Dairy Farming - edgegroup.com.pkedgegroup.com.pk/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Dairy-Farming.pdf · So dairy farming is not only the demand of the market but also a basic need. People

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“Dairy Farming… a profession of Hope, commitment & Discipline ’’

Dairy Farming Planning to Management…. A Complete Guide

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Objective:

The core objective of this document is to make sure the success of this business. It requires

high quality solutions & services that fulfill all livestock farming needs, regardless of the size

and scale of operations. One must provide customized solutions and services to ensure

sustainable production of milk and meat to maximize profits for farmers and milk & meat

processors.

Before we go further one should be interested in quite a few facets of Dairy Farming:

The Business Model:

Dairy Farming has a very unique business model, and no other business have a capability of

multiplying its assets while still producing revenue. Indeed Remarkable.

Current Situation:

One of many lessons is that one should get into a business where he thinks can do better. Dairy farming has a very large room for improvement.

Solid Demand:

A lot of business and entrepreneurs would consider a demand for something a good enough reason to get into any project. So dairy farming is not only the demand of the market but also a basic need. People need healthy, quality milk (and meat). It fits in with the idea of for-profit philanthropy where one stands a chance of actually helping people out and earning prayers as well as profits. Now that’s an inspiration indeed.

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The areas of focus for entrepreneurs in these sectors before starting the business are :

Dairy Farm Business Planning

1. Housing 2. Shed design. 3. Research species and breed. 4. Decide on a food source. 5. Create a breeding plan. 6. Study farming practices 7. Invest in capital. 8. Find a good source for animals.

Housing

Animal housing is the most essential factor in dairy farming. A good housing leads to good management practices and ultimately optimum production. The housing of dairy animals depends upon:

Number of animals Type of breed of animals Local environmental conditions Finances available Facilities to be provided For housing it should also be considered that animals should have five types of freedoms Freedom from hunger and thirst Freedom from discomfort Freedom from pain, injury and disease Freedom to express normal behavior Freedom from fear and distress

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Shed Design Before designing the shed for your animals, you must cater for some basics which are :

Comfort Safety Economical Convenience Location and basic design is very important for your shed and animals. Ventilation and protection from the rain and winds is also very important. Environmental condition of the area is also taken into consideration before starting the shed

layout.

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Research Species & Breed

The most common dairy animals are cows, goats (good for a small farm) and buffalo. Each

one has many dairy breeds, and local knowledge is your best way to choose between them.

Rule out breeds that can't thrive in your climate.

For each breed, divide annual upkeep cost by annual milk production to find production cost per unit of milk.

Is there local demand for the breed's milk (based on species and milk fat %)? Also consider butter and cheese (where a high fat % is useful)?

How much time and money does it take to raise a calf to milk-producing age? How much can you sell the male calves for?

Ayrshire

Brown Swiss

Dexter

Friesian

Milking Shorthorn Jersey

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Decide on a food source

Concentrated feed requires less labor but more money. New farms often save on costs by supplementing it with Management Intensive Rotational Grazing (MIRG). Look at land rental prices in your area and determine how many cattle per acre it can support.

Livestock need about 4% of their weight in forage each day. Ideally, your pasture should produce more than this at peak season, so you can stockpile the surplus for winter.

Renting land is usually better than purchasing for a new farm. Wait until your farm is well-

established and you no longer need the rental arrangements

Mixed Feed Pellets

Maize Crush Prepared Silage

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Create a breeding plan

Dairy bulls have a reputation for dangerous behavior, and in any case raising one year round

gets expensive. The safer options are paying for a bull's service at breeding time, or

practicing artificial insemination (AI). AI is almost always the cheapest option, and has equal

or higher success rates when performed correctly (ideally by trained AI techs).

Artificial insemination programs are now widespread the world over. The savings are not as significant and the programs vary in quality, but it is still usually worth it.

Male to female herd ratio varies between species and with the male's age. A young bull can typically service 20–25 cows, while a healthy, mature bull may be able to handle up to 40.

Sexed Semen

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Study farming practices “If you don't have dairy farm experience already, take some time to learn

about breeding, calving, manure management, weaning, milking cows, and crop

management. Farming requires a great deal of time, work, and knowledge, so

walk into it with open eyes.”

If this is all new to you, try to get some work experience on another dairy farm first.

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Investment in capital

A farm requires a large one-time expenditure to get started. Buying an existing dairy farm

makes the task simpler, and can save money if you're willing to do some repairs yourself.

Whether you plan to buy or start it all by yourself, make sure you'll have the following

facilities:-

A sterile facility for storing milk, and for pasteurizing if required in your area

Dry, sunny sheds or barns protected from weather and temperature changes

Milking parlor with stanchions

Feed storage and manure storage

Separate living space for calves

Equipment (including tractors) and equipment storage area

Well for watering cattle, plus water transport system to tanks in pasture

Irrigation system for pasture (optional).

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Find a good source for animals

Inspect all dairy animals personally before buying, including several milking tests. The

animal should be healthy and vaccinated against disease. Ideally, purchase the animals right

after calving, on its second or third lactation (when milk production is highest).Wait to buy

the second half the herd until the first group is about to go dry, so your farm can produce

milk year round.

Research the local milk market

If you're starting with just a few animals, talk to nearby dairy farmers for advice on selling to

local stores and individuals. If you have a slightly larger herd, you can get a more stable

income by selling the milk to a company that will handle distribution

Create a business plan

Put all your financial estimates into a plan that covers the first few years of your business. In

addition to the necessary items above, remember to include the estimated cost of veterinary

care per animal, and the cost of any labor you plan to hire. Also look into an additional

source of profit like selling manure.

Contact government institutions about subsidies and loans for farmers before you take a loan from a bank.

Use the average milk prices (or slightly lower) over the past few years when estimating future profits. You don't want your business to suffer if milk prices drop.

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Dairy Farm Management

On day-to-day dairy farm management and consultation, The Edge Group focuses on the

economic side of dairy farming by working with dairy farmers on general farm management

and other farm management practices. Areas of management which are of prime focus for

the dairy farmer, which includes the following;

Nutritional management Management according to age of animal According to physiological stage of animal According to the season (Hot and cold) Health management Production management Record keeping management

Nutritional Management

Dairy nutrition is essential to understand because the nutrient requirements of dairy cows at

various stages of lactation are different. For fulfilling their requirements combination of

various feed ingredients in a cost-effective manner is essential to run the successful dairy

farm.

Use feeding management strategies to improve feed dry matter intake (DMI) and milk

production.

Feeding management tips are:

Feed grain meals of less than 4 kg of grain per feeding Feed grain in several small meals daily rather than two large ones, especially in hot weather Feed protein supplement after or with the grain meal Feed a forage meal 1 to 1-1/2 hours before a grain meal Combine forages (e.g. Hay lag plus silage) or feed computerized formulated ration (known as

wanda) Have fresh feed available in bunks or mangers after milking time Adapt feeding strategies to the eating behavior of your animals Clean mangers and bunks daily especially in hot weather Clean water bowls and troughs frequently Provide at least 60 cm (2 feet) of bunk space per cow Allow cows access to feed for at least 22 hours of the day Healthy, contented cows eat more feed Frequent foot trimming will improve cow mobility and intake. Mineral licks and/or mineral supplements are an important part of the animal's diet.

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Moldy feed or feed stored in the same area as pesticides and other contaminants can transfer dangerous toxins to the milk must avoid using it. Use high quality feed which have all necessary nutrients in proper proportion according to the requirement of animal.

Nutrional management directly effects the production of animal and ultimately your profit. There is a high need to manage the feed according to the animal’s body requirement because at different stage of the life animals require different nutrients in different proportions.

Dairy animals have high nutrition requirements compared to animals raised for meat. Balancing a ration completely is the only way of designing a proper feeding program. Improper nutrition can lead to lower milk production or lower quality milk. Balanced ration

formulation is the science which is handled by the nutrition specialists and veterinarian’s with the help of computerized ration formulation which you can only get by consulting the specialists.

Management According to Age of Animal Health care of dairy cattle can be best described by age and state of the animal as set out in the following sections.

Newborn calf:

First three days:

The newborn calf needs to be cleaned with dry a towel or clean and dry hay. This will stimulate respiration and blood circulation.

Remove slime from the nose and mouth to assist breathing and holding up the rear legs of the calf, let the head hang down to release any water in the lungs, mouth or nose.

If the navel is too long, cut it and leave two to three inches from the stalk then dip the navel in tincture of iodine to prevent local infection. This procedure is important for prevention of navel-ill (omphalitis) and helps the umbilicus heal quickly.

Feed the calf with colostrum within one to two hours after birth. The optimum time for absorption of antibodies through calf’s small intestine is in the first six to eight hours. Colostrum should provide the calf with 10 to 15 per cent of its body weight. It is essential that the calf receives enough colostrum during the first 12 to 24 hours to prevent early infection. The colostrum is high in nutritive value; it contains antibodies IgG and IgM from the cow’s immune system which form passive resistance to many infections.

In general, removal of the calf from the dam should occur after calving to the isolate pen which should be dry and clean. Straw for bedding must be clean and dry and should be changed regularly. In some regions rearing crossbred dairy cattle, the owner leaves the calf to suck milk directly from the dam during the first three to four days before being separated from it.

Calves from three days to one month:

Feeding with whole milk is expensive so milk replacer is used for routine feeding, which is twice a day. Bucket feeding is commonly used it should be cleaned well between uses to avoid digestive disorders due to poor hygiene.

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Train the calf to take concentrate and roughage at about one week of age. Solid food stimulates rumen development. In the pen, clean water must be available at all times.

Calves are numbered using an ear-tag or tattoo. Removal of extra-teats could be done in the first weeks.

Common health problems during this period are omphalitis (navel-ill), diarrhea (scours), respiratory infection (pneumonia) and One month of age to weaning (3–4 months)

Calves should be dehorned at one to two months of age. All female calves should be vaccinated against brucellosis (S19) at three to eight months of age. Weaning should take place at about three to four months of age or when the calf is able to eat

roughage and concentrate of more than one kilogram per day or at calf body weight between 80 to 90 kg (depending on the breed).

De-worm the calf against internal parasites such as roundworm, tapeworm and flukes. Also, eliminate external parasites such as ticks by spraying.

In this period problems to be aware of, are parasites, bloat and arthritis.

Calves 4–12 months of age:

Vaccinate against FMD (foot-and-mouth disease), hemorrhagic septicemia and/or anthrax every six months.

De-worm against internal parasites such as roundworm, tapeworm and flukes, also eliminate external parasites such as ticks, by spraying.

In this period problems to be aware of include parasites, tick fever, pneumonia, diarrhea, bloat and arthritis.

According to Physiological Stage of Animal

Heifers 12–18 months of age (estrus and pregnancy):

Record the growth rate for which should not be less than 270 kg in crossbred or 300 kg in pure-bred cattle at first service.

Take blood for brucellosis and test it. Vaccinate against FMD (foot-and-mouth disease) and hemorrhagic septicemia every six months. De-worming should be carried out every six months. Heat detection should be carried out to determine the right time for artificial insemination and

use of selected semen in accordance with the breeding plan of the region or farms. Heifers requiring repeated insemination (more than three times) need to be checked by a

veterinarian. Heifers over 18 months old and/or weighing more than 270 kg which have not shown signs of

estrus need to be checked by a veterinarian. Pregnancy diagnosis should be done on each animal at 45 to 60 days after the last insemination. Common health problems that occur during this age are tick fever, and other infectious diseases

and parasites. Pregnant heifers – prepartum (24–36 months) Feed with good quality roughage and give concentrate as a supplement to pregnant heifers in

poor condition. Mineral supplement can be used for pregnant heifers to prevent metabolic diseases such as

Milk fever.

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Vaccinate against FMD, hemorrhagic septicemia and other diseases as a vaccination program in the dairy region.

De-worming for external and internal parasites should be carried out routinely. Signs that the cow is approaching parturition are that it becomes uneasy and separates from the herd. Signs of calving include enlargement of the udder and belly, and discharge from the vulva.

In this period, one must be alert for heifers’ mastitis (mastitis before calving) and abortion.

At Parturition:

The owner needs to prepare the calving area which should be clean, dry, quiet and isolated to keep the prepartum cow close for the owner to notice and provide help if the cow shows signs of difficulty during the birth.

Signs of calving include enlargement of the vulva, distention of the teats and udder, loss of ligaments at the side of the tail-head, and restlessness. Other indicators are a marked increase in the amount of mucous, cervical seal liquefaction and increasing frequency of abdominal and uterine contractions.

If delivery is determined to take longer than 24 hours and the allantois sac has not protruded, the cow will require assistance from a veterinarian.

If there has been no expulsion of the fetus or any contractions for more than two hours after the rupture of the allantois sac, veterinary assistance will be required.

During this period, there is the possibility of milk fever, uterine prolapse, or downer cow occurring.

After calving: seven days postpartum

Natural expulsion of the fetal membrane should occur three to eight hours after calving or within 12 hours. If the fetal membrane is retained over 12 hours, the cow will require assistance from a veterinarian.

Milk colostrum and feed to calf as soon as possible (within six hours). Remove the fetal membrane from the calving area or pen floor, clean the pen and the rearing

area of the dam to reduce risk of infection by flies. Feed the cow with good quality and quantity of food which is palatable because in this period

the cow has less appetite and may remain stressed from delivery. During this period, there is the possibility of retained placenta, metritis, milk fever, uterine

prolapse and mastitis.

Milking:

Be aware of weight loss after parturition which is a sign of insufficient energy in the diet. Try to group cows for feeding and management according to their milk production. One month after parturition check the reproductive tract for uterine involution, metritis and

ovarian functions. The cow should show signs of estrus within 60 days postpartum; cows requiring more than

three inseminations need to be checked by a veterinarian. During this period, there are risks from mastitis, metritis, abomassal displacement, acidosis and

ketosis.

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Dry period:

Check for pregnancy diagnosis once again before allowing the cow to dry off. Drying-off should allow at least two months before the coming parturition to let the cow rest

and prepare to calve. Prevention of mastitis during the dry period and after calving is important.

Maintaining the routine vaccination program. Treat for internal and external parasites. Hoof trimming can be done during this period. Maintaining good feed management during the dry period.

Replacement Heifers:

Firstly, the health record of the purchased animals needs to be correct. Information on vaccinations and health problems as well as breeding certificates and individual cards from former owners are valuable. Quarantine may be necessary before new animals can enter a farm. Shipping animals creates stress, so cattle should be handled as gently as possible when loading or unloading. Shipment should be done in the shortest possible period of time and during the coolest part of the day. If there is any doubt about the health of the cattle their temperature should be taken before loading. It is more economical to treat feverish animals and delay shipment than to risk stress-induced illness or even death.

Culling: Smallholders like to retain all cows, even those with low milk production or which never conceive. Good herd management requires the culling of unproductive animals from the herd and replacement with improved stock. Unwillingness of some smallholders to cull according to good practice may be related to sentiment and distraction by other agricultural enterprises which limit attention to the production levels of individual cows. Serious dairy farmers will follow the practices of culling.

According to the Season (Hot and Cold)

Comfortable cows exhibit minimal stress, consume more feed and produce more milk. Winter can be a rough time for the milking herd. There can be freezing rain, snow, wind chill,

very cold temperatures, warm ups, then cold temperatures again. All of these conditions can take a toll on the dairy cow and milk production.

However, dairy cows will do quite well in cold temperatures if they are dry, protected from wind, and properly fed and watered.

Controlling heat stress is important to animal well-being in the hot days. Stress is continually imposed upon dairy cows to produce more and more milk. To maximize

yield, it is imperative to keep cows as comfortable as possible and maintain feed intake for conversion into milk.

http://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.cfm?number=B1426#Comfortable

http://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.cfm?number=B1426#Controlling

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Heat stress negatively affects cow comfort, dry matter intake and subsequently milk yield thus, management strategies must be applied to counter hot/humid environmental conditions that can lead to mastitis and reduced milk quality.

Control is based on provision of fresh, cool, clean drinking water, and increased energy density of rations and use of feed additives, as well as the use of cooling mechanisms including shade, fans, sprinklers, tunnel ventilation, commercial coolers, cooling ponds, exit lane sprinklers and center pivots

Unfortunately, most cooling systems result in excess water in the cow’s environment, which, along with warm temperatures, provides ideal conditions for the growth of mastitis-causing bacteria. It must be handled by your management.

Thus, the cows surroundings must be kept as clean and dry as possible to reduce microbial growth. Additionally, the recommended pre-milking udder prep and milking time hygiene must be followed precisely to avoid new infections with environmental mammary gland pathogens.

Bulk tank monitoring is critical during times of heat stress to ensure that mastitis control practices are indeed working and that maximum milk quality is maintained. Finally, heat stress control practices should also be applied to replacement heifers, as these animals constitute the future milking herd and their well-being must be considered in an overall herd health program.

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Health Management:

Vaccination Deworming Metabolic and deficiency disease control. Control of ectoparasites Mastitis control Provide comfort to animal then animal shows good health and production.

Production Management:

The production of your farm is directly linked with your feeding management and strategy of feeding to your animal.

The feeding requirement of animal depends on the physiological stage of the animal. So, for getting optimum production from your animal you must have understanding of

physiological stage and requirement of nutrients at that particular stage of the animal. Unfortunately most of the farmers have no idea about this type of management and face huge

production losses just because of their unawareness.

Record keeping Management

Without record keeping successful dairy farming is not possible. Different types of records

which should be kept at dairy farm are:

Record of Animal Strength with their age, Sex, Date of Birth, Date of purchase etc. Breeding Record Production Record Calf Record Feeding Record Health Record Mortality Record Sale Record Expenditures and Profit Record Manpower Record

For successful record keeping, there should be some software or registers for different

records.

Diseases Controls Managements

Livestock diseases contribute to an important set of problems within livestock production

systems. These include animal welfare, productivity losses, uncertain food security, loss of

income and negative impacts on human health. Livestock disease management can reduce

disease through improved animal husbandry practices. These include: controlled breeding,

controlling entry to farm lots, and quarantining sick animals and through developing and

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improving antibiotics, vaccines and diagnostic tools, evaluation of ethno-therapeutic options,

and vector control techniques.

Description:

Livestock disease management is made up of two key components:

1) Prevention (biosecurity) measures in susceptible herds

2) Control measures taken once infection occurs.

The probability of infection from a given disease depends on existing farm practices

(prevention) as well as the prevalence rate in host populations in the relevant area. As the

prevalence in the area increases, the probability of infection increases.

Prevention Measures

Preventing diseases entering and spreading in livestock populations is the most efficient and

cost-effective way of managing disease (Wobeser, 2002). While many approaches to

management are disease specific, improved regulation of movements of livestock can

provide broader protection. A standard disease prevention program that can apply in all

contexts does not exist. But there are some basic principles that should always be observed.

The following practices aid in disease prevention:

Elaboration of an animal health program Select a well-known, reliable source from which to purchase animals, one that can supply

healthy stock, inherently vigorous and developed for a specific purpose. New animals should be monitored for disease before being introduced into the main flock.

Good hygiene including clean water and feed supplies. Precise vaccination schedule for each herd or flock. Observe animals frequently for signs of disease, and if a disease problem develops, obtain an

early, reliable diagnosis and apply the best treatment, control, and eradication measures for that specific disease.

Dispose of all dead animals by deep burying, or disposal pit. Maintain good records relative to flock or herd health. These should include vaccination

history, disease problems and medication.

Surveillance and Control Measures

Disease surveillance allows the identification of new infections and changes to existing

ones. This involves disease reporting and specimen submission by livestock owners, village

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veterinary staff, district and provincial veterinary officers. The method used to combat a

disease outbreak depends on the severity of the outbreak. In the event of a disease outbreak

the precise location of all livestock is essential for effective measures to control and eradicate

contagious viruses. Restrictions on animal movements may be required as well as quarantine

and, in extreme cases, slaughter. The major impacts of climate change on livestock diseases

have been on diseases that are vector-borne. Increasing temperatures have supported the

expansion of vector populations into cooler areas. Such cooler areas can be either higher

altitude systems (for example, livestock tick-borne diseases) or more temperate zones (for

example, the outbreak of bluetongue disease). Changes in rainfall pattern can also influence

an expansion of vectors during wetter years and can lead to large outbreaks. Climate changes

could also influence disease distribution indirectly through changes in the distribution of

livestock. Improving livestock disease control is therefore an effective technology for climate

change adaptation.

Advantages of the technology

Benefits of livestock disease prevention and control include: higher production (as morbidity

is lowered and mortality or early culling is reduced), and avoided future control costs. When

farmers mitigate disease through prevention or control, they benefit not just themselves but

any others at risk of adverse outcomes from the presence of disease on that operation. At-risk

populations include residents, visitors and consumers. The beneficiaries might also include

at-risk wildlife populations surrounding the farm that may have direct or indirect contact

with livestock or livestock-related material.

Disadvantages of the technology

Management options may interact, so the use of one option may diminish the effectiveness of

another. Another critical issue is the long-term sustainability of currently used strategies.

Chemical intervention strategies such as antibiotics or vaccines are not biologically

sustainable. Animals develop resistance to drugs used to control certain viruses and with

each new generation of vaccine a new and more virulent strain of the virus can arise. Small-

scale producers may be negatively affected by livestock disease management if the full cost

of the disease management program is directly passed onto them with no subsidy from the

government.

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Financial requirements and costs

Livestock disease management costs include: testing and screening, veterinary services,

vaccines, training of livestock keepers and veterinary staff, and perhaps changes to practices

and facilities to reflect movement restrictions and quarantines when animals are added to the

herd. Prevention and control costs are generally evaluated against expected financial losses

resulting from a disease outbreak in a cost-benefit analysis. The assumption is that increased

prevention and control costs lower the expected losses by diminishing the expected scale of

an infection.

Institutional and Organizational Requirements

Livestock and animal health policy should be oriented to both the commercial and pastoral

sectors and include pro-poor interventions to support the most vulnerable

populations. Government investments in infrastructure (including early warning systems,

roads, abattoirs, holding pens, processing plants, air freight/ports and so on), systematic

vaccination, and in research and development can all contribute to providing an enabling

environment for effective livestock disease management. Removing or introducing subsidies

for improved management, insurance systems and supporting income diversification

practices could benefit adaptation efforts.

In order for producers to make decisions regarding disease management, they must

understand the options that they have. These options depend on disease biology, prevention

techniques, tests for infection and their costs, treatments available, market reactions, as well

as industry and government programs and policies. Disease biology includes transmission

modes and rates, disease evolution (for example, length of time to infectious period),

production losses associated with the disease, and mortality rate (where applicable).

Practical training for farmers should include:

Principles of anatomy and physiology of the livestock animals. Principles of nutrition and pasture ecology. Animal diseases of local importance: clinical and post mortem signs, epidemiology, prevention,

treatment. Applying first aid, the use of basic veterinary medicines (wound treatments, dips, anthelmintic, antibiotics, trypanocides, babesiacides, vaccines, care and storage of medicines and vaccines, and the use and care of syringes).

The basic principles of sera-surveillance campaigns ─ how to draw blood and store sera.

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Modelling disease outbreaks and spread can provide valuable information for the

development of management strategies. Modelling involves studying disease distribution

and patterns of spread to determine the scale of a problem. This information is used to

develop a model that can predict the spread of disease. Disease modelling requires prior

knowledge of animal population distributions and ecology, diseases present and methods of

disease transmission. Modelling can be used to assess potential disease impacts and develop

contingency plans.

Nutritional Managements

During lactation, dairy cows have very high nutritional requirements relative to most other

species. Meeting these requirements, especially for energy and protein, is challenging. Diets

must have sufficient nutrient concentrations to support production and metabolic health,

while also supporting rumen health and the efficiency of fermentative digestion.

Feed Intake

Under nearly all practical management conditions, dairy cows and growing dairy heifers are

fed ad lib. Thus, voluntary feed intake is the major limitation to nutrient supply in dairy

cattle. Feed intake is usually characterized as dry matter intake (DMI) to compare diets of

variable moisture concentrations. DMI is affected by both animal and feed factors. Body size,

milk production, and stage of lactation or gestation are the major animal factors. At peak

DMI, daily DMI of high-producing cows may be 5% of body wt, and even higher in

extremely high-producing cows.

More typical peak DMI values are in the range of 3.5%–4% of body wt. In mature cows, DMI

as a percentage of body weight is lowest during the non-lactating, or dry, period. In most

cows, DMI declines to its lowest rate in the last 2–3 wk of gestation. Typical DMI during this

period is <2% of body wt/day, with intake rates depressed more in fat cows than in thin

ones. Feed intake during this period has an important relationship to postpartum health,

with low DMI and associated prepartum negative energy balance increasing the risk of

postpartum disease.

After calving, DMI increases as milk production increases; however, the rate of increase in

feed consumption is such that energy intake lags behind energy requirements for the first

several weeks of lactation. Milk production and associated energy requirements generally

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peak around 6–10 wk into lactation, whereas DMI usually does not peak until 12–14 week

into lactation. This lag in DMI relative to energy requirements creates a period of negative

energy balance in early lactation. Cows are at greater risk of metabolic disease during this

period than at other times during their lactation cycle. Management and nutritional

strategies should be designed to maximize DMI through the period of late gestation and

early lactation.

Feed factors also affect DMI. Total ration moisture concentrations >50% generally decrease

DMI, although this may be related more to fermentation characteristics than to moisture per

se, because high-moisture feeds for dairy cattle are typically from fermented (ensiled)

sources. Rations high (>30%) in Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) may also limit feed intake,

although the degree to which this occurs is related to the source of NDF. Environment also

affects feed intake with temperatures above the thermal neutral zone (>20°C [68°F]),

resulting in reduced DMI. Monitoring DMI, when possible, is a useful tool in diagnosing

nutritional problems in diets of dairy cows.

Carbohydrates

Energy requirements for lactating dairy cows are met primarily by carbohydrate fractions of

the diet. These consist of fibrous and non-fibrous carbohydrates. Fibrous

carbohydrate proportions are generally measured as NDF and expressed as a percentage of

dry matter. Non fiber carbohydrate (NFC) proportions are calculated by subtracting the

proportions (as dry matter) of NDF, crude protein, fat, and ash from 100%. Non fiber

carbohydrates primarily consist of sugars and fructose, starch, organic acids, and pectin. In

fermented feeds, fermentation acids also contribute to the NFC fraction. The sum of sugars

and starch is referred to as nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC), which should not be confused

with NFC. Balancing fiber and NFC fractions to optimize energy intake and rumen health is

a challenging aspect of dairy nutrition.

In general, fiber in the diet supports rumen health. Fiber in the rumen, especially fiber from

forage sources that have not been finely chopped or ground, maintains rumen distention,

which stimulates motility, cud chewing, and salivary flow. These actions affect the rumen

environment favorably by stimulating the endogenous production of salivary buffers and a

high rate of fluid movement through the rumen. Salivary buffers maintain rumen pH in a

desirable range, while high fluid flow rates increase the efficiency of microbial energy and

protein yield. Fiber, however, delivers less dietary energy than NFC. Fiber is generally less

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fermentable in the rumen than NFC, and rumen fermentation is the major mechanism by

which energy is provided, both for the animal and the rumen microbes. Therefore, diets with

high NDF concentrations promote rumen health but provide relatively less energy than diets

high in NFC.

To increase the energy supply, dietary NDF concentrations are usually reduced by adding

starch and other sources of NFC. This increases the rate and extent of rumen fermentation,

which leads to greater energy availability. Increased ruminal fermentation also leads to the

increased production of volatile fatty acids, which tends to lower rumen pH. At rumen pH

values <6.2, fiber digestion is reduced; at values ≤5.5, fiber digestion is severely diminished,

feed intake may be reduced, and rumen health is generally compromised. There is a

reciprocal relationship between NFC and NDF proportions, so the adverse effects of high

dietary NFC may be especially evident as cud chewing and salivary flow may be

simultaneously diminished because of reductions in dietary NDF.

Recommended minimum NDF concentrations depend on the source and physical

effectiveness of the NDF and the dietary concentration of NFC. Fiber from forage sources is,

in general, more effective at stimulating salivation and cud chewing than is fiber from non

forage sources. Thus, one variable in the assessment of dietary NDF adequacy is the

proportion of NDF coming from forages. Minimum NDF concentrations in the diets for high-

producing cows are 25%–30%. When fiber sources from forage make up ≥75% of the NDF ,

then total NDF concentrations in the lower end of this range may be acceptable. When a

smaller portion of total NDF is derived from forage sources, then total NDF concentrations

should be in the upper end of this range. Maximum recommended NFC concentrations are

38%–44%. Diets with higher NFC concentrations will benefit from higher proportions of NDF

coming from forage sources. These recommendations must be viewed as broad guidelines

rather than strict rules. Factors including the total ferment ability of the diet as well as the

ferment ability of the NDF influence the NDF requirement. Diets with highly fermentable

NDF sources require higher total concentrations of NDF but provide more energy per mass

unit of NDF than diets with less fermentable NDF. Feeding management schemes such as

totally mixed rations result in lower minimum NDF concentrations than feeding dietary

components individually.

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Energy

Dietary energy is usually measured in mega calories (Mcal) or mega joules (MJ). When the

energy in a given feedstuff is expressed in terms of the Mcal or MJ actually available for

metabolism, heat production, or storage in the animal, the term metabolizable energy (ME) is

used. The efficiency of utilization of ME varies based on the physiologic functions supported,

which include body maintenance, growth, and lactation. The net energy (NE) system takes

into account the differences in efficiency of ME utilization for each of these processes and

assigns a separate NE value to individual feedstuffs based on each of these energy-requiring

processes, ie, body maintenance, growth, and lactation. Thus, in the USA, in which the NE

system is typically used, energy values of feedstuffs for ruminants are expressed as NE for

maintenance (NEM), NE for gain (NEG), and NE for lactation (NEL). This system is

cumbersome and no intuitive and has many computational disadvantages compared with

alternative systems based directly on ME. However, the NE system has the major advantage

of more equitably comparing the energy values of forages to concentrates when used in

ruminant diets.

It has typical values for ME, NEL, NEM, and NEG, for some feedstuffs commonly fed to dairy

cows. The values in these and other published tables are estimates of the energy delivered to

lactating cows consuming feed at three times the maintenance consumption rate, ie, three

times more feed than they would consume were they not in production. The listed values are

typical averages for the feeds; the actual values for individual feeds may vary considerably,

especially for forages. Laboratory analyses of feeds and forages are always advisable for both

comparative evaluation and ration balancing. Values for ME and NE cannot be measured

directly by typical laboratory analyses. These and any other energy values on a laboratory

report are estimates, usually based on formulas with acid detergent fiber concentration as the

primary independent variable. Many contemporary computer programs for ration evaluation

or balancing in dairy cows do not rely on laboratory estimates of feed energy concentrations.

Rather, they estimate the contributions of individual feeds to the energy supply based on

feed characteristics, intake rates, and estimated rates of passage through the rumen. Such

programs are frequently referred to as "models." When using programs of this type, the

estimated energy values of individual feeds will diminish with increasing rates of feed

intake.

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Fats

Supplemental fats can be added to increase energy concentration. Fat concentrations in

typical dairy diets without supplemental fat are usually low, ~2.5% of dry matter.

Supplemental fats may be added to attain a total ration fat concentration of ~6% of dry

matter. Fats in ruminant diets can induce undesirable metabolic effects, both within the

rumen microbial population and within the animal. Ramifications of these effects include

reduced fiber digestion, indigestion and poor rumen health, and suppression of milk fat

concentration. The major benefit of supplemental fat in ruminant diets is that dietary energy

concentration can be increased without increasing the NFC concentration.

Fats may be supplemented from vegetable sources such as oil seeds, animal sources such as

tallow, and specialty fat sources that are manufactured to be rumen inert, ie, not interact

with the metabolism of rumen microbes. Supplemental fats from vegetable sources generally

have a relatively high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. Unsaturated fats adversely affect

rumen microbial activity. In addition, these fatty acids are extensively converted to saturated

fatty acids in the rumen. When fed in excessive dietary concentration, intermediate products

from the saturation process may escape the rumen and be absorbed by intestinal digestion.

Some of these products are trans-fatty acids, some of which directly suppress mammary

butterfat synthesis. Supplemental fats from animal sources are more saturated and thus less

detrimental to microbial activity and less apt to result in suppression of butterfat synthesis.

Rumen-inert fats are designed to have little or no effect on rumen microbial activity and

mammary butterfat synthesis. In general, when supplementing fats to dairy diets, up to 400 g

(~2% of diet dry matter) may be added as vegetable fats, particularly if the fats are added as

oil seeds, which tend to be less detrimental than free oils. An additional 200–400 g may be

added from highly saturated or preferably rumen-inert sources, generally not to exceed a

total of 6.5% fat in the total dietary dry matter.

Protein

The protein requirements of lactating dairy cows are high because of the demand for amino

acids for milk protein synthesis. Two systems of describing the dietary protein supply and

requirements for dairy cows are in general use: the crude protein system and the

metabolizable protein system. The crude protein system considers only the total amount of

dietary protein, or protein equivalent from no protein nitrogen sources. Crude protein values

are based on the measurement of total dietary nitrogen and the assumption that protein is

16% nitrogen. The crude protein system is relatively simple to use and has provided a

P a g e | 27


traditional means of formulating dairy cow rations provides general guidelines for the

required crude protein concentration of diets for large- and small-breed dairy cattle at

various levels of production. It can be used for general evaluations of the protein adequacy

of dairy diets. The metabolizable protein (MP) system is more complex than the crude

protein system, and it was developed in recognition of the fact that not all crude protein

provided to cows may be available for absorption as amino acids.

Water

The availability of high-quality water for ad lib consumption is critical. Insufficient water

intake leads immediately to reduced feed intake and milk production. Water requirements of

dairy cows are related to milk production, DMI, ration dry matter concentration, salt or

sodium intake, and ambient temperature. Various formulas have been devised to predict

water requirements. Two formulas to estimate water consumption of lactating dairy cows are

as follows:

Note: FWI is free water intake (water consumed by drinking rather than in feed), DMI is in

kg/day, milk is in kg/day, Na is in g/day, and temperature is in °C. Water consumed as part

of the diet contributes to the total water requirements; thus, diets with higher moisture

concentrations result in lower FWI.

Providing adequate access to water is critical to encourage maximal water intake. Water

should be placed near feed sources and in milking parlor return alleys, because most water is

consumed in association with feeding or after milking. For water troughs, a minimum of 5

cm of length per cow at a height of 90 cm is recommended. One water cup per 10 cows is

recommended when cows are housed in groups and given water via drinking cups or

fountains. Individual cow water intake rates are 4–15 L/min. Many cows may drink

simultaneously, especially right after milking, so trough volumes and drinking cup flow

rates should be great enough that water availability is not limited during times of peak

demand. Water troughs and drinking cups should be cleaned frequently and positioned to

avoid fecal contamination.

Poor water quality may result in reduced water consumption, with resultant decreases in

feed consumption and milk production. Several factors determine water quality. Total

dissolved solids (TDSs), also referred to as total soluble salts, is a major factor that refers to

the total amount of inorganic solute in the water.

P a g e | 28


Basic learning before starting the business

a) Mark each individual animal. b) Control the spread of disease. c) Give animals proper nutrition. d) Milk the animals frequently. e) Understand the breeding cycle. f) Plan for changes in your herd.

Mark each individual animal

Assuming that you have more than a few animals, you'll need to mark them to tell them

apart. This will help you track individual milk production and illness. Tagging is a common

method.

Control the spread of disease

Always buy disease-free animals, and keep them isolated from other animals during

transportation to your farm. Quarantining new arrivals (and animals that fall sick) is

recommended, especially if they do not have trustworthy, recent health records. Your local

government or veterinarian can give you specific advice about diseases in your area.

Equipment shared between farms can spread disease. Try to confirm where the equipment has been used and whether the animals there were healthy.

Disease-carrying ticks are a major problem for livestock. Inspect animals for ticks regularly, and keep the shed area clear of brush.

Give Animals proper nutrition

Feeding cattle and other livestock can be a complicated business. There are many different

kinds of fodder and forage plants, which provide different amounts of energy, protein,

roughage, and various nutrients. A veterinarian or experienced farmer can help you work

with the food you have available.Milk yield of a dairy animal depends on four main factors:

(a) genetic ability; (b) feeding program; (c) herd management; and (d) health. As cows

continue to improve genetically, we must also improve nutrition and management to allow

the cow to produce to her inherited potential. A good dairy feeding program must consider

the quantity fed, the suitability of the feed and how and when the feeds are offered.

Milk the animals frequently

Milk-producing animals typically need milking two or three times a day. Move the animal to

a clean location. Wash and dry your hands and the udder before milking. If you've never

P a g e | 29


milked an animal before, learn how to milk a cow or if your herd size is larger, then use the

milking machine (parlor system).

Understand the breeding cycle

You will need to breed your female animals regularly to keep them lactating as often as

possible. The cycle of breeding, calving, and weaning calves has implications for the animal's

nutrition needs, health, and of course milk production. Our guide on cows gives you the

basics, but this will vary based on species and age. Unlike farms that raise livestock for meat,

you will be calving all year round to keep milk production steady. Keeping track of where

each animal is in the cycle is vital so you can stick to a plan that keeps your income as

regular as possible.

Plan for changes in your herd

Whether to sell, slaughter, or keep an animal is one of the toughest questions for a dairy

farmer. Culling allows you to replace a low-yield animal with a higher-quality replacement,

and to increase the genetic quality of your herd. Both of these factors are important, but

performing them without a plan can add massive costs for replacement animals. Take this

into account in your business plan, and include the cost/profit of producing each male and

female calf as well.

The End

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