Descriptive Descriptive Linguistics Linguistics The Construction of The Construction of Language Language
Nov 02, 2014
Descriptive LinguisticsDescriptive Linguistics
The Construction of Language The Construction of Language
Introduction to LinguisticsIntroduction to Linguistics Every culture in the world has a Every culture in the world has a
spoken languagespoken language Learning a spoken language come Learning a spoken language come
naturally to children (top photo)naturally to children (top photo) Language is what ties a culture Language is what ties a culture
together and so is a unifying factortogether and so is a unifying factor Different language also keeps Different language also keeps
different cultures apart and so is different cultures apart and so is divisive (bottom photo)divisive (bottom photo)
Therefore, we cover linguistics in Therefore, we cover linguistics in this course of cultural anthropologythis course of cultural anthropology
CommunicationCommunication Language is a subtype of Language is a subtype of
communication, communication, and most animals and most animals have some form of communicationhave some form of communication
This is the ability of one organism to This is the ability of one organism to trigger another; in other words, one trigger another; in other words, one organism provides the stimulus and organism provides the stimulus and the other respondsthe other responds
Example: Bouncer ask an unruly Example: Bouncer ask an unruly patron to leave and he does so, patron to leave and he does so, communication has occurredcommunication has occurred
If he does not and the bouncer tosses If he does not and the bouncer tosses him out, communication has not him out, communication has not occurred; physical force has been occurred; physical force has been used instead--with this disenchanted used instead--with this disenchanted patron as a result.patron as a result.
Closed System of CommunicationClosed System of Communication
Communication of most Communication of most animals is animals is closed.closed.
One call or gesture has One call or gesture has only one meaningonly one meaning
This call by a thrush is a This call by a thrush is a warning callwarning call
But it cannot combine this But it cannot combine this call with another one to call with another one to create a third meaningcreate a third meaning
Open System of CommunicationOpen System of Communication
Language is an open systemLanguage is an open system We use speech sounds that We use speech sounds that
have no meaning in and of have no meaning in and of themselvesthemselves
When we combine them, they When we combine them, they have meaninghave meaning
The speech sounds of c-a-t The speech sounds of c-a-t mean a feline animalmean a feline animal
The same sounds recombined The same sounds recombined as a-c-t give us a comedy as a-c-t give us a comedy routine.routine.
You may polish up your act, but You may polish up your act, but would you polish up your cat?would you polish up your cat?
Overview of LinguisticsOverview of Linguistics
How does an open system like language come to be? To How does an open system like language come to be? To answer, we will look at the following topics: answer, we will look at the following topics:
Biological Roots of Language: Brain and Articulatory Biological Roots of Language: Brain and Articulatory SystemSystem
Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and Phonemes, the Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and Phonemes, the building blocks of languagebuilding blocks of language
Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology and Syntax, which Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology and Syntax, which put these building blocks togetherput these building blocks together
Language and Animal Communication will then be Language and Animal Communication will then be comparedcompared
Language and Culture will conclude this sectionLanguage and Culture will conclude this section
Why Do We Need an International Why Do We Need an International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)?Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)?
Linguists use the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Linguists use the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to transcribe sounds. to transcribe sounds.
Why? Glad you asked. Take English:Why? Glad you asked. Take English: How many vowels are there in English?How many vowels are there in English? Our written alphabet is not entirely phoneticOur written alphabet is not entirely phonetic The letter a could be pronounced as [æ] in bThe letter a could be pronounced as [æ] in baat or as [e] t or as [e]
in bin baated breath?ted breath? Or try [a] as in bOr try [a] as in baah or “say h or “say aah”; we have 3 sounds for h”; we have 3 sounds for a.a. In English we have a total of 12 vowels, not only 5 as In English we have a total of 12 vowels, not only 5 as
most people assume,most people assume, That means in linguistics we need 12 symbols to That means in linguistics we need 12 symbols to
transcribe themtranscribe them
The IPA: How It WorksThe IPA: How It Works
First, there are First, there are phonesphones, any speech sound, any speech sound The IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a soundThe IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a sound So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ] for So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ] for
“bat”“bat” Square brackets [ ] are used to enclose phonesSquare brackets [ ] are used to enclose phones But sounds alone do not carry a language; But sounds alone do not carry a language;
groups of them, known as groups of them, known as phonemes, phonemes, do this do this jobjob (more shortly)(more shortly)
Phonemes are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/Phonemes are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/
How Language Works: An How Language Works: An OverviewOverview
To show how languages work, we will use a To show how languages work, we will use a sample of six sample of six consonantsconsonants known as known as stops:stops:
These are [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g]These are [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g] But first, we have to look at some preliminaries:But first, we have to look at some preliminaries: We have to look at the organs of speech: the We have to look at the organs of speech: the
brain, lungs, larynx, and oral cavitybrain, lungs, larynx, and oral cavity Then we have to see how the oral cavity is Then we have to see how the oral cavity is
involved in creating speech.involved in creating speech.
Biology of Language: A Refresher on the Biology of Language: A Refresher on the Brain’s Role in LanguageBrain’s Role in Language
Here’s a refresher; Here’s a refresher; see is you can identify see is you can identify these areas involved these areas involved in speechin speech
Broca’s AreaBroca’s Area Wernicke’s AreaWernicke’s Area Arcuate FasciculusArcuate Fasciculus Angular GyrusAngular Gyrus Hypoglossal NerveHypoglossal Nerve
The Brain and LanguageThe Brain and Language
Broca’s area: Broca’s area: The area that generates speechThe area that generates speech Wernicke’s area: Wernicke’s area: The area that processes the reception The area that processes the reception
of speechof speech Arcuate fasciculus: Arcuate fasciculus: The bundle of nerves that connect The bundle of nerves that connect
Broca’s with Wernicke’s area, so that you get feedback Broca’s with Wernicke’s area, so that you get feedback on your speechon your speech
Angular Gyrus: Angular Gyrus: The part of the brain that coordinates The part of the brain that coordinates the five senses; its role is to transcribe the other four the five senses; its role is to transcribe the other four senses into soundsenses into sound
Hypoglossal Nerve: Hypoglossal Nerve: The nerve running from the brain The nerve running from the brain to the tongue and so provides impulses to the tongue to to the tongue and so provides impulses to the tongue to move. move.
Vocal TractVocal Tract
LungsLungs Diaphragm and Rib Diaphragm and Rib
CageCage Larynx and Vocal Larynx and Vocal
CordsCords Hyoid BoneHyoid Bone Oral CavityOral Cavity Nasal CavityNasal Cavity
Functions of the Vocal TractFunctions of the Vocal Tract
Lungs Lungs are the source of the air stream essential to are the source of the air stream essential to speechspeech
Diaphragm Diaphragm pushes the air through the windpipe and into pushes the air through the windpipe and into the mouth; the muscles of the rib cage do the samethe mouth; the muscles of the rib cage do the same
The The vocal cordsvocal cords housed in the housed in the larynx larynx or voice box or voice box vibrate and so provide our voicevibrate and so provide our voice
The The oral cavity oral cavity contains the parts of the mouth that contains the parts of the mouth that enable us to speak.enable us to speak.
The The nasal cavity nasal cavity allows us to make certain sounds, allows us to make certain sounds, such as n [n] and m [m], with the passage of air in that such as n [n] and m [m], with the passage of air in that cavity.cavity.
Articulatory PhoneticsArticulatory Phonetics
When we utter any sound, we When we utter any sound, we articulatearticulate We position our tongue or other speech part in We position our tongue or other speech part in
certain wayscertain ways When we speak, we useWhen we speak, we use Points of articulationPoints of articulation: Speech parts in upper half : Speech parts in upper half
of mouthof mouth Articulators:Articulators: Speech parts in lower half of mouth Speech parts in lower half of mouth The next panels and diagrams show how these The next panels and diagrams show how these
workwork
Oral Cavity: DescriptionOral Cavity: Description
The The articulators articulators are the active parts of the speech are the active parts of the speech mechanism: they do all the workmechanism: they do all the work
They include the lower lip, the lower teeth, and the They include the lower lip, the lower teeth, and the tonguetongue
The The points of articulation points of articulation are the passive parts of the are the passive parts of the speech mechanism, except for the upper lipspeech mechanism, except for the upper lip
They comprise the upper lip, the upper teeth, the They comprise the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, or gum ridge behind the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, or gum ridge behind the upper teeth, the hard palate, the soft palate or velum, and the uvula, the hard palate, the soft palate or velum, and the uvula, the hanging membrane at the far end of the mouthhanging membrane at the far end of the mouth
In the next diagram, find and identify these parts just In the next diagram, find and identify these parts just mentioned. mentioned.
Oral Cavity: DiagramOral Cavity: Diagram
Articulators: DescriptionArticulators: Description In the diagram that follows, you will find the following In the diagram that follows, you will find the following
articulators:articulators: The The lower lip, lower lip, which can move on its ownwhich can move on its own The The lower teeth, lower teeth, which moves because the lower jaw which moves because the lower jaw
movesmoves The four parts of the The four parts of the tongue,tongue, which moves on its own which moves on its own The The apex apex is the tip of the tongueis the tip of the tongue The The blade blade or or front front of the tongue is behind the apexof the tongue is behind the apex The The center center or or centrum centrum of the tongue is at the center; of the tongue is at the center;
some linguists recognize this part and others do notsome linguists recognize this part and others do not The The dorsum dorsum is the back of the tongueis the back of the tongue Identify these parts in the diagram. Which part listed Identify these parts in the diagram. Which part listed
here is not identified in the diagram?here is not identified in the diagram?
Articulators: DiagramArticulators: Diagram
All articulators are All articulators are movablemovable
They include:They include: Lower lipLower lip Lower teethLower teeth TongueTongue Apex (tip)Apex (tip) FrontFront Center Center Back (dorsum)Back (dorsum)
Points of Articulation: Points of Articulation: DescriptionDescription
All points are fixed in position except the upper lipAll points are fixed in position except the upper lip The The upper lip upper lip is movable on its own and coordinates is movable on its own and coordinates
with the lower lipwith the lower lip The The upper teeth upper teeth is fixed because the upper jaw does not is fixed because the upper jaw does not
movemove The The alveolar ridge alveolar ridge is the gum ridge behind the upper is the gum ridge behind the upper
teethteeth The The hard palate hard palate is the roof of the mouthis the roof of the mouth The The velum velum is the soft palate behind the hard palateis the soft palate behind the hard palate The The uvula uvula is the hanging flesh at the far end of the is the hanging flesh at the far end of the
mouthmouth Identify these on the chart that follows.Identify these on the chart that follows.
Points of ArticulationPoints of Articulation
All are immovable except All are immovable except upper lipupper lip
Upper lipUpper lip Upper teethUpper teeth Alveolar ridge (gum ridge Alveolar ridge (gum ridge
behind teeth)behind teeth) Hard palate (roof of Hard palate (roof of
mouth)mouth) Velum (soft palate)Velum (soft palate) Uvula (pendant lobe at Uvula (pendant lobe at
border of velum)border of velum)
Other Speech PartsOther Speech Parts
LarynxLarynx, or voice box which , or voice box which containscontains
Two Two Vocal Cords Vocal Cords (upper left)(upper left) When vocal cords are drawn tight When vocal cords are drawn tight
(lower right), they produce a voice(lower right), they produce a voice When relaxed (lower left), no When relaxed (lower left), no
voice is produced.voice is produced. Other species and infant: larynx is Other species and infant: larynx is
high on throathigh on throat Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones
produced by lowering of velumproduced by lowering of velum
Position of ArticulationPosition of Articulation
For For consonantsconsonants, position of articulator is placed relative to , position of articulator is placed relative to point of articulationpoint of articulation
For vowels, resonant sounds created byFor vowels, resonant sounds created by The height of tongue (high, mid, or low)The height of tongue (high, mid, or low) The advancement of the tongue (front, center, or back, and The advancement of the tongue (front, center, or back, and the lip shape (rounded or unrounded)the lip shape (rounded or unrounded) Consonants include:Consonants include: Stops (momentary stop of air stream)Stops (momentary stop of air stream) Fricatives or Fricatives or SpirantsSpirants (constricted passage of air) (constricted passage of air) Others, such as Others, such as lateralslaterals, , nasalsnasals, et al., et al. All speech sounds are known as All speech sounds are known as phonesphones
Positions of Articulation: Stops Positions of Articulation: Stops
A A stop stop is formed whenis formed when an an articulatorarticulator touches touches a a point of articulationpoint of articulation halting the air stream momentarilyhalting the air stream momentarily A stop is namedA stop is named By naming the By naming the articulatorarticulator first first Then naming the Then naming the point of articulationpoint of articulation Examples: Examples: labio-labiallabio-labial, , apico-alveolarapico-alveolar, and , and dorso-velardorso-velar
stopsstops Study the next three diagrams carefully.Study the next three diagrams carefully. Please note that the transcriptions in brackets are in IPA; the Please note that the transcriptions in brackets are in IPA; the
[[II] in the three examples is in small caps.] in the three examples is in small caps.
Bilabial StopsBilabial Stops
Upper lip is pressed Upper lip is pressed against lower lipagainst lower lip
Labio-Labio- describes the lower describes the lower lip (articulator)lip (articulator)
LabialLabial describes the describes the upper lip (point of upper lip (point of articulation_articulation_
This position of articulation This position of articulation is called is called bilabial stop bilabial stop for for shortshort
Example: [p] as in [pın] or Example: [p] as in [pın] or pinpin
Apico-Alveolar StopsApico-Alveolar Stops
Tip (apex) of tongue Tip (apex) of tongue presses against gum presses against gum ridge (alveolar ridge) ridge (alveolar ridge) behind upper teethbehind upper teeth
Apico-Apico- describes apex of describes apex of tongue (articulator)tongue (articulator)
AlveolarAlveolar describes describes alveolar ridge (point of alveolar ridge (point of articulation)articulation)
Example: [t] as in [tın] or Example: [t] as in [tın] or tintin
Dorso-Velar StopsDorso-Velar Stops
Back (dorsum) of tongue Back (dorsum) of tongue presses against soft presses against soft palate (velum)palate (velum)
Dorso-Dorso- describes dorsal describes dorsal part of tongue (articulator)part of tongue (articulator)
VelarVelar describes velum describes velum (point of articulation)(point of articulation)
Example: [k] as in [kın] or Example: [k] as in [kın] or kinkin
Contrasting Sounds in the StopsContrasting Sounds in the Stops
Across the board, Across the board, [p] contrasts with [t][p] contrasts with [t] [t] contrasts with [k][t] contrasts with [k] [p] contrasts with [k][p] contrasts with [k] But there are But there are two sets each two sets each ofof bilabial stops: [p] and [b]bilabial stops: [p] and [b] apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d]apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d] dorso-velar stops [k] and [g]dorso-velar stops [k] and [g] Can you explain why there are two sets of each position Can you explain why there are two sets of each position
of articulation before moving on to the next slide?of articulation before moving on to the next slide?
Voiced and Voiceless StopsVoiced and Voiceless Stops
One set of stops is voiceless or unvoiced, namely One set of stops is voiceless or unvoiced, namely [p], [t], and [k][p], [t], and [k]
The other set of stops is voiced:The other set of stops is voiced: [b] the bilabial voiced stop;[b] the bilabial voiced stop; [d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop; and[d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop; and [t] the voiced dorso-velar stop[t] the voiced dorso-velar stop A small experiment: put your fingers on your throat A small experiment: put your fingers on your throat
and repeat [p] then [b]and repeat [p] then [b] When does your throat start to vibrate in each When does your throat start to vibrate in each
case? Answer is on next slide.case? Answer is on next slide.
When Vocal Cords VibrateWhen Vocal Cords Vibrate
You notice that when you utter [pYou notice that when you utter [pIIn], the vocal cords n], the vocal cords don’t vibrate until you utter the vowel, namely [don’t vibrate until you utter the vowel, namely [II]]
But when you utter [bBut when you utter [bIIn], the vocal cords vibrate when n], the vocal cords vibrate when you utter [b], well before [you utter [b], well before [II]; all vowels are voiced. ]; all vowels are voiced.
Do the same for [tDo the same for [tIIn] and [dn] and [dIIn] and for [kn] and for [kIIn] and [gn] and [gIIn]n] By the way, did you pronounce [g] as in get and not as in By the way, did you pronounce [g] as in get and not as in
gin, the stuff you have tonic with? If so you pronounced it gin, the stuff you have tonic with? If so you pronounced it correctly. correctly.
If not, you pronounced it [dzIf not, you pronounced it [dzIIn]. n].
How Vocal Cords WorkHow Vocal Cords Work
When vocal cords are relaxed When vocal cords are relaxed (upper diagram), they produce (upper diagram), they produce no voiceno voice
When drawn tight with a small When drawn tight with a small aperture or hole (lower aperture or hole (lower diagram), they produce a voicediagram), they produce a voice
That is what causes the throat That is what causes the throat to vibrateto vibrate
There are other voiceless There are other voiceless consonants, s in sin, sh in consonants, s in sin, sh in shin, and ch in chin. shin, and ch in chin.
Summing upSumming up
Voicing involves tightening of vocal cords to Voicing involves tightening of vocal cords to produce a soundproduce a sound
When unvoiced phones are uttered, the vocal When unvoiced phones are uttered, the vocal cords are relaxedcords are relaxed
Voiced sounds contrast with unvoiced soundsVoiced sounds contrast with unvoiced sounds voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p]voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p] voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t]voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t] voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]
PhonemesPhonemes
The sounds we described are also The sounds we described are also phonemesphonemes
Definition: The smallest significant unit of Definition: The smallest significant unit of speechspeech
The significance is that the speaker The significance is that the speaker can can hear the difference.hear the difference.
We can hear the difference between [bın] We can hear the difference between [bın] and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [gın] and [kın]and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [gın] and [kın]
Phonemes: An ExplanationPhonemes: An Explanation
Why Why significance:significance: If you could not hear the If you could not hear the difference, you could not have a language; the difference, you could not have a language; the sounds would all be the same. Phonemes are sounds would all be the same. Phonemes are kept separate.kept separate.
Why the term Why the term unitunit? As you will soon see, there ? As you will soon see, there are two or more are two or more phones phones (speech sounds) in (speech sounds) in most phonemes.most phonemes.
The speech The speech environment environment refers to the sounds refers to the sounds that are the context for the phone or phoneme that are the context for the phone or phoneme being analyzed. We start with being analyzed. We start with minimal pairsminimal pairs..
Minimal PairsMinimal Pairs
[bın] and [pın]: what’s the difference?[bın] and [pın]: what’s the difference? [tın] and [dın]: same question[tın] and [dın]: same question [gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs?[gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs? Short answer: the speech Short answer: the speech environment environment is is
identicalidentical Only the stops differOnly the stops differ the [-ın] utterance is identical; that’s the the [-ın] utterance is identical; that’s the
environmentenvironment
Summary of Phonemic Stops in Summary of Phonemic Stops in EnglishEnglish
From this chart, notice the followingFrom this chart, notice the following English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental, interdental, or English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental, interdental, or
palatal palatal We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and interdental ones [We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and interdental ones [θθ] and ] and
[ð] (Don’t worry about these symbols unless you take up linguistics)[ð] (Don’t worry about these symbols unless you take up linguistics) The Russians have a palatal stop [tThe Russians have a palatal stop [t jj]; the blade of the tongue ]; the blade of the tongue
touches the hard palatetouches the hard palate There are many other phones in the world’s languagesThere are many other phones in the world’s languages
AllophonesAllophones
Another example: key and skiAnother example: key and ski Another experiment: put a sheet of paper in front of your Another experiment: put a sheet of paper in front of your
mouth and utter the following: mouth and utter the following: keykey and and skiski. Which k . Which k sound moves the papersound moves the paper
[k[khh] in key [k] in key [khhi] is i] is aspirated; aspirated; emits a puff of airemits a puff of air [[kk־־] in ski [sk] in ski [sk־־i] is i] is unaspirated; unaspirated; it doesn’t do so. it doesn’t do so. In English, [kIn English, [khh] and [k] and [k־־] never form minimal pairs; an A ] never form minimal pairs; an A
for the course if you find such a pair (haven’t lost that bet for the course if you find such a pair (haven’t lost that bet yet!)yet!)
Therefore, [kTherefore, [khh] and [k] and [k־־] are ] are allophones, allophones, or phonetic or phonetic variants of the same phonemevariants of the same phoneme
Allophones of PhonemesAllophones of Phonemes
Definition: Variations of the same Definition: Variations of the same phonemephoneme
Our example: [k’] and [kOur example: [k’] and [k־־] are allophones ] are allophones of the phoneme /k/ of the phoneme /k/
Notation:Notation: Slash marks (//) indicate phonemeSlash marks (//) indicate phoneme Square brackets ([]) indicates phone (and Square brackets ([]) indicates phone (and
allophone)allophone)
Allophones in One Language: Allophones in One Language: Phonemes in AnotherPhonemes in Another
Take Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu are Take Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu are derived):derived):
[k[khhil] and [kil] and [k־־il] il] dodo form minimal pairs form minimal pairs [k[khhil] means “parched grain”il] means “parched grain” [k[k־־il] means “small nail”il] means “small nail” [-il] is identical in the speech environment in which the [-il] is identical in the speech environment in which the
two phones occurtwo phones occur Therefore, /k’/ and /kTherefore, /k’/ and /k־־/ are phonemes in Old Sanskrit and / are phonemes in Old Sanskrit and
we have to mark them with a slashwe have to mark them with a slash In that language, they are In that language, they are significant unitssignificant units Every language has its own set of phonemesEvery language has its own set of phonemes
Phonemes as Structural Duality Phonemes as Structural Duality II
Note chart on p. 36 under the pictureNote chart on p. 36 under the picture [b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts with [g][b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts with [g] [p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts with [k][p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts with [k] All the voiced stops contrast with unvoiced ones:All the voiced stops contrast with unvoiced ones: [b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k][b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k] So we have two thingsSo we have two things First, we have a First, we have a minimal set; minimal set; there are three or more there are three or more
utterances that contrast as minimal pairs doutterances that contrast as minimal pairs do Second, they form a structure based on sound contrasts; Second, they form a structure based on sound contrasts;
that’s the first part of a language’s structural duality.that’s the first part of a language’s structural duality.
Structural Duality II: Morphemes Structural Duality II: Morphemes and Syntaxand Syntax
Once the phonemes are identified, they must be Once the phonemes are identified, they must be arranged for meaningarranged for meaning
That’s the job of morphemes and syntaxThat’s the job of morphemes and syntax Morphemes are The smallest Morphemes are The smallest meaningful meaningful unit of speechunit of speech You can form words from morphemesYou can form words from morphemes Syntax are the rules and principles of phrase and Syntax are the rules and principles of phrase and
sentence constructionsentence construction Grammar: In linguistics, this is the entire formal structure Grammar: In linguistics, this is the entire formal structure
of a language’s phonemes, morphemes, and syntaxof a language’s phonemes, morphemes, and syntax
MorphemesMorphemes
Morphology:Morphology: Study of morphemes and their Study of morphemes and their construction into wordsconstruction into words
There are several types of morphemes:There are several types of morphemes: Free morphemes: Free morphemes: Morphemes that can stand Morphemes that can stand
unattached in a language: cat, dogsunattached in a language: cat, dogs Bound morphemes: Bound morphemes: Morphemes that cannot stand Morphemes that cannot stand
unattached in a language: cats, dogs [dogz}unattached in a language: cats, dogs [dogz} Inflectional bound morphemesInflectional bound morphemes: those that change : those that change
number or tense, but not meaning: e.g., cat, catnumber or tense, but not meaning: e.g., cat, catss Derivational bound morphemes:Derivational bound morphemes: those that change the those that change the
meaning: e.g., part, partmeaning: e.g., part, partyy
AllomorphsAllomorphs
Allomorphs: Allomorphs: Variants of a morphemeVariants of a morpheme Examples: plurals of dogs, cats, horsesExamples: plurals of dogs, cats, horses Namely [dogNamely [dogzz], [k], [kætætss], [hors], [horsəzəz]] Others: tooth/teeth, booth/booths (why not “beeth”?), Others: tooth/teeth, booth/booths (why not “beeth”?),
sheep/sheepsheep/sheep So the process involves bound morphemes for the pluralSo the process involves bound morphemes for the plural But the sounds change according to contextBut the sounds change according to context Dog ends with a voiced g; cat ends with a voiceless t; and Dog ends with a voiced g; cat ends with a voiceless t; and
horse ends with a fricative s; so this is a phonetic issuehorse ends with a fricative s; so this is a phonetic issue MorphophonemicsMorphophonemics: Study of allomorphs based on sound : Study of allomorphs based on sound
(the phonemes) combined with morphology (the plurals)(the phonemes) combined with morphology (the plurals)
Syntax: Parts of SpeechSyntax: Parts of Speech
Syntax is the study of rules and principles of phrase and Syntax is the study of rules and principles of phrase and sentence construction.sentence construction.
Parts of speech are similar to those in high school Parts of speech are similar to those in high school grammargrammar
Noun:Noun: Word referring to a person, place, or thing Word referring to a person, place, or thing Pronoun: Pronoun: Word that replaces a noun or other pronounWord that replaces a noun or other pronoun Verb:Verb: Action word Action word Adjective:Adjective: word that modifies nouns word that modifies nouns Adverb: Adverb: word that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other word that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other
adverbsadverbs
Syntax: More Parts of SpeechSyntax: More Parts of Speech
Preposition:Preposition: Word that indicates a relation Word that indicates a relation between an object in time, space, or logic to the between an object in time, space, or logic to the rest of a sentencerest of a sentence
ConjunctionConjunction: Word connecting words or groups : Word connecting words or groups of wordsof words
Interjection: Interjection: Word that expresses feelings, but Word that expresses feelings, but usually not part of a sentence.usually not part of a sentence.
Although the words are made up of morphemes, Although the words are made up of morphemes, they play an integral part of phrase and they play an integral part of phrase and sentence construction.sentence construction.
Syntax and Word OrderSyntax and Word Order
Word order (sentence, verb, object) vary by languageWord order (sentence, verb, object) vary by language In English: In English: Subject (S): Subject (S): The thing or person of what a sentence is about The thing or person of what a sentence is about
comes first in a declarative sentencecomes first in a declarative sentence Predicate (V): Predicate (V): Phrase that says something about the subject; Phrase that says something about the subject;
always include the verb that comes after the subjectalways include the verb that comes after the subject Verb (O): Verb (O): Action word that forms the main part of the Action word that forms the main part of the
predicatepredicate Object:Object: The person or thing affected by the verb The person or thing affected by the verb In English, the word order is typically S-V-OIn English, the word order is typically S-V-O In Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-OIn Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-O Other languages have other word ordersOther languages have other word orders
So Why Aren’t Morphemes and So Why Aren’t Morphemes and Syntax Separate Structures?Syntax Separate Structures?
An exercise: catsAn exercise: cats Two cats (upper photo)Two cats (upper photo) Cat’s meow (lower picture: when Cat’s meow (lower picture: when
this is spoken, how do you this is spoken, how do you pronounce the apostrophe?)pronounce the apostrophe?)
Rest of sentence defines Rest of sentence defines morphememorpheme
Another exampleAnother example ““Cookie, lend me your combs”; Cookie, lend me your combs”;
combscombs are nouns are nouns ““Cookie combs his hair”; Cookie combs his hair”; combscombs
now becomes a verb. now becomes a verb.
Descriptive Linguistics: ConclusionDescriptive Linguistics: Conclusion
We have looked at the biological basis of languageWe have looked at the biological basis of language We’ve also examine the parts of the speech We’ve also examine the parts of the speech
mechanism: lungs, larynx and vocal cords, oral and mechanism: lungs, larynx and vocal cords, oral and nasal cavitynasal cavity
We’ve seen how the sounds of speech are We’ve seen how the sounds of speech are articulatedarticulated
Once the sounds are produced, we’ve seen how Once the sounds are produced, we’ve seen how they are put together into words (made up of they are put together into words (made up of morphemes) , phrases, and sentencesmorphemes) , phrases, and sentences
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