Dairy farming activities

Dairy Farming ActivitiesScience Centres: Freshwater and Estuaries, Te KūwahaDairy farms operate to maximise milk production.

Milk production

Dairy farms are either seasonal (spring-autumn) or town supply (year round) operations. Expansion of the dairy

industry over the last 20-30 years is largely due to the rapid conversion of dry stock and forestry land to dairying as

well as the intensification of farming methods that has led to an increase in stocking rates (cows per hectare). 

During the milking season, cows are usually milked twice a day. During milking, animal waste (dairy effluent) that

accumulates in the milking shed and yard is washed down with high pressure hoses and collected in oxidation ponds.

This effluent may also contain other elements, such as spilled milk, soil, animal feed, detergents, and other chemicals

(i.e., residue from animal health products such as drenches and antibiotics). Dairy effluent contains organic and

inorganic nutrients (especially nitrogen and phosphorous) and contaminants    (e.g., pathogens and sediment ), which

all have the potential to impact on water quality and mahinga kai if not disposed of correctly.

Dairy effluent cannot be discharged to water directly and needs to be disposed of either by:

1. Settling effluent in an oxidation pond, then spreading onto land.

2. Irrigating dairy shed effluent directly onto land.

Soil and pasture management

The greatest on-farm contribution of nutrients and pathogens into waterways comes from animal faecal matter and

urine. Animals with open access to waterways or that cross streams are especially likely to increase nutrients and

pathogens into a stream. During times of heavy rain, waste can wash into waterways via surface runoff from

paddocks or tracks and roads. Waterways become especially prone to increased nutrients from faecal matter and

fertilisers when there are no fences or riparian vegetation, which exclude stock from waterways and absorb excess

nutrients in the runoff.

Increasing the number of cows per hectare (overstocking) to maximise production may have detrimental effects on

soil structure (compaction, pugging, and trampling damage), drainage, and productivity, especially when soils are

prone to flooding and erosion around waterways, which increases runoff of sediment and associated nutrients. When

applying fertilisers, a nutrient budget may be used to calculate the impact of nutrient use and flows within a farm (as

fertiliser, effluent, supplements, or transfer by animals). The type of fertilisers used and the grasses and crops grown

will also influence overall productivity and environmental impacts.

The application of herbicides to control weeds (ragwort, thistles, and gorse) is common on all farms (dairy, dry stock,

or arable). Excess spray residue accumulates and binds to sediment particles which may end up in waterways via

runoff or by directly spraying around waterways. The toxicity of these chemical contaminants depends on the type

and quantity that are applied.

Water take (irrigation and abstraction)

Some farms rely on water take or abstraction for irrigation of pasture and crops. Irrigation systems may be permanent

or semi-permanent, including pop-up systems, fixed above ground, drip and micro systems, and pivot or laterally

moving machines.

Irrigated water should be applied to match the needs of the pasture and crops grown, otherwise any excess will be

lost to groundwater. Irrigation may increase the risk of fertiliser runoff or nutrient leaching which can lead to the

subsequent contamination of stream water, in particular nitrate leaching. However, the most damaging effect

of irrigation can be taking too much water and not leaving enough for mahinga kai habitat. Pesticides and herbicides

in waterways are often also associated with cropping or horticultural activity.

Farm management and animal health

Keeping good records enables well-informed decisions to be made during the year. Time of calving, shearing,

addressing and preventing animal health issues, proper hygiene around sheds, waste disposal, and disease control

all contribute to and reduce environmental risks.

'Hot spots' that are likely to contain concentrations of chemicals and effluent, and therefore require careful

consideration/control measures, include:

Chemical spray storage sheds.

Chemical spray equipment wash down areas.

Bulk fuel storage.

Uncontrolled dumping or land filling of chemical containers or other waste products.

Offal pits for animal carcasses and farm waste.

Silage pits.

Animals crossing streams.

Runoff of faecal matter from tracks and roads into streams.

Dipping and drenching yards.

DAIRY FARMING FOR SMALL FARMER

 1. Why do Dairy Farming ?

 1.1 Dairying is an important source of subsidiary income to small/marginal farmers and agricultural labourers. The manure from animals provides a good source of organic matter for improving soil fertility and crop yields. The gober gas from the dung is used as fuel for domestic purposes as also for running engines for drawing water from well. The surplus fodder and agricultural by-products are gainfully utilised for feeding the animals. Almost all draught power for farm operations and transportation is supplied by bullocks. Since agriculture is mostly seasonal, there is a possibility of finding employment throughout the year for many persons through dairy farming. Thus, dairy also provides employment throughout the year. The main beneficiaries of dairy programmes are small/marginal farmers and landless  labourers. A farmer can earn a gross surplus of about Rs. 12,000 per year from a unit consisting of 2 milking buffaloes. The capital investment required for purchase of 2 buffaloes is Rs. 18,223/-. Even after paying a sum of Rs. 4294/- per annum towards repayment of the loan and interest the farmer can earn a net surplus of Rs. 6000 - 9000/- approximately per year. (For details see model scheme enclosed). Even more profits can be earned depending upon the breed of animal, managerial skills and marketing potential. 1.2 According to World Bank estimates about 75 per cent of India's 940 million people are in 5.87 million villages, cultivating over 145 million hectares of cropland. Average farm size is about 1.66 hectares. Among 70 million rural households, 42 per cent operate upto 2 hectares and 37 per cent are landless households. These landless and small farmers have in their possession 53 per cent of the animals and produce 51 per cent of the milk. Thus, small/marginal farmers and land less agricultural labourers play a very important role in milk production of the country. Dairy farming can also be taken up as a main occupation around big urban centres where the demand for milk is high. 2. Scope for Dairy Farming and its National Importance. 2.1 The total milk production in the country for the year 2001-02 was estimated at 84.6 million metric tonnes. At this production, the per capita availability was to be 226 grams per day against the minimum requirement of 250 grams per day as recommended by ICMR. Thus, there is a tremendous scope/potential for increasing the milk production. The population of breeding cows and buffaloes in milk over 3 years of age was 62.6 million and 42.4 million, respectively (1992 census) 

2.2 Central and State Governments are giving considerable financial assistance for creating infrastructure facilities for milk production. The nineth plan outlay on Animal Husbandry and Dairying was Rs. 2345 crores. 3. Financial Assistance Available from Banks/NABARD for Dairy Farming. 3.1 NABARD is an apex institution for all matters relating to policy, planning and operation in the field of agricultural credit. It serves as an apex refinancing agency for the institutions providing investment and production credit. It promotes development through formulation and appraisal of projects through a well organised Technical Services Department at the Head Office and Technical Cells at each of the Regional Offices. 3.2 Loan from banks with refinance facility from NABARD is available for starting dairy farming. For obtaining bank loan, the farmers should apply to the nearest branch of a commercial or co-operative Bank in their area in the prescribed application form which is available in the branches of financing banks. The Technical Officer attached to or the Manager of the bank can help/give guidance to the farmers in preparing the project report to obtain bank loan. 3.3 For dairy schemes with very large outlays, detailed reports will have to be prepared. The items of finance would include capital asset items such as purchase of milch animals, construction of sheds, purchase of equipments etc. The feeding cost during the initial period of one/two months is capitalised and given as term loan. Facilities such as cost of land development, fencing, digging of well, commissioning of diesel engine/pumpset, electricity connections, essential servants' quarters, godown, transport vehicle, milk processing facilities etc. can be considered for loan. Cost of land is not considered for loan. However, if land is purchased for setting up a dairy farm, its cost can be treated as party's margin upto 10% of the total cost of project. 4. Scheme Formulation for bank loan. 4.1 A Scheme can be prepared by a beneficiary after consulting local technical persons of State animal husbandry department, DRDA, SLPP etc., dairy co-operative society/union/federation/commercial dairy farmers. If possible, the beneficiaries should also visit progressive dairy farmers and government/military/agricultural university dairy farm in the vicinity and discuss the profitability of dairy farming. A good practical training and

experience in dairy farming will be highly desirable. The dairy co-operative societies established in the villages as a result of efforts by the Dairy Development Department of State Government and National Dairy Development Board would provide all supporting facilities particularly marketing of fluid milk. Nearness of dairy farm to such a society, veterinary aid centre, artificial insemination centre should be ensured. There is a good demand for milk, if the dairy farm is located near urban centre. 4.2 The scheme should include information on land, livestock markets, availability of water, feeds, fodders, veterinary aid, breeding facilities, marketing aspects, training facilities, experience of the farmer and the type of assistance available from State Government, dairy society/union/federation. 4.3 The scheme should also include information on the number of and types of animals to be purchased, their breeds, production performance, cost and other relevant input and output costs with their description. Based on this, the total cost of the project, margin money to be provided by the beneficiary, requirement of bank loan, estimated annual expenditure, income, profit and loss statement, repayment period, etc. can be worked out and shown in the Project report. A format developed for formulation of dairy development schemes is given as Annexure I. 5. Scrutiny of Schemes by banks. The scheme so formulated should be submitted to the nearest branch of bank. The bank's officers can assist in preparation of the scheme for filling in the prescribed application form. The bank will then examine the scheme for its technical feasibility and economic viability. (A) Technical Feasibility - this would briefly include - 1.                  Nearness of the selected area to veterinary, breeding and milk

collection centre and the financing bank's branch.2.                  Availability of good quality animals in nearby livestock market. The

distribution of important breeds of cattle and buffaloes             are given in Annexure II. The reproductive and productive performance of cattle and buffalo breeds is given in AnnexureIII.

3.                  Availability of training facilities.4.                  Availability of good grazing ground/lands.5.                  Green/dry fodder, concentrate feed, medicines etc.

6.                  Availability of veterinary aid/breeding centres and milk marketing facilities near the scheme area.

 (B) Economic Viability - this would briefly include - 1.                  Unit Cost - The average unit cost of dairy animals for some of the

States is given in Annexure IV.2.                  Input cost for feeds and fodders, veterinary aid, breeding of animals,

insurance, labour and other overheads.3.                  Output costs i.e. sale price of milk, manure, gunny bags, male/female

calves, other miscellaneous items etc.4.                  Income-expenditure statement and annual gross surplus.5.                  Cash flow analysis.6.                  Repayment schedule (i.e. repayment of principal loan amount and

interest). Other documents such as loan application forms, security aspects, margin money requirements etc. are also examined. A field visit to the scheme area is undertaken for conducting a techno-economic feasibility study for appraisal of the scheme. Model economics for a two animal unit and mini dairy unit with ten buffaloes are given in Annexure V and VI. 6. Sanction of Bank Loan and its Disbursement. After ensuring technical feasibility and economic viability, the scheme is sanctioned by the bank. The loan is disbursed in kind in 2 to 3 stages against creation of specific assets such as construction of sheds, purchase of equipments and machinery, purchase of animals and recurring cost on purchase of feeds/fodders for the initial period of one/two months. The end use of the fund is verified and constant follow-up is done by the bank. 7. Lending terms - General 7.1 Unit Cost Each Regional Office (RO) of NABARD has constituted a State Level Unit Cost Committee under the Chairmanship of RO-in-charges and with the members from developmental agencies, commercial banks and cooperative banks to review the unit cost of various investments once in six months. The same is circulated among the banks for their guidance. These costs are only

indicative in nature and banks are free to finance any amount depending upon the availability of assets. 7.2 Margin Money NABARD had defined farmers into three different categories and where subsidy is not available the minimum down payment as shown below is collected from the beneficiaries. 

Sr.No. Category of Farmer Level of predevelopment return to resources

Beneficiary's Contribution

(a) Small Farmers Upto Rs.11000 5%

(b) Medium Farmers Rs.11001 - Rs.19250 10%

(c) Large Farmers Above Rs. 19251 15%`

 7.3 Interest Rate As per the RBI guidelines the present rate of interest to the ultimate beneficiary financed by various agencies are as under :

No. Loan Amount CB's and RRB's SLDB/SCB

(a) Upto and inclusive of Rs.25000

12% As determined by SCB/SLDB subject to minimum 12%

(b) Over Rs. 25000 and upto Rs. 2 lakhs

13.5% -do-

(c) Over Rs. 2.0 lakhs As determined by the banks

-do-

 7.4 Security Security will be as per NABARD/RBI guidelines issued from time to time. 7.5 Repayment Period of Loan Repayment period depends upon the gross surplus in the scheme. The loans will be repaid in suitable monthly/quarterly instalments usually within a period of about 5 years. In case of commercial schemes it may be extended upto 6-7 years depending on cash flow analysis.

 7.6 Insurance The animals may be insured annually or on long term master policy, where ever it is applicable. The present rate of insurance premium for scheme and non scheme animals are 2.25% and 4.0% respectively. 8. Package of Common Management Practices Recommended for Dairy FarmersModern and well established scientific principles, practices and skills should be used to obtain maximum economic benefits from dairy farming. Some of the major norms and recommended practices are as follows : I. Housing:1.                  Construct shed on dry, properly raised ground.2.                  Avoid water-logging, marshy and heavy rainfall areas.3.                  The walls of the sheds should be 1.5 to 2 meters high.4.                  The walls should be plastered to make them damp proof.5.                  The roof should be 3-4 metres high.6.                  The cattle shed should be well ventilated.7.                  The floor should be pucca/hard, even non-slippery impervious, well

sloped (3 cm per metre) and properly drained to             remain dry and clean.

8.                  Provide 0.25 metre broad, pucca drain at the rear of the standing space.

9.                  A standing space of 2 x 1.05 metre for each animal is needed.10.              The manger space should be 1.05 metre with front height of 0.5 metre

and depth of 0.25 metre.11.              The corners in mangers, troughs, drains and walls should be rounded

for easy cleaning.12.              Provide 5-10 sq. metre loaf space for each animal.13.              Provide proper shade and cool drinking water in summer.14.              In winter keep animals indoor during night and rain.15.              Provide individual bedding daily.16.              Maintain sanitary condition around shed.17.              Control external parasites (ticks, flies etc.) by spraying the pens, sheds

with Malathion or Copper sulphate solution.18.              Drain urine into collection pits and then to the field through irrigation

channels.

19.              Dispose of dung and urine properly. A gobar gas plant will be an ideal way. Where gobar gas plant is not constructed,             convert the dung alongwith bedding material and other farm wastes into compost.

20.              Give adequate space for the animals. (The housing space requirement of crossbred cattle in various             categories/age-groups is given in Annexure-VII).

 II. Selection of Animal :1.                  Immediately after release of the loan purchase the stock from a reliable

breeder or from nearest livestock market.2.                  Select healthy, high yielding animals with the help of bank's technical

officer, veterinary/animal husbandry officer of State             government/ Zilla Parishad, etc.

3.                  Purchase freshly calved animals in their second/third lactation.4.                  Before purchasing, ascertain actual milk yield by milking the animal

three times consecutively.5.                  Identify the newly purchased animal by giving suitable identification

mark (ear tagging or tattooing).6.                  Vaccinate the newly purchased animal against disease.7.                  Keep the newly purchased animal under observation for a period of

about two weeks and then mix with the general             herd.

8.                  Purchase a minimum economical unit of two milch animals.9.                  Purchase the second animal/second batch after 5-6 months from the

purchase of first animal.10.              As buffaloes are seasonal calvers purchase them during July to

February.11.              As far as possible purchase the second animal when the first animal is

in its late stage of lactation and is about to            become dry, thereby maintaining continuity in milk production vis-a-vis income. This will ensure availability of adequate             funds for maintaining the dry animals.

12.              Follow judicious culling and replacement of animals in a herd.13.              Cull the old animals after 6-7 lactations. III. Feeding of Milch Animals1.                  Feed the animals with best feeds and fodders. (Feeding schedule is

given in Anneuxre VIII).2.                  Give adequate green fodder in the ration.3.                  As far as possible, grow green fodder on your land wherever available.

4.                  Cut the fodder at the right stage of their growth.5.                  Chaff roughage before feeding.6.                  Crush the grains and concentrates.7.                  The oil cakes should be flaky and crumbly.8.                  Moisten the concentrate mixture before feeding.9.                  Provide adequate vitamins and minerals. Provide salt licks besides

addition of mineral mixture to the concentrate ration.10.              Provide adequate and clean water.11.              Give adequate exercise to the animals. Buffaloes should be taken for

wallowing daily. In case this is not possible sprinkle             sufficient water more particularly during summer months.

12.              To estimate the daily feed requirement remember that the animals consume about 2.5 to 3.0 percent of their body weight on dry         matter basis.

 IV. Milking of Animals1.                  Milk the animals two to three times a day.2.                  Milk at fixed times.3.                  Milk in one sitting within eight minutes.4.                  As far as possible, milking should be done by the same person

regularly.5.                  Milk the animal in a clean place.6.                  Wash the udder and teat with antiseptic lotions/luke-warm water and

dry before milking.7.                  Milker should be free from any contagious diseases and should wash

his hands with antiseptic lotion before each milking.8.                  Milking should be done with full hands, quickly and completely followed

by stripping.9.                  Sick cows/buffaloes should be milked at the end to prevent spread of

infection. V. Protection against Diseases 1.                  Be on the alert for signs of illness such as reduced feed intake, fever,

abnormal discharge or unusual behaviour.2.                  Consult the nearest veterinary aid centre for help if illness is

suspected.3.                  Protect the animals against common diseases.4.                  In case of outbreak of contagious disease, immediately segregate the

sick, in-contact and the healthy animals and take necessary

                disease control measures. (Vaccination schedule is given in Annexure IX).

5.                  Conduct periodic tests for Brucellosis, Tuberculosis, Johne's disease, Mastitis etc.

6.                  Deworm the animals regularly.7.                  Examine the faeces of adult animals to detect eggs of internal

parasites and treat the animals with suitable drugs.8.                  Wash the animals from time to time to promote sanitation. VI. Breeding Care 1.                  Observe the animal closely and keep specific record of its coming in

heat, duration of heat, insemination, conception and calving.2.                  Breed the animals in time.3.                  The onset of oestrus will be within 60 to 80 days after calving.4.                  Timely breeding will help achieving conception within 2 to 3 months of

calving.5.                  Breed the animals when it is in peak heat period (i.e. 12 to 24 hours of

heat).6.                  Use high quality semen preferably frozen semen of proven sires/bulls. VII. Care during Pregnancy Give special attention to pregnant cows two months before calving by providing adequate space, feed, water etc. VIII. Marketing of Milk 1.                  Marketing milk immediately after it is drawn keeping the time between

production and marketing of the milk to the minimum.2.                  Use clean utensils and handle milk in hygienic way.3.                  Wash milk pails/cans/utensils thoroughly with detergent and finally

rinse with chloride solution.4.                  Avoid too much agitation of milk during transit.5.                  Transport the milk during cool hours of the day. IX. Care of Calves 1.                  Take care of new born calf.2.                  Treat/disinfect the navel cord with tincutre of iodine as soon as it is cut

with a sharp knife.

3.                  Feed colostrum to calf.4.                  Assist the calf to suckle if it is too weak to suckle on its own within 30

minutes of calving.5.                  In case it is desired to wean the calf immediately after birth, then feed

the colostrum in bucket.6.                  Keep the calf separately from birth till two months of age in a dry clean

and well ventilated place.7.                  Protect the calves against extreme weather conditions, particularly

during the first two months.8.                  Group the calves according to their size.9.                  Vaccinate calves.10.              Dehorn the calves around 4 to 5 days of age for easy management

when they grow.11.              Dispose of extra calves not to be reared/maintained for any specific

purpose as early as possible, particularly the male calves.12.              The female calves should be properly reared.

Annexure I

FORMAT FOR SUBMISSION OF SCHEMES

1. GENERAL i) Name of the sponsoring bankii) Address of the controlling ofice sponsoring the schemeiii) Nature and objectives of the proposed schemeiv) Details of proposed investments

S.No Investment No. Of units

(a)

(b)

(c)

v) Specification of the scheme area (Name of District & Block/s) 

S.No. District Block

vi) Names of the financing bank's branches:

S.No. Name of the Branch/District

(a)

(b)

(c)

vii) Status of beneficiary/ies:        (indidivual/Partnership/Company/Corporation/Co-operative Society / Others)viii) In case of area based schemes, coverage of borrowers in weaker sections (landless labourers, small, medium & large farmers as per         NABARD's norms, SC/ST, etc.)ix) Details of borrowers profile (Not applicable to area based schemes)(a) Capability(b) Experience(c) Financial Soundness(d) Technical/Other special Qualificaitons(e) Technical/Managerial Staff and adequacy thereof 2. TECHNICAL ASPECTS : a) Location, Land and Land Development :i) Location details of the projectii) Total Area of land and its costiii) Site mapiv) Particulars of land development, fencing, gates, etc. b) Civil Structures :Detailed cost estimates along with measurements of vaious civil structure- Sheds- Store room- Milk room- Quarters, etc. c) Equipment/Plant and Machinery : i) Chaff cutterii) Silo pitiii) Milking machineiv) Feed grinder and mixerv) Milking pails/milk cansvi) Biogas plantvii) Bulk coolersviii)Equipment for manufacture of products

ix) Truck/van (price quotations for the above equipments) d) Housing : i) Type of housingii) Area requirement- Adults- Heifers (1-3 years)- Calves (less than 1 year) e) Animals : i) Proposed speciesii) Proposed breediii) Source of purchaseiv) Place of purchasev) Distance (kms.)vi) Cost of animal (Rs.) f) Production parameters : i) Order of lactationii) Milk yield (ltrs. per day)iii) Lactation daysiv) Dry daysv) Conception ratevi) Mortality(%)    - Adults    - Young stock g) Herd projection (with all assumptions) : h) Feeding : i) Source of fodder and feed - Green fodder    - Dry fodder    - Concentratesii) Fodder crop rotations    - Kharif    - Rabi    - Summer

iii) Fodder cultivation expensesiv) Requirement and costs : Quantity required (kg./day)

Cost(Rs. / Kg) Lactation Dry Period Young Stock

Green Fodder

Dry Fodder

Concentrates

 i) Breeding Facilities : i) Source :ii) Location :iii) Distance (km.) :iv) Availability of semen :v) Availability of staff :vi) Expenditure per animal/year j) Veterinary Aid : i) Sourceii) Locationiii) Distance (km.)iv) Availability of staffv) Types of facilities availablevi) If own arrangements are made -a) Employed a veterinary doctor/stockman/consultantb) Periodicity of visitc) Amount paid/visit (Rs.)vii)Expenditure per animal per year (Rs.) k) Electricity : i) Sourceii) Approval from SEBiii) Connected loadiv) Problems of power failurev) Arrangements for generator l) Water : 

i) Sourceii) Quality of wateriii) Abvailability of sufficient quantity for drinking, cleaning nad fodder productioniv) If investment has to be made, type of strucutre, design and cost m) Marketing of milk : i) Source of salesii) Place of disposaliii) Distance (km.)iv) Price realised - (Rs. per liter of milk)v) Basis of paymentvi) Periodicity of payment n) Marketing of other products : i) Animal - age    - place of sale    - price expectedii) Manure - Qty./animal    Price/unit (Rs.)iii) Empty gunny bags    - Number    - Cost/bag (Rs.) o) Beneficiary's experience : p) Comments on technical feasibility : q) Government restrictions, if any : 3. FINANCIAL ASPECTS : i) Unit Cost :

Sr.No Name of the Investment

Physical units and specification

Unit cost with component wise break-up (Rs.)

Whether approved by state level unit cost committee

Total

Ii) Down payment/margin/subsidy(Indicate source & extent of subsidy):iii) Year-wise physical & financial programme :

Year

1

Invest-

Ment

2

Physical

Units

3

Unit

Cost

(Rs.)

4

Total

Outlay

(Rs.)

5

Margin/

Subsidy

(Rs.)

6

Bank loan

(Rs.)

7

Refinance

Assistance

(Rs.)

8

Total

Iv) Financial viability (comment on the cash flow projection on a farm model/unitand enclose the same.)Particulars :a) Internal Rate of Return (IRR) :b) Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) :c) Net Present Worth (NPW) :v) Financial position of the borrowers (to be furnished in case of corporate bodies/partnership firms)a) Profitability Ratio :i) GP Ratioii) NP Ratiob) Debt Equity Ratio :c) Whether Income Tax & other tax obligations are paid upto date :d) Whether audit is upto date (enclose copies of audited financial statements for the last three years)vi) Lending Terms :i) Rate of Interest :ii) Grace Period :iii) Repayment Period :iv) Nature of Security :v) Availability of Government guarantee wherever necessary : 4. INFRASTRUCTURAL FACILITIES : a) Availability of technical staff with bank/implementing authority for monitoringb) Details of -i) technical guidanceii) training facilities

iii) Govt support/extention supportc) Tie-up arrangements with marketing agencies for loan recoveryd) Insurance -- Type of policy- Periodicity- Rate of premiume) Whether any subsidy is available, if so amount per unitf) Arrangements for supply of green fodder and cattle feed

ANNEXURE II

Cattle and Buffalo Breeds Important Characteristics/Description

Sr.No. Name Breed

Habitat/Main State

Breeding Tract Districts

Assembling Centres

Areas of demand

Remarks

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

A) CATTLE (INDIGENOUS)

1 Amrithmahal

Erstwhile Mysore State now part of Karnataka

Tumkur and Chitradurg

Erstwhile Mysore State

Karnataka and adjoining area

Draught breed

2 Dangi Maharashtra and Gujarat

Ahmednagar, Khandesh, Raigad, Nasik, Thane, Surat

Weekly markets in Ahmednagar, Nasik, Thane and West Khandesh district

Rocky ghat areas with heavy rainfall

Draught breed

3 Denoi Andhra Pradesh Karnataka and Maharashtra

Medak, Nizambad, Mahboobnagar, Adilabad Gulbarga, Bidar, Osmanabad, Nanded

Weekly cattle markets, Jatras and fairs in Bidar and adjoining districts

Bidar and adjoining districts

Draught purposse breed

4 Gir Gir Hills and forest of South Kathiawar

Junagarh, Also maintained by NDRI, Bangalore

_ Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra

Dairy purpose breed

5 Hallikar Karnataka Tumkur, Hassan &

Dodbalapur, Chickballapur,

Dharwar, North

Draught breed

Mysore Harikar, Devargudda, Chikkuvalli, Karuvalli, Chittavadgi (T.N.) North Arcot (T.N.) Hindupur, Somaghatta, Anantpur (A.P.)

Kanara, Bellary (KT) Anantur & Chittur (A.P.), Coimbatore North Arcot, Salem (T.M.)

6 Hariana Haryana and Delhi, Punjab, Rajasthan

Rohtak, Hissar, Gurgaon, Karnal, Patiala, Sangrur, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Alwar, Bharatpur Western districts

Cattle fairs at Jehazgarh, Mahim and Bhadurgarh (Rohtak dist.) Hansi & Bhiwani (Hissar dist.)

Throughout the country

Dual purpose breed

7 Kangayam Tamil Nadu Coimbatore Avanashi, Tirppur, Kannauram, Madurai Athicombu

Southern Districts of Tamil Nadu

Draught breed

8 Kankrej Gujarat Ahmedabad, Banaskantha

Ahmedabad, Radhanpur

Rajasthan, Maharashtra

9 Khillari Maharashtra Solapur, Kolhapur, Satara

Southern Districts of Maharashtra and adjoining districts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka

Draught breed

10 Krishna Valley

Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka

Watersheds of Krishna and adjoining areas of A.P. and KT

Ichalkaranji (Kolhapur), Chincahli (Gulbarga)

11 Malvi Madhya Pradesh Guna, Vidisha, Raisen Sehora, Ujjain, Indore, Dewas, Gwalior, Shivpuri, Mandsaur, Jhabus & Dhar

Agar (Shajapur) Singaj (Nimar) Sehore & Ashta (Sehore)

Draught purpose

Rajasthan Jhalwar and Kotah

Karimnagar (A.P.)

12 Nagori or Nagauri

Rajasthan Jodhpur & Nagaur

Nagaur Parbatsar (Nagpur), Balotra (Barmer), Puskar (Ajmer), Hissar, Hansi (Haryana State)

Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh

Draught purpose

13 Ongole Andhra Pradesh Ongole, Guntur, Narasaraopet, Bapatla and Nellore

Available in Ongole tract of Andhra Pradesh

- Dual Purpose

14 Rathi Rajasthan Alwar, Bharatpur, Jaipur

Alwar, Rewari (Gurgaon), Pushkar (Ajmer)

-

-

-

Dairy breed

15 Sahiwal Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, M.P., W.B.

Sahiwal (erstwhile Montgomery)

Jullundar, Gurdaspur, Amritsar, Kapurthala, Ferozepur (Punjab), NDRI, Karnal, Hissar, Anhora Durg (M.P), Lucknow, Meerut, Bihar, W.B.

- Dairy breed

16 Red Sindhi Pakisatan All parts of India

- - - Dairy breed

17 Siri Sikkim, Bhutan Darjeeling Hill Tract

Darjeeling (Brought by dealers)

- Dual purpose

18 Tharparkar Pakisatn (sind) Umarkot, Naukot, Dhoro Naro Chor

Balotra (Jodhpur), Puskar (Ajmer), Gujarat State

- Dairy breed

B) CATTLE (EXOTIC)

1 Brown Switzerland - India, - Dairy breed

Swiss Pakisatan & other Asian countries

2 Holstein Friesian

Holland Province of North Holland and West Friesland

Through out the country (crossbreds)

- Dairy breed

3 Jersy British Isles Island of Jersey

Crossbreds available in all states/U.Ts

- Dairy breed

B) BUFFALOES

1 Bhadawari Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh

Bah Tehsil in Agra Adjoining areas of Gwalior

Local markets in Breeding areas (Agra, Kanpur, Etawah, Jalaun, Jhansi)

- Dairy Breed

2 Jaffarabadi Gujarat Kathiawar and Honreli

Breeding areas of Saurashtra

- Dairy breed

3 Mehsani Gujarat Mehsana, Banaskantha, Sabarkantha tract in Gujarat

Ahmedabad, Mehsana and other places of breeding

- Dairy breed

4 Murrah Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab

Rohtak, Hissar, Karnal, Jind, Gurgaon, Western parts of Uttar Pradesh Nabha and Patiala

Rohtak, Bahadurgarh, Delhi, Jahanzgarh, Mahim, Hissar, Bhiwani, Hansi, Rewari, Ferozpur, Jirka, Nangloi, Narela

- Dairy Breed

5 Nagpuri Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh

Wardha, Nagpur Yeotmal, Adilabad, and adjoining parts

Vidarbha area of Maharashtra and Adilabad district of A.P.

- Dual purpose breed

6 Nili Ravi Punjab Ferozepur (Montogomery Pakisatan)

Ferozpur District of Punjab

- Dairy breed

7 Surti Gujarat Kheda, Through out - Dairy breed

Vadodara

(Charottar tract)

Gujarat

ANNEXURE - III

Reproductive and Productive Parameters (Traits) in Indian Cattle and Buffaloes

Sr.No Name of the breed

Age at first calving

(months)

Calving interval

(months)

Lactation yield

(kg.)

Lactation length

(days)

Dry period

(days)

Milk yield kg/day during lactat-

ion

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

i) Cattle

a) Indian breeds

1 Dangi 54 17 600 300 210 2.0

2 Deogir 48 15 1,500 300 150 5.0

3 Deoni 53 14 810 270 150 3.0

4 Gir 48 16 1,350 270 210 5.0

5 Gaolao 46 16 600 300 180 2.0

6 Hallikar 46 20 600 300 300 2.0

7 Hariana 58 13 1,200 240 150 5.0

8 Kangayam 44 16 600 240 240 2.5

9 Kankrej 48 17 1,800 360 150 5.0

10 Khilari 52 16 240 240 240 1.0

11 Ongole 40 19 630 210 360 3.0

12 Rathi 40 19 1,815 330 240 5.5

13 Red Sindhi 42 14 1,620 270 150 6.0

14 Sahiwal 40 14 1,620 270 150 6.0

15 Tharparkar 50 14 1,620 270 150 6.0

16 Umblachery 46 17 360 240 270 1.5

17 Non-descript 60 19 405 270 300 1.5

B) Crossbred Cattle (Bos indicus Fx Bostaurus M)

1 H x F 34 14 2,970 330 90 9.0

2 H x BS 29 15 2,805 330 120 8.5

3 H x J 33 13 2,850 300 90 9.5

4 G x J 25 13 2,640 330 60 8.0

5 G x F 25 13 2,160 270 120 8.0

6 RS x F 29 12 2,295 270 90 8.5

7 RS x RD 28 12 2,160 270 90 8.0

8 RS x J 29 12 1,500 300 90 5.0

9 R x J 32 12 2,700 300 60 9.0

10 T x F 33 13 2,550 300 90 8.5

11 S x F 33 14 2,400 300 120 8.0

C) Buffaloes

1 Bhadawari 50 15 1,080 270 180 4.0

2 Murrah 42 16 1,800 300 180 6.0

3 Nili-Ravi 54 16 1,950 300 180 6.5

4 Surti 44 16 1,765 330 150 5.5

5 Mehsani 50 14 1,620 270 150 6.0

6 Jaffarabadi 50 14 1,620 270 150 6.0

7 Pandharpuri 56 14 1,350 270 150 5.0

8 Marathwadi 50 14 1,015 270 150 3.5

9 Nagpuri 50 14 1,350 270 150 5.0

10 Dharwari 50 14 1,350 270 150 5.0

11 Non-descript 50 16 540 270 210 2.0

Key : H = Hariana S = Sahiwal RS = Red Sindhi

G = Gir T = Tharparkar L = Non-descript

R = Rathi F = Friesian BS = Brown Swiss

RD = Red dane J = Jersey

Annexure - IV

Unit cost of cows and buffaloes Approved by NABARD in some of the major States in India

Sr.No

State Cows Buffaloes

Unit Cost (Rs.)

Breed Yield

(litres/

day)

Unit cost (Rs.)

Breed Yield (litres / day)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 Andhra Pradesh

6,000

7500

9500

Crossbred

Crossbred

Crossbred

6

8

10

7,500

10000

-

Graded Murrah

Graded Murrah

6

8

-

2 Assam 10,000

Crossbred 7 8,500 Graded Murrah

7

3 Bihar 13,000

Crossbred 10 9,000 Graded Murrah

7-8

6,000 Indigenous 5-6 7,000 Local (improved)

5-6

4 Gujarat i) 14,000

Jersey X 8-9 i) 13,500

Surti 5.5

ii) 16,00 H.F.X 9- ii) 13,00 Mehsani 6

0 10 0

iii)

14,000

Jaffarabadi 6

5 Karnataka i) 7,300 Crossbred 6 i) 6,600 Graded Surti

5

ii) 9,700 Crossbred 8 ii) 7,800 Graded Murrah

6

iii)

10,900

Crossbred 9 iii) 9,000 Pandarpuri 7

iv)

12,100

Crossbred 10 iv) 11,000

Pure Mehsani

8

6 Madhya Pradesh

i) 9,500 Jersey X i) 7,000 Graded Murrah

6

ii) 6,500 Gir/Tharparkr/Sahiwal

8 ii) 8,250 Graded Murrah

7

7 iii) 6,000 Nagpuri 5

7 Maharashtra i) 11,200

Crossbred 6 i) 7,000 GMB/Mehsani

7

ii) 14,000

Crossbred 10 ii) 8,000 GMB/Mehsani

8

iii)

8,400 Tharparkar/ Gir/Hariana

6-7 iii)

6,000 Surti/

Jaffarbadi

6

to iv)

7,000 Nagpuri/ Dharwari

7

9,500 v) 5,000 Pandharpuri

5

vi)

6,000 6

8 West Bengal i) 9,500 Crossbred 6 - - -

ii) 12,000

Crossbred 8 - - -

9 Orissa i) 6,000 Crossbred 6 6,300 Graded Murrah

6

ii) 7,000 -do- 7

iii)

8,000 -do- 8

10 Punjab/Haryana

i) 2,700 Indigenous 5

ii) 7,950 Crossbred(J) 9 i) 7,450 Murrah 7

8,900 -do-(HF) 10 ii) 6,500 Graded Murrah

6

11 Rajasthan i) 10,400

-do- 8 11,200

Graded Murrah

7

ii) 11,700

-do- 9 9,000 Surti 6

iii)

13,000

-do- 10

12 Uttar Pradesh

10,000

Crossbred 10 11,000

Graded Murrah

8

13 Kerala 6,000 Crossbred 6 7,200 Graded Murrah

6-

6.5

8,000 Crossbred 8

14 Himachal 6,600 Crossbred 8 9,000 Graded Murrah

6

15 Tamil Nadu 8,250 Crossbred 6 9,800 Graded Murrah

6

 Annexure V Economics of two animal unit (buffaloes)

Project at a Glance

1 Unit Size : 2 Animals

2 Breed : Graded Murrah

3 State : Karnataka

4 Unit Cost (Rs.) : 18,223

5 Bank Loan (Rs.) : 15,400

6 Margin Money (Rs.) : 2,823

7 Repayment period : 5

8 Interest rate (%) : 12

9 BCR at 15% DF : 1.50:1

10 NPW at 15% DF (Rs.) : 29,187

11 IRR(%) : >50%

MODEL PROJECT FOR TWO ANIMAL UNIT(BUFFALOES)

A INVESTMENT COST

Sr.No. Items Specifications

Phy units Unit Cost

(Rs. /Unit)

Total Cost

(Rs.)

1 Cost of animals 2 8,200 16,400

2 Insurance 2 689 1,378

3 Conc. Feed (4.5 kg/day/animal for 30 days)

135 Kg 1 3.3 446

4 Total cost 18,223

5 Margin money (15% of total cost)

Say Rs. 2,733

2723

6 Bank laon (85% of total cost)

Say Rs. 15490

15500

B TECHNO ECONOMIC PARAMETERS

i) No.of milch animals 2

ii) Cost of milch animals 8,200

iii) Lactation period (days) 280

iv) Dry period (days) 150

v) Milk yield (lts./day) 7

vi) Sale price of milk (Rs./lt) 7.75

vii) Sale of manure/animal/year (Rs.) 300

viii) Insurance premium for five years (%)

8.4

ix) Veterinary aid/animal/year (Rs.) 150

x) Labour (Rs.) Family labour

xi) Cost of electricity & water (Rs./animal)

100

xii) Interest rate (%) 12

xiii Repayment period (years) 5

xiv) Income from sale of gunny bags

20 bags/tonne @ Rs. 5/bag

100

xv) Feeding schedule

S.No. Type of fodder/feed Price (Rs./kg) (Quantity in kg/day)

Lactation Dry

Period Period

a) Green fodder 0.2 25 25

b) Dry fodder 0.5 5 5

c) Concentrate 3.3 4.5 1

xvi) Animals will be purchased in two batches at an interval of 5 - 6 months

xvii) It is assumed that the expenditure on calf rearing will nullify the sale value of calf / hiefer.

xviii) Closing stock value (Rs. per animal) 4100

C LACTATION CHART

Sr.No Particulars Years

I II III IV V

i) Lactation Days

a) First batch 250 280 250 210 210

b) Second batch 180 210 210 210 210

Total 430 490 460 420 420

ii) Dry Days

a) First batch 110 80 110 150 150

b) Second batch - 150 150 150 150

Total 110 230 260 300 300

Annexure - V (Contd.)

D CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Sr.No. Particulars Years

I II III IV V

I Costs:

1 Capital cost* 17,777

2 Recurring cost

a) Feeding during lactation period

Green fodder 2,150 2,450 2,300 2,100 2,100

Dry fodder 1,075 1,225 1,150 1,050 1,050

Concentrate 6,386 7,277 6,831 6,237 6,237

Total 9,611 10,952 10,281 9,387 9,387

b) Feeding during dry period

Green fodder 550 1,150 1,300 1,500 1,500

Dry fodder 275 575 575 750 750

Concentrate 363 759 858 990 990

Total 1,188 2,484 2,733 3,240 3,240

c) Veterinary aid & breeding cover

225 300 300 300 300

d) Cost of electricity & water

150 200 200 200 200

Total 28,951 13,936 13,514 13,127 13,127

II BENEFITS

a) Sale of milk 23,328 26,583 24,955 22,785 22,785

b) Sale of Gunny bags 205 232 218 200 200

c) Sale of manure 450 600 600 600 600

d) Closing stock value 8,200

Total 23,982 27,414 25,773 23,585 31,785

III DF @15% 0.870 0.756 0.658 0.572 0.497

IV DISCOUNTED COSTS AT 15%

25,175 10,537 8,886 7,505 6,526 58,630

V DISCOUNTED BENEFITS AT 15%

20,854 20,729 16,946 13,485 15,803 87,817

VI NPW @ 15% 29,187

VII BCR @ 15% 1.50:1

VIII DF @ 50% 0.667 0.444 0.296 0.198 0.132

IX NET BENEFITS -4,969 13,479 12,259 10,458 18,658

X DISCOUNTED NET BENEFITS AT 50%

-3,313 5,990 3,632 2,066 2,457 10,833

XI IRR >50%

* excluding the capitalised expenditure on concentrated feed

E REPAYMENT SCHEDULE

Bank Loan (Rs) - 15500

Interest Rate (%) - 12

Capital recovery factor - 0.277

Year Income Expenses Gross surplus

Equated annual instalment

Net surplus

I 23,982 10,728 13,254 4,294 8,961

II 27,414 13,936 13,479 4,294 9,185

III 25,773 13,514 12,259 4,294 7,966

IV 23,585 13,127 10,458 4,294 6,165

V 23,585 13,127 10,458 4,294 6,165

Annexure VI

Economics of a mini DAIRY unitTEN ANIMAL UNIT ( BUFFALOES)

PROJECT AT A GLANCE

1 Unit size : 10 animals

2 Breed : Graded Murrah

3 State : Karnataka

4 Unit cost (Rs) : 155,030

5 Bank loan (Rs) : 131,700

6 Margin money (Rs) : 23,330

7 Repayment period (yrs) : 5

8 Interest rate (%) : 13.5

9 BCR at 15% DF : 1.53:1

10 NPW at 15% DF(Rs) : 154,403

11 IRR (%) : >50

MODEL PROJECT FOR TEN ANIMAL UNIT (BUFFALOES)

A INVESTMENT COST

S.No. Items Specifications

Phy.units Unit Cost (Rs./unit)

Total Cost (Rs.)

1 Cost of animals 10 8,200 8,200

2 Transportation cost of animals

10 300 3,000

3 Cost of construction of shed

Sq.ft. 650 55 35,750

4 Cost of Store cum office

Sq.ft. 200 100 20,000

5 Equipments (chaff cutter, milking pails, cans, technicians

10 500 5,000

6 Insurance 10 328 3,280

7 Fodder raising expenses @ Rs.3000/acre

2 3,000 6,000

8 Total cost 155,030

9 Margin money

(15% of total cost)

Say 23255

23330

10 Bank loan (85% of total cost)

Say 131776

131700

 ANNEXURE VI (contd)B TECHNO ECONOMIC PARAMETERS 

i Animals will be purchased in two batches at an interval of 5-6 months

ii Second/Third lactation animals within 30 days of calving will be purchased in first year

iii No. of acres of irrigated land for fodder production considered in the project. Green fodder will be produced on the farm. Fodder production expenses is considered in the cash flow analysis. During first year only two seasons are considered.

2

iv In the first year the fodder production expenses are capitalised for one season (Rs. per acre per season) and manure is utilised for fodder production

3,000

v It is assumed that the expenditure on calf rearing will nullify the income realised from its sale. However, the heifer will be retained on the farm and the old animals will be sold out.

vi No. of milch animals 10

vii Cost of milch animals 8,200

viii Transportation cost (Rs. per milch animal including followers)

300

ix Civil structures:

a) Shed (sft. per milch animal)

b) Store and office (sft)

65

200

x Cost of construction

a) Shed (Rs. per sft)

b) Store and office

55

100

xi Cost of equipment (Rs per milch animals) 500

xii Lactation period (days) 280

xiii Dry period (days) 150

xiv Milk yield (lts/day) 7

xv Sale price of milk (Rs/lt) 7.75

xvi Income from sale of gunny bags (20 bags/tonne @ Rs.5/bag)

100

xvii Expenditure on dry fodder for dry and lactation period requirement (kg/day)

Cost (Rs/kg)

5

0.5

xviii Expenditure on concentrates

a) Requirement (kg/day)

4.5

1

Lactation period

Dry period

b) Cost (Rs/kg)

3.3

xix Veterinary aid/animal/year (Rs) 150

xx Labour (Rs./month) 900

xxi Insurance premium (%) 4

xxii Cost of electricity, water & other overheads (Rs/animal)

200

xxiii Depreciation(%)

a) Sheds

b) Equipment

5

10

xxiv Value of closing stock 4,100

xxv Interest rate(%) 13.5

xxvi Repayment period (years) 5

ANNEXURE VI (Contd.)

C. Lactation Chart

S.No Particulars I II Years

III

IV V

I Lactation Days

a) First batch 1,250 1,400 1,250 1,050 1,050

b) Second batch 900 1,050 1,050 1,050 1,050

Total 2,150 2,450 2,300 2,100 2,100

II Dry days

a) First batch 550 400 550 750 750

Second batch - 750 750 750 750

Total 550 1,150 1,300 1,500 1,500

D CASH FLOW ANALYSIS

Sr.No Particulars I II Year

III

IV IV

I Costs

1 Capital cost* 145,750

2 Recurring cost

a) Green fodder raising expenses

12,000 18,000 18,000 18,000 18,000

b) Feeding during lactation period

Dry fodder 5,375 6,125 5,750 5,250 5,250

Concentrate 31,928 36,383 34,155 31,185 31,185

Total 37,303 42,508 39,905 36,435 36,435

c) Feeding during dry period

Dry Fodder 1,375 2,875 3,250 3,750 3,750

Concentrate 1,815 3,795 4,290 4,950 4,950

Total 3,190 6,670 7,540 8,700 8,700

d) Veterinary aid & breeding cover

1,125 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500

e) Cost of electricity & water

1,500 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000

f) Insurance 3,280 3,280 3,280 3,280 3,280

g) Labour cost 10,800 10,800 10,800 10,800 10,800

Total 188,868 52,678 50,945 49,503 48,635

II BENEFITS

a) Sale of milk 116,637 132,912 124,775 113,925 113,925

b) Sale of Gunny 1,023 1,218 1,165 1,095 1,095

bags

c) Depreciated value of sheds

- 26,813

d) Depreciated value of equipments

2,500

e) Closing stock value

41,000

Total 117,660 134,130 125,940 115,020 185,333

III DF @ 15% 0.87 0.76 0.66 0.57 0.50

IV DISCOUNTED COSTS AT 15%

164,233 39,832 33,497 28,303 24,180 290,045

V DISCOUNTED BENEFITS AT 15%

102,313 101,422 82,808 65,763 92,143 444,448

VI NPW @ 15% 154,403

VII BCR @ 15% 1.53:1

VIII DF @ 50% 0.667 0.444 0.296 0.198 0.132

IX NET BENEFITS -71,208 81,453 74,995 65,518 136,698

X DISCOUNTED NET BENEFITS AT 50%

47,472 36,201 22,221 12,942 18,001 41,893

XI IRR >50

* excludes the capitalised cost for fodder raising for three months and insurance for one year

E REPAYMENT SCHEDULE:

Bank Loan (Rs) - 131700

Interest rate(%) - 13.5

Capital recovery factor - 0.287

(in Rs.)

Year Income Expenses Gross surplus

Equated annual installment

Net surplus

I 117,660 33,838 83,823 37,798 46,025

II 134,130 52,678 81,453 37,798 43,655

III 125,940 50,945 74,995 37,798 47,197

IV 115,020 49,503 65,518 37,798 27,720

V 115,020 48,635 66,385 37,798 28,587

Annexure - VII

Housing Space Requirements for Crossbred cattle

Age-group Manger Space (mtr.)

Standing or covered area (sq.mtr.)

Open Space(sq.mtr.)

4-6 months 0.2-0.3 0.8-1.0 3.0-4.0

6-12 months 0.3-0.4 1.2-1.6 5.0-6.0

1-2 years 0.4-0.5 1.6-1.8 6.0-8.0

Cows 0.8-1.0 1.8-2.0 11.0-12.0

Pregnant cows 1.0-1.2 8.5-10.0 15.0-20.0

Bulls* 1.0-1.2 9.0-11.0 20.0-22.0

*To be housed individually

Annexure - VIII

Feeding Schedules for Dairy Animals

(Quantity in Kgs.)

S.No. Type of animal Feeding during

Green Fodder

Dry Fodder Concentrate

1 2 3 4 5 6

(A) CROSSBRED COW

a) 6 to 7 litres milk per day

Lactation days

Dry days

20 to 25

15 to 20

5 to 6

6 to 7

3.0 to 3.5

0.5 to 1.0

b) 8 to 10 litres milk per day

Lactation days

Dry days

25 to 30

20 to 25

4 to 5

6 to 7

4.0 to 4.5

0.5 to 1.0

(B) BUFFALOES

a) Murrah (7 to 8 litres milk per day)

Lactation days

Dry days

25 to 30

20 to 25

4 to 5

5 to 6

3.5 to 4.0

0.5 to 1.0

b) Mehasana (6 to 7 litres milk per day)

Lactation days Dry days

15 to 20

10 to 15

4 to 5

5 to 6

3.0 to 3.5

0.5 to 1.0

c) Surti (5 to 6 litrs milk per day)

Lactation days

Dry days

10 to 15

5 to 10

4 to 5

5 to 6

2.5 to 3.0

0.5 to 1.0

Annexure - IX

Programme for vaccination of farm animals against contagious diseases

Sr.

No.

Name of disease

Type of vaccine

Type of vaccination

Duration of immunity

Remarks

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 Anthrax (Gorhi) Spore vaccine Once in an year premonsoon vaccination

One season -

2 Black Quarter (Sujab)

Killed vaccine - do - - do - -

3 Haemorrhagic Septicaemia (Galghotu)

Ocladjuvant vaccine

- do - - do - -

4 Brucellosis (Contagious abortion)

Cotton strain 19 (live bacteria)

At about 6 months of age

3 or 4 calvings

To be done only in infected herds

5 Foot and Mouth disease (Muhkhar)

Polyvalent tissue culture vaccine

At about 6 months of age with booster dose 4 months later

One season After vaccination repeat vaccination every year in Oct./Nov.

6 Rinderpest (Mata)

Lapinised avianised vaccine for exotic and crossbred catte, caprinised vaccine for zebu cattle.

At about 6 months of age

Life long It is better to repeat after 3 to 4 years

 . IntroductionDairying is an important source of subsidiary income to small/marginal farmers and agricultural labourers. The manure from animals provides a good source of organic matter for improving soil fertility and crop yields. The gobar gas from the dung is used as fuel for domestic purposes as also for running engines for drawing water from well. The surplus fodder and agricultural by-products are gainfully utilised for feeding the animals. Almost all draught power for farm operations and transportation is supplied by bullocks. Since agriculture is mostly seasonal, there is a possibility of finding employment throughout the year for many persons through dairy farming. Thus, dairy also provides employment throughout the year. The main beneficiaries of dairy programmes are small/marginal farmers and landless labourers.

2. Scope for Dairy Farming and its National Importance.The total milk production in the country for the year 2008-09 was estimated at 108.5 million metric tonnes and the demand is expected to be 180 million tonnes by 2020. To achieve this demand annual growth rate in milk production has to be increased from the present 2.5 % to 5% .  Thus, there is a tremendous scope/potential for increasing the milk production through profitable dairy farming.

3.Financial Assistance Available from Banks/NABARD for Dairy Farming.

3.1. Loan from banks with refinance facility from NABARD is available for starting dairy farming.For obtaining bank loan, the farmers should apply to the nearest branch of a commercial bank, regional rural bank or co-operative bank in their area in the prescribed application form which is available in the branches of financing banks.

3.2.  For dairy schemes with very large outlays, detailed project reports will have to be prepared.The items of finance would include capital asset items such as purchase of milch animals, construction of sheds, purchase of equipments etc. The feeding cost during the initial period of one/two months is capitalised and given as term loan. Cost towards land development, fencing, digging of well, commissioning of diesel engine/pumpset, electricity connections, essential servants' quarters, godown, transport vehicle, milk processing facilities etc. can be considered for loan. Cost of land is not considered for loan.

4.Scheme Formulation for bank loan

4.1 A Scheme can be prepared by a beneficiary after consulting local technical persons of State Animal Husbandry Department, DRDA, Dairy Co-operative Society / Union / Federation / commercial dairy farmers.  If possible, the beneficiaries should also visit progressive dairy farms and government / military / agricultural university dairy farms in the vicinity and discuss the profitability of dairy farming. A good practical training and experience in dairy farming will be highly desirable. The dairy co-operative societies, if existing in the villages would provide all supporting facilities particularly for marketing of fluid milk. Nearness of dairy farm to such a society, veterinary aid centre, artificial insemination centre should be ensured. There is a good demand for milk, if the dairy farm is located near urban centre.

4.2 The scheme should include information on land, livestock markets,availability of water, feeds, fodder, veterinary aid, breeding facilities, marketing aspects, training facilities, experience of the farmer and the type of assistance available from State Government, dairy society/union/federation.

4.3 The scheme should also include information on the number and types of animals to be purchased, their breed, production performance, cost and other relevant input and output costs with their description.  Based on this, the total cost of the project, margin money to be provided by the beneficiary, requirement of bank loan, estimated annual expenditure, income, profit and loss statement, repayment period, etc. can be worked out and shown in the Project report. A format developed for formulation of project report for a dairy farm is given as Annexure I.

5.Scrutiny of Schemes by banks.The scheme so formulated should be submitted to the nearest branch of the bank. The bank's officer can assist in preparation of the scheme or filling in the prescribed application form. The bank will then examine the scheme for its technical feasibility and economic viability.

(A) Technical Feasibility - this would briefly include -1. Nearness of the selected area to veterinary, breeding and milk collection centre and the financing bank's branch.2. Availability of good quality animals in nearby livestock market3. Availability of training facilities.4.Availability of good grazing ground/lands.5.Availability of Green/dry fodder, concentrate feed, medicines etc.6.Availability of veterinary aid / breeding centres and milk marketing facilities near the scheme area.

(B) Economic Viability - this would briefly include - 1. Unit Cost 2. Input cost for feed and fodder, veterinary aid, breeding of animals, insurance, labour and other overheads. 3.Output costs i.e. sale price of milk, manure, gunny bags, male/female calves, other miscellaneous items etc.  4.Income-expenditure statement and annual gross surplus. 5.Cash flow analysis. 6. Repayment schedule (i.e. repayment of principal loan amount and interest). Other documents such as loan application form, security aspects, margin money requirements etc. are also examined. A field visit to the scheme area is undertaken for conducting a techno-economic feasibility study for appraisal of the scheme.

6.Sanction of Bank Loan and its Disbursement.After ensuring technical feasibility and economic viability, the scheme is sanctioned by the bank. The loan is disbursed in kind in 2 to 3 stages against creation of specific assets such as construction of sheds, purchase of equipments and machinery, purchase of animals and recurring cost on purchase of feeds/fodders for the initial period of one/two months. The end use of the funds is verified and constant follow-up is done by the bank.

7.Lending terms - General

7.1Outlay Outlay of the project depends on the local conditions, unit size and the components included in the project. Prevailing market prices may be considered to arrive at the outlay.

7.2 Margin Money: Margin depends on the category of the borrowers and range from 5 to 25%.

7.3 Interest Rate for ultimate borrower :Banks are free to decide the rates of interest within the overall guidelines. However, for working out the financial viability and bankability of the model projects we have assumed the rate of interest as 12 % p.a.

7.4 SecuritySecurity will be as per NABARD/RBI guidelines issued from time to time.

7.5 Repayment period of loanRepayment period depends upon the gross surplus in the scheme.  The loan will be repaid in suitable monthly/quarterly instalments usually within a period of five to seven years.

7.6InsuranceThe animals and capital assets may be insured annually or on long term master policy, where ever it is applicable.  A model project with 10 buffaloes is given as Annexure II. This is indicative and the applicable input and output costs as also the parameters observed at the field level may be incorporated.

Annexure IFORMAT FOR PROJECT REPORT PREPARATION - DAIRY FARM

1. GENERALi) Nature and objectives of the proposed scheme ii) Details of proposed investments iii) Specification of the project area iv) Name of the financing bank branch v) Status of beneficiary:(individual/Partnership/Company/Corporation/Co-operative Society / Others)vi) Details of borrowers profile(a) Capability(b) Experience(c) Financial Soundness(d) Technical/Other special Qualifications(e) Technical/Managerial Staff and adequacy thereof

2. TECHNICAL ASPECTS :a) Location, Land and Land Development :i) Location details of the projectii) Total Area of land and its costiii) Site mapiv) Particulars of land development, fencing, gates, etc.

b) Civil Structures :Detailed cost estimates along with measurements of various civil structures- Sheds- Store room- Milk room- Quarters, etc.

c) Equipment/Plant and Machinery :i) Chaff cutterii) Silo pitiii) Milking machineiv) Feed grinder and mixerv) Milking pails/milk cansvi) Biogas plantvii) Bulk coolersviii)Equipment for manufacture of productsix) Truck/van (price quotations for the above equipments)

d) Housing :i) Type of housingii) Area requirement- Adults- Heifers (1-3 years)- Calves (less than 1 year)

e) Animals :i) Proposed speciesii) Proposed breediii) Source of purchaseiv) Place of purchasev) Distance (km.)vi) Cost of animal (Rs.)

f) Production parameters :i) Order of lactationii) Milk yield (ltrs. per day)iii) Lactation daysiv) Dry daysv) Conception ratevi) Mortality(%)- Adults- Young stock

g) Herd projection (with all assumptions) :

h) Feeding :i) Source of fodder and feed - Green fodder- Dry fodder- Concentratesii) Fodder crop rotations- Kharif- Rabi- Summeriii) Fodder cultivation expensesiv) Requirement and costs :

Quantity required (kg./day)

Cost(Rs. / Kg) Lactation Dry Period Young StockGreen FodderDry FodderConcentrates

i) Breeding Facilities :i) Source :ii) Location :iii) Distance (km.) :iv) Availability of semen :v) Availability of staff :vi) Expenditure per animal/year

j) Veterinary Aid :i) Source ii) Location iii) Distance (km.)iv) Availability of labour and other staffv) Types of facilities availablevi) If own arrangements are made -a) Employed a veterinary doctor/stockman/consultantb) Periodicity of visitc) Amount paid/visit (Rs.)vii)Expenditure per animal per year (Rs.)

k) Electricity :i) Source ii) Approval from SEBiii) Connected loadiv) Problems of power failurev) Arrangements for generator

l) Water :i) Sourceii) Quality of water

iii) Availability of sufficient quantity for drinking, cleaning and fodder productioniv) If investment has to be made, type of structure, design and cost

m) Marketing of milk :i) Source of salesii) Place of disposaliii) Distance (km.)iv) Price realised - (Rs. per liter of milk)v) Basis of paymentvi) Periodicity of payment

n) Marketing of other products :i) Animal - age - place of sale- price expectedii) Manure - Qty./animalPrice/unit (Rs.)iii) Empty gunny bags- Number- Cost/bag (Rs.)

o) Beneficiary's experience :

p) Comments on technical feasibility :

q) Government restrictions, if any :

3. FINANCIAL ASPECTS :

i) Project Cost

Sr. No.

Item Physical Unit and Specification Cost  (Rs.)

Capital Costs

Total Capital Costs(A)Recurring Costs

Total Recurring Costs (B)

Total Project Cost (A+B)

ii) Down payment/margin/subsidy (Indicate source & extent of subsidy):

iii) Financial viability (comment on the cash flow projection on a farm model/unit and enclose the same.)Particulars :a) Internal Rate of Return (IRR) :b) Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) :c) Net Present Worth (NPW) :

iv) Financial position of the borrowers (to be furnished in case of corporate bodies/partnership firms)a) Profitability Ratio :i) GP Ratio ii) NP Ratiob) Debt Equity Ratio :c) Whether Income Tax & other tax obligations are paid upto date :d) Whether audit is upto date (enclose copies of audited financial statements for the last three years)

v) Lending Terms :i) Rate of Interest :ii) Grace Period :iii) Repayment Period :iv) Nature of Security :

v) Availability of Government guarantee wherever necessary :

4. INFRASTRUCTURAL FACILITIES :a) Availability of technical staff with bank/implementing authority for monitoringb) Details of -i) technical guidanceii) training facilitiesiii) Govt. support /extension supportc) Tie-up arrangements with marketing agencies for loan recoveryd) Insurance -- Type of policy- Periodicity- Rate of premiume) Whether any subsidy is available, if so amount per unitf) Arrangements for supply of green fodder and cattle feed

Model Unit Cost and Economics of a 10 Buffalo Unit

A. Project Cost Rs.

Cost of milch animals including transportation cost : 330000

Cost of construction of shed for adult animals : 60000

Cost of construction of shed for calves : 20000

Cost of chaff cutter : 50000

Cost of equipment : 10000

Capital cost : 470000

Cost of concentrate feed for first batch for first month : 4800

Cost of fodder cultivation in 2 acres : 9000

Insurance of first batch of milch animals : 16000

Recurring cost : 29800

Total cost : 499800

or say : 500000

Margin (15%) : 75000

Bank Loan : 425000

B. Techno economic parameters

Type of Animal : Graded Murrah Buffalo

No. of Animals : 10

Cost of Animal (Rs./animal) : 32000

Transportation Cost/Animal : 1000

Average Milk Yield (litre/day) : 8

Floor space (sqft) per adult animal : 60

Floor space (sqft) per calf : 20

Cost of construction per sqft (Rs.) : 100

Cost of chaff cutter (power operated) (Rs.) : 50000

Cost of equipment per animal (Rs.) : 1000

Cost of fodder cultivation (Rs./acre/season) : 4500

Insurance premium (% per annum) : 5

Veterinary aid/animal/ year (Rs.) : 250

Cost of concentrate feed (Rs./kg) : 8

Cost of dry fodder (Rs./kg) : 1.50

No. of labourers : 1

Salary of labourer per month (Rs.) : 3000

Cost of electricity and water/animal/year (Rs.) : 150

Margin (%) : 15

Rate of interest (%) : 12

Repayment period (years) : 7

Selling price of milk/litre (Rs./kg) : 16.50

Sale price of gunny bags (Rs. per bag) : 10

Lactation days : 270

Dry days : 150

Freshly calved animals in 1st or 2nd lactation are purchased in two batches of five animals each at an interval of 5 to 6 months.

Cost of rearing calves not considered as it will be nullified by their sale value or retention value. Fodder cultivation considered in two acres and working capital for one crop / season considered. Two crops

considered per year.

Manure utilised for fodder cultivation.Feeding Schedule Per Day

Lactation Dry

Price (Rs.) Qty. (kg) Cost Per Day(Rs.)

Qty. (kg) Cost Per Day(Rs.)

Concentrate Feed 8.00 4 32.00 1 8.00

Green Fodder Home grown 25 0.00 20 0.00

Dry Fodder 1.50 4 6.00 5 7.50

Total 38.00 15.50

Lactation Chart

Years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Lactation Days 2100 2425 2425 2425 2200 2425 2425

Dry Days 625 1225 1225 1425 1450 1225 1075

Gunny Bags available for sale 171 208 208 196 195 200 195

C.  Economics

Particulars Years

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Sale of Milk 277200 320100 320100 293700 290400 320100 320100

Sale of Gunny bags 1710 2080 2080 1960 1950 2000 1950

Total 278910 322180 322180 295660 292350 322100 322050

Cost of feeding during lactation 79800 92150 92150 84550 83600 92150 92150

Cost of feeding during dry period 9690 18990 18990 22090 22480 18990 16660

Cost of fodder cultivation 18000 18000 18000 18000 18000 18000 18000

Veterinary aid and breeding charges 2500 2500 2500 2500 2500 2500 2500

Labour charges 36000 36000 36000 36000 36000 36000 36000

Electricity and misc. charges 750 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500 1500

Insurance charges 16000 16000 16000 16000 16000 16000 16000

Total 162740 185140 185140 180640 180080 185140 182810

Surplus 145970 137040 137040 115020 112270 136960 139240

D. Calculation of BCR and IRR

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Capital Costs 470000

Recurring Cost 162740 185140 185140 180640 180080 185140 182810

Total Costs 632740 185140 185140 180640 180080 185140 182810

Benefit 278910 322180 322180 295660 292350 322100 322050

Net Benefit -353830 137040 137040 115020 112270 136960 139240

PW Costs @ 15% 1153513

PW Benefits @ 15% 1272701

NPW 119187.8

B.C. Ratio 1.10 : 1

I.R.R. (%) 28.66

E. Repayment schedule

Year Loan Outstanding Gross Surplus Interest Principal Total Repayment Surplus

1 425000 145970 51000 51200 102200 43770

2 373800 137040 44856 51044 95900 41140

3 322756 137040 38731 57169 95900 41140

4 265587 115020 31870 48630 80500 34520

5 216957 112270 26035 52565 78600 33670

6 164392 136960 19727 76173 95900 41060

7 88219 139240 10586 88219 98805 40435

Introduction, Background, Planning and Housing

Gordon King, Department of Animal & Poultry Science, University of Guelph

Perhaps 11,000 or 12,000 years ago humans first domesticated small ruminants as a convenient means of meeting immediate needs for food and eventually with additional contributions toward clothing and transport. Exploitation of animals for dairy purposes was a much later innovation. Mammalian females usually produce only sufficient milk for their own offspring and resist actively

whenever others attempt to obtain some. Somewhere back in antiquity farmers found they could obtain small amounts of milk from lactating females after natural suckling stimulated the "milk-let-down" reflex. Animal domestication and selection progressed to the point where the sight, smell and sound of the young animal was sufficient to initiate this reflex in a few and later in more females. Throughout most of human history, however, dairy products remained rare and expensive, available only during very limited seasons of the year as a secondary output from dual-purpose animals.

We now know that the "milk-let-down" reflex is a conditioned response that farmers have exploited since at least the time of the Sumarian culture (circa 3,000 BCE). Over a considerable period and through a process of gradual adaptation and selection, more females were conditioned to let-down milk in response to a variety of auditory sounds and tactile sensations, eventually even in the absence of their young. Thus, we now have breeds of cattle, buffalo, goats and sheep in which the let-down reflex requires only the mildest environmental stimuli. This behavioral change occurred in conjunction with selection for greater production so dairy breeds now yield much more milk than would be necessary for nutrition of their offspring. Dairy products eventually became a staple food in many cultures, providing opportunity for an additional livestock commodity and the future development of specialized production systems.

The major breeds of dairy cattle found on specialized dairy farms throughout much of the world are Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Gurnsey, Jersey and Holstein, with the latter predominating in many regions. Background information on these and many other breeds is available from the Department of Animal Science at Oklahoma State University.

World Milk Production, 1996

Metric tonnes x 106

Cow milk 472

Buffalo milk 51

Goat milk 10

Sheep milk 7.5

Camel milk 1.3

Very small quantities from mares & yaks. FAOSTAT Database, 1996.

General Management Planning For Dairy Herds

As pointed out in the section covering Animals and Environments, all living organisms receive and can respond to stimuli. Anything other than the very mildest of stimuli results in responses in the recipient animal. In most instances even a mild stimulus produces stress and provokes a physiological response. Animals usually adapt to almost all stress and maintain internal body conditions within normal ranges. High milk production, like world class athletic performance, demands near maximum function from all body systems. Such intense activity would undoubtedly be somewhat stressful. However, human competitors seem to derive more gratification than suffering from their exertions. Certainly, human attitudes and responses should not be directly translated into animal terms but we have no factual basis to equate high performance by any livestock with discomfort or abuse. Perhaps an appropriate goal for both athletic trainers and individuals supervising high producing animals would be to devise programs that prevent stress from becoming distress. On dairy farms this implies appropriate housing, feeding, milking, mating and disease prevention procedures.

A large proportion of the production depressing problems encountered in dairy herds result from management deficiencies. Many of these can be avoided through sound planning and conscientious attention to detail but this will not happen if just left to chance. The initial step in planning a new or reorganizing an existing livestock enterprise should be the establishment of a production goal that is set high enough to provide challenge, but low enough to be achievable. Whenever herds produce for commercial markets, this goal should represent the projected value of output that

would be sufficient to exceed all predicted fixed and variable operating costs likely to be incurred through operation of the unit and to provide a reasonable profit. Once this is decided herd operators should consult with their veterinarians and other advisors to devise an entire series of specific objectives, covering each step in the production process, that must be attained to have reasonable expectations of meeting the output goal. These should include projected age at first calving, average productivity for females in various age groups, acceptable somatic cell counts, desirable reproductive performance and the replacement rate. Other more specific objectives might be to keep the percentage of females with clinical or subclinical mastitis, prolonged postpartum acyclicity, reproductive problems, dystocia or other clinical diseases below a reasonable number. Through this process a series of acceptable minimum standards can be described for each phase of the operation. These represent the best current estimates of where output returns will be affected so they may no longer cover input costs, indicating corrective actions are necessary.

The adoption of a positive animal identification method and a simple but comprehensive recording system are important components of the planning exercise. Current resources must be examined to determine if these are adequate or require additional supplementation to provide a reasonable expectation of reaching the output goal. Existing stock must be of sufficient quantity and quality to produce the anticipated yield or replacements must be procured. The physical facility should also be assessed to determine if this is sufficient in its present form or if modifications are needed to allow efficient production. Attention must be given to available labor, deciding whether the current staff are qualified and adequate.

Once the resources have been evaluated and judged acceptable in their existing or modified form, a specific operating system can be formulated. Attention must be paid to all aspects of animal related activities such as selection, feeding, mating, parturition and disease prevention. The nutrition program should cover both the quantity and quality of feed for animals of various ages and production stages in conjunction with regular monitoring through condition scoring. Procedures for disease prevention, sanitation and monitoring udder health, estrous detection, mating, fertility monitoring, pregnancy checking and parturition must be detailed with specific responsibilities assigned to individuals who are held accountable for performance. A series of meaningful but achievable production-related bonuses provide excellent incentives to motivate both managers and animal attendants to do their best at all times

A Generalized Dairy Production Sequence

A complete dairy production sequence involves a number of stages including:

i) heifers growing to reach sexual maturity

ii) mating and conception to initiate pregnancy

iii) progression through gestation

iv) parturition which initiates lactation

v) the actual lactation during which the cow is remated

vi) a dry period to prepare for the next lactation

The main goal of any dairy herd is to produce milk as conveniently and economically as possible. Since the bovine gestation period is nine months long and cows require a postpartum recovery period of several months before initiating another pregnancy, it is convenient to plan around a yearly calving interval. Ideally, cows would lactate for about ten months followed by a two month dry period, as illustrated in the accompanying figure. They should be remated successfully during the first third of lactation, progress through another gestation and calve again to initiate another lactation. However, even with reasonable management, a substantial number of animals fail to conceive as anticipated so calving intervals exceed twelve months.

Failure to achieve a twelve month calving interval is not disastrous since almost all improved dairy cows produce reasonable quantities of milk for longer than ten months. Thus, although daily yields are considerably below peak amounts, they still return something over feed and maintenance costs. The actual calving interval for most herds with reasonable standards of management will usually range between 12.5 and 15 mo. Once the interval extends beyond this duration, most cows in the herd spend too much time in the lower portions of the lactation curve where the margin over feed costs is minimal or even negative. Also, in such instances, the average milk and offspring production per day of herd life is lower.

Dairy farmers seek consistently for methods to improve production efficiency (milk per unit of feed or per hectare of land cultivated) since, with high efficiency, the nutrients used for maintenance constitute a smaller proportion of the total intake. This requires close attention to the composition of diet for each production group, plus the method and frequency of feeding. Various procedures exist which are reported to enhance milk production (see following table). Each must be evaluated for convenience, cost effectiveness and effect on animals and animal attendants before any are adopted.  

Production Enhancing Procedure % increase in yield

Proper prestimulation (40 - 60") 5 - 10

Stripping 6 - 9

Three times milking 12 - 20

Four times milking 15 - 25

Extended lighting 5 - 10

rbST 5 - 20

Rumensin 5 - 10

Dairy producers should establish an operational plan for each phase that, if exercised properly, provides a reasonable chance of achieving the production goals. This involves:

1. assigning specific responsibilities to individuals for each key area and insuring the people understand their duties and that they will be held accountable for performance.

2. formulating a set of minimally acceptable standards3. initiating a performance monitoring system4. deciding how frequently the performance will be evaluated5. generating a mechanism for initiating corrective action as necessary

Suggestions for minimally acceptable standards (herd goals):Production:

sufficient size and maturity to breed by 15 mo of age first calving, 24 - 25.5 mo of age standards for each lactation age (individual preferences) breeding and replacement policies (individual preferences)

Milking:

routine (must match facility) drying off procedure (individual preferences) sampling for somatic-cell-counts (< 200,000)

Health: - work with DVM with particular attention to

sanitation vaccinations routine examinations udder health mortality, birth to first calving < 5% cow mortality < 2%

Reproduction:

mean interval to first AI, < 75 days estrus detection rate, 55 to 90 days, > 75% of eligible cows return detection rate, 15 to 30 days post mating, > 75% pregnancy rate to first AI, 50% services per pregnancy, < 2 calving interval, < 14 mo

days open, < 135

View a typical life history for a dairy cow.

Housing for Dairy Cattle

The only absolutely essential inputs necessary for dairying are a lactating female and some sort of container to hold her milk. In practice, however, the requirements are almost always substantially more elaborate.

Some climates allow almost totally pasture based dairying with little or no need for shelter. In semi-arid, tropical regions it is only necessary to provide protection from severe solar radiation or, occasionally, from flooding during rainy seasons. In contrast, most of Canada, like many other temperate climate regions, experiences severe winter cold. Thus, dairy cattle may be allowed to graze on pasture during late spring, summer and part of the fall, but are then confined during the colder months. Although this mixture of grazing and confinement is still common, some herds are confined totally throughout the entire year.

Because natural conditions seldom maintain cattle within their comfort zones throughout all seasons of the year., shelters are usually necessary to protect animals from inclement weather. Appropriate confinement facilities protect both the animals and animal attendants from temperature extremes and potentially hazardous conditions. To accomplish this all animal holding units should provide for supervision and ease of handling during at all times, including feeding, milking, breeding, parturition and health protection activities. In addition, any confinement facility must be constructed and operated to meet the legal requirements for preservation of product quality and to ensure that animals are always treated humanely.

The current economic conditions in many regions compel livestock producers to reduce production expenses wherever possible. Since conventional dairy barnsrepresent substantial fixed cost for there initial construction, for carrying charges and for depreciation, dairy operators who intend to replace existing or add additional facilities seek for less expensive alternatives. In temperate climate regions most new

constructions are now modified pole, arched steel or fabric covered enclosures rather than the traditional barn with extensive feed storage and handling space built above a heavily reinforced livestock stable. Confinement housing can be in tie stall barns where neck chains or collars restrain each cow in her own space for most or all of the day and night. Alternately, cows might be housed in free stall barns or loose housing units where animals can move about in the passage or exercise areas and enter into comfort stalls or resting areas whenever they choose.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Tie Stall HousingAdvantages Disadvantages

cleaner cows tying and untying difficulties

individual attention for all animals reduced opportunity for exercise

readily mechanized labor intensive if not mechanized

comfortable for most chores stooping to milk

economical and practical, particularly for smaller herds

less opportunity for choice, more criticism from animal welfare groups

Advantages and Disadvantages of Free Stall HousingAdvantages Disadvantages

economical operating costs expensive construction costs

readily mechanized less individual attention

animals exercised regularly more competition

some flexibility in organizing different management-feeding groups

dirtier cows if improperly designed or operated

Most livestock constraint facilities are built for the convenience of human operators rather than for the benefit of animals under their care. Free-stall housing for dairy cattle can be an exception, allowing the animal occupants choice to move freely between resting, feeding and watering areas. Particular consideration must be given to the milking area; footing; manger and watering space; stall construction, size and

bedding material; manure handling and facilities for moving animals. Attention to proper design, construction and daily operation should provide a minimal stress environment for healthy, clean and productive cows. Check out the Dairy Management Factsheet from the University of Alberta for additional ideas on free-stall design and bedding.

Additional housing, either combined with or separated from the primary facility for keeping the milking cows, is necessary for females at calving time, for young calves (either indoor or outdoor), for growing heifers and for dry cows. Again these units must be suited to the climatic conditions prevalent in the region so they protect animals from extremes of both heat and cold.

Special precautions must be afforded to very young calves since they do not yet have functional rumens so do not generate the large amounts of body hear from fermentation that are typical of older ruminants. Thus, some form of specialized housing is necessary to protect them from severe cold or drafts. Various indoor and outdoor systems are available.

Regardless of the age or production stage, the principal objective of all housing should be the comfort or well-being of the animals. Comfort affects directly the feed intake, fertility, longevity, health and production of each animal. Farmers who neglect animals or fail to provide housing conditions that satisfy sound animal welfare considerations cannot operate effectively and should find some other employment.

Click here to obtain more information on feeding, health and reproduction in dairy herds.