

Lcross

= 870 ft

Page 39: Directional Drilling PPI

Horizontal Directional Drilling 11 - 35

Path length (Determine L2 and L4):

Average Radius of Curvature for Path at Pipe Entry q is given in radians

Ravgin

= 2H/qin

2 Ravgin

= 2.298·103ft

Average Radius of Curvature for Path at Pipe Exit

Ragex

= 2H/qex

2 Ragex

= 1.021·103ft

Horizontal Distance Required to Achieve Depth or Rise to the Surface at PipeEntry

L2 = 2H/q

inL

2 = 401.07 ft

Horizontal Distance Required to Achieve Depth or Rise to the Surface at PipeExit

L4 = 2H/q

exL

4 = 267.38 ft

Where: L2 & L

4 = horizontal transition distance at bore exit & entry respec-

tively.

Determine Axial Bending Stress:

R = Ravgex

Min. Radius for Drill path

R = 1.021·103 fl

OD = 24 in

Radius of curvature should exceed 40 times the pipe outside diameter to pre-vent ring collapse.

r = 40 OD

r = 80 ft Okay. R > r

Bending strain

ea = OD/2R e

a = 9.791· 10-4 in/in

Where: ea = bending strain, in/in

OD = outside diameter of pipe, in

R = minimum radius of curvature, ft

Bending stress

sa = E

24hre

as

a = 55.321 psi

where sa = bending stress, psi

Page 40: Directional Drilling PPI

Horizontal Directional Drilling 11 - 36

Find Pulling Force:

Weight of Empty Pipe

Pw =3.61·10-2 lbf/in3

ga = 0.95 g

b = 1.5

wa = pOD2 (DR-1/DR2)r

w g

a 12 in/ft w

a = 61.546 lbf/ft

Net Upward Buoyant Force on Empty Pipe Surrounded by Mud Slurry

Wb = p(OD2/4) r

w g

b - w

aw

b = 232.417 lbf/ft

where: rw = density of water, lb/in3

ga = specific gravity of the pipe material

gb = specific gravity of the mud slurry

wa = weight of empty pipe, Ibf/ft

wb = net upward buoyant force on empty pipe surrounded by

mud slurry

Determine pull-back force acting on pipe

See figure:

L1 = 100 ft v

a = 0.4

L2 = 401.07ft v

b = 0.25

L3 = 200ft a = q

ina = 10 deg

L4 = 267.38 b = q

inb = 15 deg

L3 = L

cross- L

2 - L

4L

3 = 201.549.ft

TA = exp(v

a a) [v

a w

a (L

1 + L

2 + L

3 + L

4)]

TA = 2.561·104 Ibf

TB = exp(v

b a) (T

A + v

b [w

b] L

2 + w

b H - v

a w

a L

2 exp (v

b a))

TB = 4.853·104 Ibf

TC =T

B + v

b [w

b] L

3 - exp(v

b a) (v

a w

a L

3.exp(v

a a))

TC = 5.468·104 Ibf

TD = exp(v

b b) [T

C + v

b [w

b] L

4 - w

b H - exp(v

b a) (v

a w

a L

4 exp (v

b a))]

TD = 5.841·104 Ibf

Page 41: Directional Drilling PPI

Horizontal Directional Drilling 11 - 37

Where: TA = pull force on pipe at point A, Ibf

TB = pull force on pipe at point B. Ibf

TC = pull force on pipe at point C, Ibf

TD = pull force on pipe at point D, Ibf

L1 = pipe on surface, ft

L2 = horizontal distance to achieve desired depth, ft

L3 = additional distance traversed at desired depth, ft

L4 = horizontal distance to rise to surface, ft

va = coefficient of friction applicable at the surface before the pipe

enters bore hole

vb = coefficient of friction applicable within the lubricated bore hole

or after the (wet) pipe exits

a = bore hole angle at pipe entry, radians

b = bore hole angle at pipe exit, radians

(refer to figure 1)

Hydrokineti Pressure

DP = 10 psi

Dh = 1.5 0D D

h = 36.in

DT = DP (p/8) (Dh

2 - OD2) DT = 2.827·103·Ibf

Where: DT = pulling force increment, Ibf

DP = hydrokentetic pressure, psi

Dh = back reamed hole diameter, in

Compare Axial Tensile Stress with Allowable Tensile Stress During Pull-back of 1100psi:

Page 42: Directional Drilling PPI

Horizontal Directional Drilling 11 - 38

Compare Axial Tensile Stress with Allowable Tensile Stress During Pull-back of 1100psi

Average Axial Stress Acting on Pipe Cross-section at Points A, B. C, D

1 DR2

si = (Ti + DT) ( ) ( )

pOD2 DR-1

s1 = 190.13 psi <1100 psi OK

s2 = 343.408 psi <1100 psi OK

s3 = 384.551 psi <1100 psi OK

s4 = 409.484 psi <1100 psi OK

Where: Ti = TA, T

B, T

C, T

D (Ibf)

si = corresponding stress, psi

Breakaway links should be set so that pull-back force applied to pipe doesnot exceed 1100 psi stress.

ID = OD - 2t

Fb = s

pb (p/4)(OD2 - ID2) F

b = 1.645·105·Ibf

Determine safety factor against ring collapse during pull-back

External Hydraulic Load

External static head pressure

Pha

= (1.5) (62.4 lbf/ft3) (H) Pha

= 22.75.psi

Combine static head with hydrokinetic pressure

Peffa

= Pha

+ DP Peffa

= 32.75 psi

Critical collapse pressure

Resistance to external hydraulic load during pull-back

fo = 0.76 Ovality compensation factor (for 3% ovality)

r = s4/2s

pbr = 0.186 Tensile ratio (based on assumed 1100

psi pull stress calculation)

fR = 5.57 - (r + 1.09)2 - 1.09 f

R = 0895 Tensile reduction factor

Page 43: Directional Drilling PPI

Horizontal Directional Drilling 11 - 39

2E

24hr 1

PCR

= ( )3

fo f

R P

CR = 96.414 psi

(1 - m2) DR � 1

Safety factor against collapse

SF = Pcr/P

haSF = 4.238

Where: Pha

= applied effIective pressure due to head of water of drilling

Pcr

= calculated critical buckling pressure due to head of water ofdrilling fluid, psi

SF = Safety Factor

Page 44: Directional Drilling PPI

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