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Descriptive Descriptive Linguistics Linguistics The Construction of The Construction of Language Language
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Deacriptive Linguistics

Nov 02, 2014

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PaulVMcDowell

Defines linguistics and communication; discusses the anatomy of speech; reviews the basics of articulatory phonetics, phonology, morphology, and syntax
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Page 1: Deacriptive Linguistics

Descriptive LinguisticsDescriptive Linguistics

The Construction of Language The Construction of Language

Page 2: Deacriptive Linguistics

Introduction to LinguisticsIntroduction to Linguistics Every culture in the world has a Every culture in the world has a

spoken languagespoken language Learning a spoken language come Learning a spoken language come

naturally to children (top photo)naturally to children (top photo) Language is what ties a culture Language is what ties a culture

together and so is a unifying factortogether and so is a unifying factor Different language also keeps Different language also keeps

different cultures apart and so is different cultures apart and so is divisive (bottom photo)divisive (bottom photo)

Therefore, we cover linguistics in Therefore, we cover linguistics in this course of cultural anthropologythis course of cultural anthropology

Page 3: Deacriptive Linguistics

CommunicationCommunication Language is a subtype of Language is a subtype of

communication, communication, and most animals and most animals have some form of communicationhave some form of communication

This is the ability of one organism to This is the ability of one organism to trigger another; in other words, one trigger another; in other words, one organism provides the stimulus and organism provides the stimulus and the other respondsthe other responds

Example: Bouncer ask an unruly Example: Bouncer ask an unruly patron to leave and he does so, patron to leave and he does so, communication has occurredcommunication has occurred

If he does not and the bouncer tosses If he does not and the bouncer tosses him out, communication has not him out, communication has not occurred; physical force has been occurred; physical force has been used instead--with this disenchanted used instead--with this disenchanted patron as a result.patron as a result.

Page 4: Deacriptive Linguistics

Closed System of CommunicationClosed System of Communication

Communication of most Communication of most animals is animals is closed.closed.

One call or gesture has One call or gesture has only one meaningonly one meaning

This call by a thrush is a This call by a thrush is a warning callwarning call

But it cannot combine this But it cannot combine this call with another one to call with another one to create a third meaningcreate a third meaning

Page 5: Deacriptive Linguistics

Open System of CommunicationOpen System of Communication

Language is an open systemLanguage is an open system We use speech sounds that We use speech sounds that

have no meaning in and of have no meaning in and of themselvesthemselves

When we combine them, they When we combine them, they have meaninghave meaning

The speech sounds of c-a-t The speech sounds of c-a-t mean a feline animalmean a feline animal

The same sounds recombined The same sounds recombined as a-c-t give us a comedy as a-c-t give us a comedy routine.routine.

You may polish up your act, but You may polish up your act, but would you polish up your cat?would you polish up your cat?

Page 6: Deacriptive Linguistics

Overview of LinguisticsOverview of Linguistics

How does an open system like language come to be? To How does an open system like language come to be? To answer, we will look at the following topics: answer, we will look at the following topics:

Biological Roots of Language: Brain and Articulatory Biological Roots of Language: Brain and Articulatory SystemSystem

Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and Phonemes, the Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and Phonemes, the building blocks of languagebuilding blocks of language

Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology and Syntax, which Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology and Syntax, which put these building blocks togetherput these building blocks together

Language and Animal Communication will then be Language and Animal Communication will then be comparedcompared

Language and Culture will conclude this sectionLanguage and Culture will conclude this section

Page 7: Deacriptive Linguistics

Why Do We Need an International Why Do We Need an International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)?Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)?

Linguists use the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) Linguists use the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to transcribe sounds. to transcribe sounds.

Why? Glad you asked. Take English:Why? Glad you asked. Take English: How many vowels are there in English?How many vowels are there in English? Our written alphabet is not entirely phoneticOur written alphabet is not entirely phonetic The letter a could be pronounced as [æ] in bThe letter a could be pronounced as [æ] in baat or as [e] t or as [e]

in bin baated breath?ted breath? Or try [a] as in bOr try [a] as in baah or “say h or “say aah”; we have 3 sounds for h”; we have 3 sounds for a.a. In English we have a total of 12 vowels, not only 5 as In English we have a total of 12 vowels, not only 5 as

most people assume,most people assume, That means in linguistics we need 12 symbols to That means in linguistics we need 12 symbols to

transcribe themtranscribe them

Page 8: Deacriptive Linguistics

The IPA: How It WorksThe IPA: How It Works

First, there are First, there are phonesphones, any speech sound, any speech sound The IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a soundThe IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a sound So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ] for So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ] for

“bat”“bat” Square brackets [ ] are used to enclose phonesSquare brackets [ ] are used to enclose phones But sounds alone do not carry a language; But sounds alone do not carry a language;

groups of them, known as groups of them, known as phonemes, phonemes, do this do this jobjob (more shortly)(more shortly)

Phonemes are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/Phonemes are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/

Page 9: Deacriptive Linguistics

How Language Works: An How Language Works: An OverviewOverview

To show how languages work, we will use a To show how languages work, we will use a sample of six sample of six consonantsconsonants known as known as stops:stops:

These are [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g]These are [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g] But first, we have to look at some preliminaries:But first, we have to look at some preliminaries: We have to look at the organs of speech: the We have to look at the organs of speech: the

brain, lungs, larynx, and oral cavitybrain, lungs, larynx, and oral cavity Then we have to see how the oral cavity is Then we have to see how the oral cavity is

involved in creating speech.involved in creating speech.

Page 10: Deacriptive Linguistics

Biology of Language: A Refresher on the Biology of Language: A Refresher on the Brain’s Role in LanguageBrain’s Role in Language

Here’s a refresher; Here’s a refresher; see is you can identify see is you can identify these areas involved these areas involved in speechin speech

Broca’s AreaBroca’s Area Wernicke’s AreaWernicke’s Area Arcuate FasciculusArcuate Fasciculus Angular GyrusAngular Gyrus Hypoglossal NerveHypoglossal Nerve

Page 11: Deacriptive Linguistics

The Brain and LanguageThe Brain and Language

Broca’s area: Broca’s area: The area that generates speechThe area that generates speech Wernicke’s area: Wernicke’s area: The area that processes the reception The area that processes the reception

of speechof speech Arcuate fasciculus: Arcuate fasciculus: The bundle of nerves that connect The bundle of nerves that connect

Broca’s with Wernicke’s area, so that you get feedback Broca’s with Wernicke’s area, so that you get feedback on your speechon your speech

Angular Gyrus: Angular Gyrus: The part of the brain that coordinates The part of the brain that coordinates the five senses; its role is to transcribe the other four the five senses; its role is to transcribe the other four senses into soundsenses into sound

Hypoglossal Nerve: Hypoglossal Nerve: The nerve running from the brain The nerve running from the brain to the tongue and so provides impulses to the tongue to to the tongue and so provides impulses to the tongue to move. move.

Page 12: Deacriptive Linguistics

Vocal TractVocal Tract

LungsLungs Diaphragm and Rib Diaphragm and Rib

CageCage Larynx and Vocal Larynx and Vocal

CordsCords Hyoid BoneHyoid Bone Oral CavityOral Cavity Nasal CavityNasal Cavity

Page 13: Deacriptive Linguistics

Functions of the Vocal TractFunctions of the Vocal Tract

Lungs Lungs are the source of the air stream essential to are the source of the air stream essential to speechspeech

Diaphragm Diaphragm pushes the air through the windpipe and into pushes the air through the windpipe and into the mouth; the muscles of the rib cage do the samethe mouth; the muscles of the rib cage do the same

The The vocal cordsvocal cords housed in the housed in the larynx larynx or voice box or voice box vibrate and so provide our voicevibrate and so provide our voice

The The oral cavity oral cavity contains the parts of the mouth that contains the parts of the mouth that enable us to speak.enable us to speak.

The The nasal cavity nasal cavity allows us to make certain sounds, allows us to make certain sounds, such as n [n] and m [m], with the passage of air in that such as n [n] and m [m], with the passage of air in that cavity.cavity.

Page 14: Deacriptive Linguistics

Articulatory PhoneticsArticulatory Phonetics

When we utter any sound, we When we utter any sound, we articulatearticulate We position our tongue or other speech part in We position our tongue or other speech part in

certain wayscertain ways When we speak, we useWhen we speak, we use Points of articulationPoints of articulation: Speech parts in upper half : Speech parts in upper half

of mouthof mouth Articulators:Articulators: Speech parts in lower half of mouth Speech parts in lower half of mouth The next panels and diagrams show how these The next panels and diagrams show how these

workwork

Page 15: Deacriptive Linguistics

Oral Cavity: DescriptionOral Cavity: Description

The The articulators articulators are the active parts of the speech are the active parts of the speech mechanism: they do all the workmechanism: they do all the work

They include the lower lip, the lower teeth, and the They include the lower lip, the lower teeth, and the tonguetongue

The The points of articulation points of articulation are the passive parts of the are the passive parts of the speech mechanism, except for the upper lipspeech mechanism, except for the upper lip

They comprise the upper lip, the upper teeth, the They comprise the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, or gum ridge behind the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, or gum ridge behind the upper teeth, the hard palate, the soft palate or velum, and the uvula, the hard palate, the soft palate or velum, and the uvula, the hanging membrane at the far end of the mouthhanging membrane at the far end of the mouth

In the next diagram, find and identify these parts just In the next diagram, find and identify these parts just mentioned. mentioned.

Page 16: Deacriptive Linguistics

Oral Cavity: DiagramOral Cavity: Diagram

Page 17: Deacriptive Linguistics

Articulators: DescriptionArticulators: Description In the diagram that follows, you will find the following In the diagram that follows, you will find the following

articulators:articulators: The The lower lip, lower lip, which can move on its ownwhich can move on its own The The lower teeth, lower teeth, which moves because the lower jaw which moves because the lower jaw

movesmoves The four parts of the The four parts of the tongue,tongue, which moves on its own which moves on its own The The apex apex is the tip of the tongueis the tip of the tongue The The blade blade or or front front of the tongue is behind the apexof the tongue is behind the apex The The center center or or centrum centrum of the tongue is at the center; of the tongue is at the center;

some linguists recognize this part and others do notsome linguists recognize this part and others do not The The dorsum dorsum is the back of the tongueis the back of the tongue Identify these parts in the diagram. Which part listed Identify these parts in the diagram. Which part listed

here is not identified in the diagram?here is not identified in the diagram?

Page 18: Deacriptive Linguistics

Articulators: DiagramArticulators: Diagram

All articulators are All articulators are movablemovable

They include:They include: Lower lipLower lip Lower teethLower teeth TongueTongue Apex (tip)Apex (tip) FrontFront Center Center Back (dorsum)Back (dorsum)

Page 19: Deacriptive Linguistics

Points of Articulation: Points of Articulation: DescriptionDescription

All points are fixed in position except the upper lipAll points are fixed in position except the upper lip The The upper lip upper lip is movable on its own and coordinates is movable on its own and coordinates

with the lower lipwith the lower lip The The upper teeth upper teeth is fixed because the upper jaw does not is fixed because the upper jaw does not

movemove The The alveolar ridge alveolar ridge is the gum ridge behind the upper is the gum ridge behind the upper

teethteeth The The hard palate hard palate is the roof of the mouthis the roof of the mouth The The velum velum is the soft palate behind the hard palateis the soft palate behind the hard palate The The uvula uvula is the hanging flesh at the far end of the is the hanging flesh at the far end of the

mouthmouth Identify these on the chart that follows.Identify these on the chart that follows.

Page 20: Deacriptive Linguistics

Points of ArticulationPoints of Articulation

All are immovable except All are immovable except upper lipupper lip

Upper lipUpper lip Upper teethUpper teeth Alveolar ridge (gum ridge Alveolar ridge (gum ridge

behind teeth)behind teeth) Hard palate (roof of Hard palate (roof of

mouth)mouth) Velum (soft palate)Velum (soft palate) Uvula (pendant lobe at Uvula (pendant lobe at

border of velum)border of velum)

Page 21: Deacriptive Linguistics

Other Speech PartsOther Speech Parts

LarynxLarynx, or voice box which , or voice box which containscontains

Two Two Vocal Cords Vocal Cords (upper left)(upper left) When vocal cords are drawn tight When vocal cords are drawn tight

(lower right), they produce a voice(lower right), they produce a voice When relaxed (lower left), no When relaxed (lower left), no

voice is produced.voice is produced. Other species and infant: larynx is Other species and infant: larynx is

high on throathigh on throat Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones

produced by lowering of velumproduced by lowering of velum

Page 22: Deacriptive Linguistics

Position of ArticulationPosition of Articulation

For For consonantsconsonants, position of articulator is placed relative to , position of articulator is placed relative to point of articulationpoint of articulation

For vowels, resonant sounds created byFor vowels, resonant sounds created by The height of tongue (high, mid, or low)The height of tongue (high, mid, or low) The advancement of the tongue (front, center, or back, and The advancement of the tongue (front, center, or back, and the lip shape (rounded or unrounded)the lip shape (rounded or unrounded) Consonants include:Consonants include: Stops (momentary stop of air stream)Stops (momentary stop of air stream) Fricatives or Fricatives or SpirantsSpirants (constricted passage of air) (constricted passage of air) Others, such as Others, such as lateralslaterals, , nasalsnasals, et al., et al. All speech sounds are known as All speech sounds are known as phonesphones

Page 23: Deacriptive Linguistics

Positions of Articulation: Stops Positions of Articulation: Stops

A A stop stop is formed whenis formed when an an articulatorarticulator touches touches a a point of articulationpoint of articulation halting the air stream momentarilyhalting the air stream momentarily A stop is namedA stop is named By naming the By naming the articulatorarticulator first first Then naming the Then naming the point of articulationpoint of articulation Examples: Examples: labio-labiallabio-labial, , apico-alveolarapico-alveolar, and , and dorso-velardorso-velar

stopsstops Study the next three diagrams carefully.Study the next three diagrams carefully. Please note that the transcriptions in brackets are in IPA; the Please note that the transcriptions in brackets are in IPA; the

[[II] in the three examples is in small caps.] in the three examples is in small caps.

Page 24: Deacriptive Linguistics

Bilabial StopsBilabial Stops

Upper lip is pressed Upper lip is pressed against lower lipagainst lower lip

Labio-Labio- describes the lower describes the lower lip (articulator)lip (articulator)

LabialLabial describes the describes the upper lip (point of upper lip (point of articulation_articulation_

This position of articulation This position of articulation is called is called bilabial stop bilabial stop for for shortshort

Example: [p] as in [pın] or Example: [p] as in [pın] or pinpin

Page 25: Deacriptive Linguistics

Apico-Alveolar StopsApico-Alveolar Stops

Tip (apex) of tongue Tip (apex) of tongue presses against gum presses against gum ridge (alveolar ridge) ridge (alveolar ridge) behind upper teethbehind upper teeth

Apico-Apico- describes apex of describes apex of tongue (articulator)tongue (articulator)

AlveolarAlveolar describes describes alveolar ridge (point of alveolar ridge (point of articulation)articulation)

Example: [t] as in [tın] or Example: [t] as in [tın] or tintin

Page 26: Deacriptive Linguistics

Dorso-Velar StopsDorso-Velar Stops

Back (dorsum) of tongue Back (dorsum) of tongue presses against soft presses against soft palate (velum)palate (velum)

Dorso-Dorso- describes dorsal describes dorsal part of tongue (articulator)part of tongue (articulator)

VelarVelar describes velum describes velum (point of articulation)(point of articulation)

Example: [k] as in [kın] or Example: [k] as in [kın] or kinkin

Page 27: Deacriptive Linguistics

Contrasting Sounds in the StopsContrasting Sounds in the Stops

Across the board, Across the board, [p] contrasts with [t][p] contrasts with [t] [t] contrasts with [k][t] contrasts with [k] [p] contrasts with [k][p] contrasts with [k] But there are But there are two sets each two sets each ofof bilabial stops: [p] and [b]bilabial stops: [p] and [b] apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d]apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d] dorso-velar stops [k] and [g]dorso-velar stops [k] and [g] Can you explain why there are two sets of each position Can you explain why there are two sets of each position

of articulation before moving on to the next slide?of articulation before moving on to the next slide?

Page 28: Deacriptive Linguistics

Voiced and Voiceless StopsVoiced and Voiceless Stops

One set of stops is voiceless or unvoiced, namely One set of stops is voiceless or unvoiced, namely [p], [t], and [k][p], [t], and [k]

The other set of stops is voiced:The other set of stops is voiced: [b] the bilabial voiced stop;[b] the bilabial voiced stop; [d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop; and[d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop; and [t] the voiced dorso-velar stop[t] the voiced dorso-velar stop A small experiment: put your fingers on your throat A small experiment: put your fingers on your throat

and repeat [p] then [b]and repeat [p] then [b] When does your throat start to vibrate in each When does your throat start to vibrate in each

case? Answer is on next slide.case? Answer is on next slide.

Page 29: Deacriptive Linguistics

When Vocal Cords VibrateWhen Vocal Cords Vibrate

You notice that when you utter [pYou notice that when you utter [pIIn], the vocal cords n], the vocal cords don’t vibrate until you utter the vowel, namely [don’t vibrate until you utter the vowel, namely [II]]

But when you utter [bBut when you utter [bIIn], the vocal cords vibrate when n], the vocal cords vibrate when you utter [b], well before [you utter [b], well before [II]; all vowels are voiced. ]; all vowels are voiced.

Do the same for [tDo the same for [tIIn] and [dn] and [dIIn] and for [kn] and for [kIIn] and [gn] and [gIIn]n] By the way, did you pronounce [g] as in get and not as in By the way, did you pronounce [g] as in get and not as in

gin, the stuff you have tonic with? If so you pronounced it gin, the stuff you have tonic with? If so you pronounced it correctly. correctly.

If not, you pronounced it [dzIf not, you pronounced it [dzIIn]. n].

Page 30: Deacriptive Linguistics

How Vocal Cords WorkHow Vocal Cords Work

When vocal cords are relaxed When vocal cords are relaxed (upper diagram), they produce (upper diagram), they produce no voiceno voice

When drawn tight with a small When drawn tight with a small aperture or hole (lower aperture or hole (lower diagram), they produce a voicediagram), they produce a voice

That is what causes the throat That is what causes the throat to vibrateto vibrate

There are other voiceless There are other voiceless consonants, s in sin, sh in consonants, s in sin, sh in shin, and ch in chin. shin, and ch in chin.

Page 31: Deacriptive Linguistics

Summing upSumming up

Voicing involves tightening of vocal cords to Voicing involves tightening of vocal cords to produce a soundproduce a sound

When unvoiced phones are uttered, the vocal When unvoiced phones are uttered, the vocal cords are relaxedcords are relaxed

Voiced sounds contrast with unvoiced soundsVoiced sounds contrast with unvoiced sounds voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p]voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p] voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t]voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t] voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]

Page 32: Deacriptive Linguistics

PhonemesPhonemes

The sounds we described are also The sounds we described are also phonemesphonemes

Definition: The smallest significant unit of Definition: The smallest significant unit of speechspeech

The significance is that the speaker The significance is that the speaker can can hear the difference.hear the difference.

We can hear the difference between [bın] We can hear the difference between [bın] and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [gın] and [kın]and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [gın] and [kın]

Page 33: Deacriptive Linguistics

Phonemes: An ExplanationPhonemes: An Explanation

Why Why significance:significance: If you could not hear the If you could not hear the difference, you could not have a language; the difference, you could not have a language; the sounds would all be the same. Phonemes are sounds would all be the same. Phonemes are kept separate.kept separate.

Why the term Why the term unitunit? As you will soon see, there ? As you will soon see, there are two or more are two or more phones phones (speech sounds) in (speech sounds) in most phonemes.most phonemes.

The speech The speech environment environment refers to the sounds refers to the sounds that are the context for the phone or phoneme that are the context for the phone or phoneme being analyzed. We start with being analyzed. We start with minimal pairsminimal pairs..

Page 34: Deacriptive Linguistics

Minimal PairsMinimal Pairs

[bın] and [pın]: what’s the difference?[bın] and [pın]: what’s the difference? [tın] and [dın]: same question[tın] and [dın]: same question [gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs?[gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs? Short answer: the speech Short answer: the speech environment environment is is

identicalidentical Only the stops differOnly the stops differ the [-ın] utterance is identical; that’s the the [-ın] utterance is identical; that’s the

environmentenvironment

Page 35: Deacriptive Linguistics

Summary of Phonemic Stops in Summary of Phonemic Stops in EnglishEnglish

From this chart, notice the followingFrom this chart, notice the following English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental, interdental, or English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental, interdental, or

palatal palatal We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and interdental ones [We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and interdental ones [θθ] and ] and

[ð] (Don’t worry about these symbols unless you take up linguistics)[ð] (Don’t worry about these symbols unless you take up linguistics) The Russians have a palatal stop [tThe Russians have a palatal stop [t jj]; the blade of the tongue ]; the blade of the tongue

touches the hard palatetouches the hard palate There are many other phones in the world’s languagesThere are many other phones in the world’s languages

Page 36: Deacriptive Linguistics

AllophonesAllophones

Another example: key and skiAnother example: key and ski Another experiment: put a sheet of paper in front of your Another experiment: put a sheet of paper in front of your

mouth and utter the following: mouth and utter the following: keykey and and skiski. Which k . Which k sound moves the papersound moves the paper

[k[khh] in key [k] in key [khhi] is i] is aspirated; aspirated; emits a puff of airemits a puff of air [[kk־־] in ski [sk] in ski [sk־־i] is i] is unaspirated; unaspirated; it doesn’t do so. it doesn’t do so. In English, [kIn English, [khh] and [k] and [k־־] never form minimal pairs; an A ] never form minimal pairs; an A

for the course if you find such a pair (haven’t lost that bet for the course if you find such a pair (haven’t lost that bet yet!)yet!)

Therefore, [kTherefore, [khh] and [k] and [k־־] are ] are allophones, allophones, or phonetic or phonetic variants of the same phonemevariants of the same phoneme

Page 37: Deacriptive Linguistics

Allophones of PhonemesAllophones of Phonemes

Definition: Variations of the same Definition: Variations of the same phonemephoneme

Our example: [k’] and [kOur example: [k’] and [k־־] are allophones ] are allophones of the phoneme /k/ of the phoneme /k/

Notation:Notation: Slash marks (//) indicate phonemeSlash marks (//) indicate phoneme Square brackets ([]) indicates phone (and Square brackets ([]) indicates phone (and

allophone)allophone)

Page 38: Deacriptive Linguistics

Allophones in One Language: Allophones in One Language: Phonemes in AnotherPhonemes in Another

Take Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu are Take Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu are derived):derived):

[k[khhil] and [kil] and [k־־il] il] dodo form minimal pairs form minimal pairs [k[khhil] means “parched grain”il] means “parched grain” [k[k־־il] means “small nail”il] means “small nail” [-il] is identical in the speech environment in which the [-il] is identical in the speech environment in which the

two phones occurtwo phones occur Therefore, /k’/ and /kTherefore, /k’/ and /k־־/ are phonemes in Old Sanskrit and / are phonemes in Old Sanskrit and

we have to mark them with a slashwe have to mark them with a slash In that language, they are In that language, they are significant unitssignificant units Every language has its own set of phonemesEvery language has its own set of phonemes

Page 39: Deacriptive Linguistics

Phonemes as Structural Duality Phonemes as Structural Duality II

Note chart on p. 36 under the pictureNote chart on p. 36 under the picture [b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts with [g][b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts with [g] [p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts with [k][p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts with [k] All the voiced stops contrast with unvoiced ones:All the voiced stops contrast with unvoiced ones: [b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k][b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k] So we have two thingsSo we have two things First, we have a First, we have a minimal set; minimal set; there are three or more there are three or more

utterances that contrast as minimal pairs doutterances that contrast as minimal pairs do Second, they form a structure based on sound contrasts; Second, they form a structure based on sound contrasts;

that’s the first part of a language’s structural duality.that’s the first part of a language’s structural duality.

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Structural Duality II: Morphemes Structural Duality II: Morphemes and Syntaxand Syntax

Once the phonemes are identified, they must be Once the phonemes are identified, they must be arranged for meaningarranged for meaning

That’s the job of morphemes and syntaxThat’s the job of morphemes and syntax Morphemes are The smallest Morphemes are The smallest meaningful meaningful unit of speechunit of speech You can form words from morphemesYou can form words from morphemes Syntax are the rules and principles of phrase and Syntax are the rules and principles of phrase and

sentence constructionsentence construction Grammar: In linguistics, this is the entire formal structure Grammar: In linguistics, this is the entire formal structure

of a language’s phonemes, morphemes, and syntaxof a language’s phonemes, morphemes, and syntax

Page 41: Deacriptive Linguistics

MorphemesMorphemes

Morphology:Morphology: Study of morphemes and their Study of morphemes and their construction into wordsconstruction into words

There are several types of morphemes:There are several types of morphemes: Free morphemes: Free morphemes: Morphemes that can stand Morphemes that can stand

unattached in a language: cat, dogsunattached in a language: cat, dogs Bound morphemes: Bound morphemes: Morphemes that cannot stand Morphemes that cannot stand

unattached in a language: cats, dogs [dogz}unattached in a language: cats, dogs [dogz} Inflectional bound morphemesInflectional bound morphemes: those that change : those that change

number or tense, but not meaning: e.g., cat, catnumber or tense, but not meaning: e.g., cat, catss Derivational bound morphemes:Derivational bound morphemes: those that change the those that change the

meaning: e.g., part, partmeaning: e.g., part, partyy

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AllomorphsAllomorphs

Allomorphs: Allomorphs: Variants of a morphemeVariants of a morpheme Examples: plurals of dogs, cats, horsesExamples: plurals of dogs, cats, horses Namely [dogNamely [dogzz], [k], [kætætss], [hors], [horsəzəz]] Others: tooth/teeth, booth/booths (why not “beeth”?), Others: tooth/teeth, booth/booths (why not “beeth”?),

sheep/sheepsheep/sheep So the process involves bound morphemes for the pluralSo the process involves bound morphemes for the plural But the sounds change according to contextBut the sounds change according to context Dog ends with a voiced g; cat ends with a voiceless t; and Dog ends with a voiced g; cat ends with a voiceless t; and

horse ends with a fricative s; so this is a phonetic issuehorse ends with a fricative s; so this is a phonetic issue MorphophonemicsMorphophonemics: Study of allomorphs based on sound : Study of allomorphs based on sound

(the phonemes) combined with morphology (the plurals)(the phonemes) combined with morphology (the plurals)

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Syntax: Parts of SpeechSyntax: Parts of Speech

Syntax is the study of rules and principles of phrase and Syntax is the study of rules and principles of phrase and sentence construction.sentence construction.

Parts of speech are similar to those in high school Parts of speech are similar to those in high school grammargrammar

Noun:Noun: Word referring to a person, place, or thing Word referring to a person, place, or thing Pronoun: Pronoun: Word that replaces a noun or other pronounWord that replaces a noun or other pronoun Verb:Verb: Action word Action word Adjective:Adjective: word that modifies nouns word that modifies nouns Adverb: Adverb: word that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other word that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other

adverbsadverbs

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Syntax: More Parts of SpeechSyntax: More Parts of Speech

Preposition:Preposition: Word that indicates a relation Word that indicates a relation between an object in time, space, or logic to the between an object in time, space, or logic to the rest of a sentencerest of a sentence

ConjunctionConjunction: Word connecting words or groups : Word connecting words or groups of wordsof words

Interjection: Interjection: Word that expresses feelings, but Word that expresses feelings, but usually not part of a sentence.usually not part of a sentence.

Although the words are made up of morphemes, Although the words are made up of morphemes, they play an integral part of phrase and they play an integral part of phrase and sentence construction.sentence construction.

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Syntax and Word OrderSyntax and Word Order

Word order (sentence, verb, object) vary by languageWord order (sentence, verb, object) vary by language In English: In English: Subject (S): Subject (S): The thing or person of what a sentence is about The thing or person of what a sentence is about

comes first in a declarative sentencecomes first in a declarative sentence Predicate (V): Predicate (V): Phrase that says something about the subject; Phrase that says something about the subject;

always include the verb that comes after the subjectalways include the verb that comes after the subject Verb (O): Verb (O): Action word that forms the main part of the Action word that forms the main part of the

predicatepredicate Object:Object: The person or thing affected by the verb The person or thing affected by the verb In English, the word order is typically S-V-OIn English, the word order is typically S-V-O In Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-OIn Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-O Other languages have other word ordersOther languages have other word orders

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So Why Aren’t Morphemes and So Why Aren’t Morphemes and Syntax Separate Structures?Syntax Separate Structures?

An exercise: catsAn exercise: cats Two cats (upper photo)Two cats (upper photo) Cat’s meow (lower picture: when Cat’s meow (lower picture: when

this is spoken, how do you this is spoken, how do you pronounce the apostrophe?)pronounce the apostrophe?)

Rest of sentence defines Rest of sentence defines morphememorpheme

Another exampleAnother example ““Cookie, lend me your combs”; Cookie, lend me your combs”;

combscombs are nouns are nouns ““Cookie combs his hair”; Cookie combs his hair”; combscombs

now becomes a verb. now becomes a verb.

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Descriptive Linguistics: ConclusionDescriptive Linguistics: Conclusion

We have looked at the biological basis of languageWe have looked at the biological basis of language We’ve also examine the parts of the speech We’ve also examine the parts of the speech

mechanism: lungs, larynx and vocal cords, oral and mechanism: lungs, larynx and vocal cords, oral and nasal cavitynasal cavity

We’ve seen how the sounds of speech are We’ve seen how the sounds of speech are articulatedarticulated

Once the sounds are produced, we’ve seen how Once the sounds are produced, we’ve seen how they are put together into words (made up of they are put together into words (made up of morphemes) , phrases, and sentencesmorphemes) , phrases, and sentences

Next up: language and cultureNext up: language and culture