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Al Ghurair University Department of Foundation and General Studies Reasoning and Critical Thinking SAH 103 Dr. Kamel Mahmoud Office: College of Business Studies Phone Extension: 306 1
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Page 1: Critical Thinking SAH 103 for Final

Al Ghurair University

Department of Foundation and General Studies

Reasoning and Critical Thinking

SAH 103

Dr. Kamel Mahmoud

Office: College of Business Studies

Phone Extension: 306

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Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................... 3

Chapter 2: Useful critical thinking skills ........................................................ 8

Chapter 3: Gathering Skills 11

1. Observing ................................................................................................. 12

2. Questioning .............................................................................................. 14

Chapter 4: Organizing Skills 18

1. Comparing and Contrasting ..................................................................... 19

2. Classifying and Sequencing ..................................................................... 21

3. Identifying Cause and Effect ................................................................... 23

Chapter 5: Generating Skills 25

1. Inferring ................................................................................................... 26

2. Summarizing ............................................................................................ 28

3. Synthesizing ............................................................................................. 30

4. Generating Ideas ...................................................................................... 31

Chapter 6: Recognizing Skills 34

1. Recognizing Fact and Opinion ................................................................ 35

2. Recognizing Tone .................................................................................... 38

3. Recognizing Bias...................................................................................... 40

4. Recognizing Underlying Assumptions .................................................... 43

Chapter 7: Analyzing Skills 45

1. Evaluating ................................................................................................ 46

2. Inducing ................................................................................................... 48

3. Deducing .................................................................................................. 52

Chapter 8: Studying and Thinking Critically ................................................. 54

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

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Definition:

What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is thinking that is clear, precise, accurate, relevant, consistent & fair.

The best way to get to the truth.

Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it.

The process of using reasoning to discern what is true, and what is false, in the phrases and "sound bytes" we hear everyday.

Deciding rationally what to or what not to believe.

The use of cognitive skills or strategies that increase the probability of a desirable outcome.

"The examination and testing of suggested solutions to see whether they will work."

Careful and deliberate determinations of whether to accept, reject, or suspend judgment.

A disciplined manner of thought that a person uses to assess the validity of something: a statement, news story, argument, research, etc.

What Critical Thinking is not?

Thinking critically is not thinking negatively with a predisposition to find fault or flaws. It is a neutral and unbiased process for evaluating claims or opinions, either someone else’s or our own.

It does not mean being argumentative or being critical of others. Although critical thinking skills can be used in exposing fallacies and bad reasoning, they can also be used to support other viewpoints, and to cooperate with others in solving problems and acquiring knowledge.

In fact, a more accurate term would be evaluative thinking. The result of evaluation can range from positive to negative, from acceptance to rejection or anything in-between.

Critical thinking is not intended to make people think alike. For one reason, critical thinking is distinct from one’s values or principles, which explains why two people who are equally adept at critical thinking, but have different values or

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principles, can reach entirely different conclusions. Additionally, there will always be differences in perception and basic emotional needs which prevent us from thinking the same way.

Critical thinking does not threaten one’s individuality or personality. It may increase your objectivity, but it will not change who you are.

It is not a belief. Critical thinking can evaluate the validity of beliefs, but it is not a belief by itself – it is a process.

Critical thinking does not discourage or replace feelings or emotional thinking. Emotions give our lives meaning, pleasure, and a sense of purpose. Critical thinking cannot possibly fulfill this role. Still, emotional decisions that are also critical decisions (such as deciding to get married or have children) should embody critical thinking.

Critical thinking does not blindly support everything based on science. For example, our culture is full of false scientific claims that are used to market everything.

It is also important to understand that arguments based on critical thinking are not necessarily the most persuasive. Perhaps more often than not, the most persuasive arguments are those designed to appeal to our basic human/emotional needs rather than to our sense of objectivity. For that reason, it is common for highly persuasive arguments by politicians, and sales people, among others, to intentionally lack critical thinking.

Scope of Critical Thinking:

Critical thinking is a general thinking skill that is useful for all sorts of careers and professions. Clear and systematic thinking can improve the comprehension and expression of ideas, so good critical thinking can also enhance language and presentation skills.

Critical thinking is for everyone; it is a way to approach problems and make decisions. If you study and practice critical thinking, your concept of it will continue to develop.

Critical Thinking and Creativity:

It is sometimes suggested that critical thinking is incompatible with creativity. Discuss…

This is a misconception, as creativity is not just a matter of coming up with new ideas. A creative person is someone who can generate new ideas that are useful and relevant to the task at hand.

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Critical thinking plays a crucial role in evaluating the usefulness of new ideas, selecting the best ones and modifying them if necessary.

Benefits of critical thinking:

Self-confidence and a sense of control over one’s life are the two main personal benefits of being a critical thinker.

Ability to listen with an open mind, even to a conflicting point of view.

Guarantee, as far as possible, that one’s beliefs and actions are justifiable and can withstand the test of rational analysis.

Improvement in one’s studying and course work. Significant correlation between Critical Thinking scores and college GPA.

Ability to solve problems in a manner which allows you to have a reflective overview of what you have done.

It gives one the chance to think, to consider the data before making a decision that could be critical to his livelihood.

Being more honest with ourselves and to admit what we don't know. We would be less afraid to say "I was wrong" and be able to learn from our mistakes. Our beliefs would really be our own, not simply passed on to us by others.

Developing the ability to imagine putting ourselves in the place of others and understand the viewpoints of others.

Being patient to think before acting.

Ability to distinguish between fact and opinion; ask questions; make detailed observations; uncover assumptions and define their terms; and make assertions based on sound logic and solid evidence.

Attributes of a Critical Thinker:

Asks pertinent (Relevant) questions.

Assesses statements and arguments.

Is able to admit a lack of understanding or information.

Has a sense of curiosity.

Is interested in finding new solutions.

Is able to clearly define a set of criteria for analyzing ideas.

Is willing to examine beliefs, assumptions, and opinions and weigh them against facts.

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Listens carefully to others and is able to give feedback.

Sees that critical thinking is a lifelong process of self-assessment.

Suspends judgment until all facts have been gathered and considered.

Looks for evidence to support assumption and beliefs.

Is able to adjust opinions when new facts are found.

Examines problems closely.

Is able to reject information that is incorrect or irrelevant.

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Chapter 2

Useful critical thinking skills

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Thinking Vs. Thinking Critically

Thinking Definition:

The process of producing thoughts based on recall of remembered and memorized information.

Remembered: Acquired passively, without trying.

Memorized: Acquired actively, by planning.

Critical Thinking Definition:

The use of any and all appropriate thinking skills when intellectual tasks call for anything more than information recall.

Critical Thinking Skill[s] Definition:

Just about every thinking ability or behavior that can be taught, including such mental operations as questioning, classifying, synthesizing, comparing,

recognizing bias, inducing, deducing, and inferring.

Learn the Most Frequently Employed Critical Thinking Skills Now, Others Later

Because critical thinking skills are so interrelated that one skill depends to some degree on another, becoming adept at thinking critically involves learning to use a variety of reasoning abilities effectively in many different contexts and in many different combinations.

Observing

Questioning

Comparing and contrasting

Classifying and sequencing

Identifying cause and effect

Inferring

Summarizing

Synthesizing

Generating ideas

Recognizing purpose

Recognizing fact and opinion

Recognizing tone

Recognizing bias

Recognizing organization

Recognizing underlying assumptions

Analyzing

Evaluating

Inducing

Deducing

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Stirring Up Thinking

Much of our thinking is habitually biased, partial, uninformed, or even prejudiced because we seldom think about our thinking & so do not apply any standards to it.

Any time our thinking is stirred up so that we force our self to think about our thinking and apply standards to it, we are using thinking skills that go beyond recall of information.

Systematically cultivating the process of thinking leads to an increased ability to conceptualize, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information fairly and accurately.

The Shift from Learning to Thinking

Teachers of all levels concluded that it is better for students to think for themselves than merely to learn what other people have thought.

Effective and meaningful education requires that teaching and learning at all levels be coordinated to foster in the students the mental skills and the habits associated with critical thinking.

With the explosive growth of new information, information retrieval systems, and access to information through computers, it has become even more important that every person be trained to be an independent thinker.

Stir it up: Why do we need computers and internet?

Doesn’t skillful thinking develop on its own?

Probably the majority of people believe that skillful thinking develops on its own. After all, don’t people just become better thinker as they get older?

Unfortunately, if people are left to develop their thinking skills on their own, they frequently fail to progress beyond basic, unthinking acceptance of much of what we see, hear, and read, and never really progress to thinking levels of which they may be capable.

Critical thinking must be actively sought and learned and then practiced.

Easier to understand, compare to other natural skills (Climbing).

We learn to climb as children: Stairs, chairs, coaches, ladder, and trees. However, we would not dream of attempting to climb the sheer face of cliff or rock-climbing without specialized training.

As with climbing, people develop thinking skills naturally to some degree, but not sufficiently to take on the specialized thinking tasks necessary to consciously control their own thinking at all times.

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Chapter 3

Gathering Skills

3.Observing

4.Questioning

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Gathering Information

1. Observing

“We cannot create observers by saying ‘observe’, but by giving them the power and the means for this observation and these means are procured through education of the sense.”

Maria Montessori

Observing Definition:

Actively seeking information through one or more senses.

Observation skills test and your power of observation:

Having good observation skills is an essential asset to people around the world, and it is a skill that can be developed by practice. Observation skills test can help you quickly identify how well you have developed this skill in your own life. Observation is a very unique skill that is not studied formally through books or lectures; in fact it is acquired through the day to day routines of life, on the fly.

The first step in trying to increase your observation skills is to know how observant you are at present and then make a conscious decision to keep your eyes and ears open so as to absorb every perception, fact, incident or opinion that comes your way.

How well do we observe?

Becoming powerful thinker requires us to go through a process of learning first how to observe, how to stay aware even when things seem familiar, and then how to gather and organize new information in light of what we already know.

When new information is gathered improperly, if it is faulty, unclear, inaccurate, or sketchy because our observation was casual, incomplete or undisciplined, then the thinking based on that information will have the same sloppy characteristics.

By just simply being told that you need to be more observant won’t make you observant. You have to work at it.

Some great habits that can help you build your observation skills:

Trying to look at everyday life in a clear manner.

Trying to judge people and their perceptions.

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Always trying to ask questions to people or in your mind.

Open to new experiences.

Open to new ideas.

Good listening skills.

Observing is an Active Process

Observation is different from mere passive seeing and hearing. It involves employing all of our senses in an active effort to note, discern, be aware of, acquire, and retain critical information.

When we observe well, we lay a foundation for seeing and interpreting details that frequently contain the key to solving problems or generating ideas.

Observing is a means of coming to know clearly, of learning by carefully studying and active remembering.

When we work at developing our observation skills, we benefit by becoming more aware of what we see and hear and better able to infer, and to differentiate between what is true and what is false, and between what is fact and what is speculation.

Why it is so hard to observe efficiently?

Laziness to observe well.

Taking a relatively casual attitude towards observing, largely because careful observing was not required of us.

Improve your observation skills

Improving our observation skills will help you to give thorough and accurate answers to typical classroom questions such as:

What words or phrases make this story sad? Exciting? What words influence the way we feel about the characters?

What non verbal behavior did the speaker exhibit, and what did they communicate about what was been said?

What evidence can you give in support of that observation?

Test Your Observation Skills

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Exercise: Answer the following questions

1. What was the name of the last person you talked to?

…………………………...…………………………………………………………

2. What was the person wearing (style, colors, type of shoes, etc.)?

…………………………...…………………………………………………………

3. What color were the person’s eyes?

………………………...………………………………………………………….…

4. Was the person wearing glasses? Describe them?

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Gathering Information

2. Questioning

“Instead of parents asking their children, ‘What did you learn in school today?’ they should ask them, ‘What good questions did you ask today?’”

Anonymous

Questioning Definition:

Seeking information by asking questions.

Living & learning require questioning

Living and learning with a questioning mind results in powerful learning and thinking.

Questions play a key role in teaching and learning.

Questions raised by students show an active attempt at learning.

Questions formed in ignorance and curiosity are based on our desire to know, to clarify, to satisfy a curiosity.

The questioning attitude is important because it shifts learning from a relatively passive role to an active role, stimulates thinking, and heightens retention of information.

Basic questions

What do we have to do to become a skillful questioner and therefore an independent learner?

What is required is very little more than knowing when to ask questions and what kind of questions to ask?

When should questions to be raised?

Whenever we are unsure of what we are reading, hearing, experiencing and learning.

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Types of Questions:

Open questions:

These are useful in getting another person to speak. They often begin with the words: What, Why, When, Who.

Sometimes they are statements: “tell me about”, “give me examples of”.

They can provide you with a good deal of information.

Closed questions:

These are questions that require a “yes” or “no” answer and are useful for checking facts. They should be used with care - too many closed questions can cause frustration and shut down conversation.

Specific questions:

These are used to determine facts. For example “How much did you spend on that”.

Probing questions:

These check for more detail or clarification. Probing questions allow you to explore specific areas. However be careful because they can easily make people feel they are being interrogated.

Hypothetical questions:

These pose a theoretical situation in the future. For example, “What would you do if…?’ These can be used to get others to think of new situations. They can also be used in interviews to find out how people might cope with new situations.

Reflective questions:

You can use these to reflect back what you think a speaker has said, to check understanding. You can also reflect the speaker’s feelings, which is useful in dealing with angry or difficult people and for defusing emotional situations.

Leading questions:16

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These are used to gain acceptance of your view – they are not useful in providing honest views and opinions. If you say to someone ‘you will be able to cope, won’t you?’ they may not like to disagree.

You can use a series of different type of questions to “funnel” information. This is a way of structuring information in sequence to explore a topic and to get to the heart of the issues. You may use an open question, followed by a probing question, then a specific question and a reflective question.

Exercise: Are there any questions that have no answer? Really? If you believe there are questions that have no answers, what are some of them?

- ………………………………………………………………………………………

- ………………………………………………………………………………………

- ………………………………………………………………………………………

Importance of Questioning Ourselves:

Learning encourages us to examine ourselves. Instead of simply accepting the beliefs and views of others (including parents and teachers), as we did when we were younger, we gradually develop the ability and insight to question our thinking and to decide whether long held beliefs should be kept or rejected.

Through this continuous process of questioning, our thinking matures and we are less likely to accept unthinkingly the thing we hear and read.

We will no longer be easily fooled. Living and learning with a questioning mind is an important step in becoming a mature person and a productive thinker.

Warning about Questioning:

Is it possible to have too much questioning and not enough learning?

Yes. How can that be?

Establishing a pattern of raising questions and seeking clarification and information as we attend classes and study is a good thing, but only as long as the questioning remains focused on what we need to learn. It is possible for us to slip into the “challenge everything” mode and there by hinder our learning.

Questioning of what we are learning must be interspersed with time to reflect on and assimilate respond to our questions, and then time to relate that information to what we are learning.

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Students waste learning time when they routinely (and unnecessarily) challenge everything, thereby having little time left to absorb what needs to be learned. There is little to be gained by questioning well and learning little.

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Chapter 4

Organizing Skills

1.Comparing and Contrasting

2.Classifying and Sequencing

3.Identifying Cause and Effect

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Organizing Skills

1. Comparing and Contrasting

Comparing Definition:

Noting similarities between two or more things, events, or ideas

When we compare items, we look for their similarities; the things that make them the same.

Example: Apples and oranges

Both are fruit.

Both are food.

Both are made into juice.

Both grow on trees.

Contrasting Definition:

Noting differences between two or more things, events, or ideas

When you contrast items, you look at their differences.

Example: Apples and oranges:

Apple is red, orange is orange.

They have different textures.

Orange needs a warmer place to grow; apple can grow in cooler places.

Comparing and Contrasting

When we compare, we note similarities; when we contrast, we note differences. However, to get the greatest benefit from comparing and contrasting, we should understand what similarities and differences seem significant.

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Importance of Comparing and contrasting:

If there are any fundamental thinking skills that are the foundation for all other thinking skills, they are the skills of comparing and contrasting.

A person who cannot compare and contrast; cannot think. These two thinking skills are essential to our continued mental and intellectual growth. (Children preferences).

Comparing and contrasting are powerful tools for helping us to understand.

They are part of nearly everything we do in college, choosing something from cafeteria, writing a paper, selecting college major.

A method for presenting material in some fields of study: history, political science, psychology and sociology.

When we compare and contrast we look at something in a different way, adding a new dimension to it.

Basically, comparing and contrasting can help us to take a better decision and that what thinking is all about!!

Why to spent time on this skill?

The way we compare and contrast is done with varying degree of thoroughness. Sometimes we attend only to surface characteristics.

Being better at comparing and contrasting, we become better in reasoning and other thinking skills that depend upon them.

Do we just look for similarities and differences?

No, but also:

What similarities and / or differences seem significant?

What categories or patterns do we see in the significant similarities and differences?

What interpretation or conclusion is suggested by the significant similarities and differences?

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Organizing Skills

2. Classifying and Sequencing

Classifying Definition:

Arranging things or concepts into groups or categories according to a shared characteristic

Sequencing Definition:

Putting things or concepts in sequential order according to some criterion

The two skills of classifying and sequencing are just really the extension of comparing and contrasting.

When we classify things or ideas we sort and group them according to one or more attributes that they have in common.

We classify when we call one person a friend, another person an enemy, and a third person a stranger. Our houses are great examples of classifying in action, “living” in the living room, sleeping in the bedrooms, bathing in the bathrooms.

In kitchen, we classify when we group things according to certain shared attributes or functions.

Classifying things make it easier for us to locate items when needed.

To sequence things is to arrange them in order

When we sequence things or ideas, we also sort them, but we sort them according to an order or priority within the group; we put them in some order according to an identified criterion: small to large, first to last, light to dark, oldest to newest and so forth.

Classifying and Sequencing

Like classifying, sequencing allows for more efficient use of the sequenced things or ideas. In many activities, sequencing is vital to success.

Food recipe (Sequence).

Librarian (Classify, Sequence).

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How do we classify?

1. We first identify our purpose or goal.

We want to place the cars we have into as few categories as possible.

2. We then glance at the information or list of items to note interesting features, that may give us an idea for our classifications.

What similarities do the items have?

3. Try out a set of criteria to see if it works.

According to price, mileage, power ..etc.

4. Take the first “label” and describe its classifying feature.

Corolla is the most economical car.

5. Identify the items or ideas that share that label, that classifying feature.

Tiida, yaris, sunny….are all economic cars.

6. Repeat, starting another group.

7. Check to see that all items or ideas are classified.

8. Decide what to do with “leftovers”.

9. Decide if combining group or sub-classifications are possible or desirable.

How do we sequence?

1. We look at the items or ideas and determine the possible ways to order them.

Options: general to specific, least understandable to most understandable, oldest to newest, first to last, softest to hardest.

2. We select the most appropriate sequence type for our purpose.

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Organizing Skills

3. Identifying Cause and Effect

Identifying cause and effect Definition:

Recognizing the relationship between an effect and its cause.

The importance of exploring relationships and sequence of events:

In order to answer the cause – and – effect questions, we must explore relationships between different events and examine how these events interact with each other over time. When we seek to understand why something has occurred, we attempt to identify the events that lead up to it and the factors that were involved.

Example: Accident: if someone gets hit by another car at a busy intersection, both he and the police will attempt to examine the sequence of events that led up to (that caused) the accident (the effect) by tracking events back in time.

It is not always that easy:

Analyzing cause and effect can be very difficult when we face complicated questions and problems. We might be unable to easily identify sufficient causes or that there is no seemingly sequential or rational connection between the causes.

Sometime, there can be only possible contributors to an effect or outcome, not necessarily the causes.

Example: Why one individual becomes a mass murder and another is a dedicated humanitarian.

In this case, usually conclusions come with words such as: usually, probably, may, most, and likely.

Exercise: What might be a few “effects” to the following “causes”?

What if you were asked (and you agreed) to be the instructor of this class for a week?

What if students were not permitted to speak at all when inside university building?

What if students permitted to take only one course each semester?

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What if computer doesn’t have an undo option.

Exercise: What are the possible “causes” for the following “effects”?

Your mobile hasn’t rung in over 3 days, and you usually receive several calls a day.

One of your professors seems to be calling on you frequently in the class.

Your car frequently makes a strange noise.

Your right arm is stiff and aching.

You have been eating constantly for the last few days.

Your cat hasn’t been around in nearly two weeks.

Your have just failed an exam in your favorite class.

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Chapter 5

Generating Skills

1.Inferring

2.Summarizing

3.Synthesizing

4.Generating Ideas

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Generating Skills

1. Inferring

Inferring Definition:

Making an assumption, stating a hypothesis, or coming to a conclusion based on limited information.

An inference is a statement about the unknown, based on the known.

Frequently we do not have enough information to make a fact-based decision, so we interpret the fact that we have as best as we can. In these cases we use inferring to arrive at a conclusion.

Your inferences are closely and directly tied to the information available.

Sometimes your inferences are logical because the information you have is clear. At other times, your inferences may be weak because they have little foundation in fact.

Inferring Skills begin developing early

You developed your inferring skills when you were very young. You learned to gauge the moods of family members by considering their facial expressions, body language and tone of the voice. You interpret what was said and what was not said.

Inferring Skills sharpen through use Experience!!

By constantly making inferences, we sharpen our ability to make sound, rational decisions. When we are faced with situation about which we don’t have all the facts, we call to mind principles, examples, generalizations, our own observations or statements we know that they are true and were made about a similar situation.

Example: Testing exercise machine

Inferred conclusions could be wrong

Inferences are based partially on our past experiences and partially on the information we possess at the moment. Even though our reasoning is sound, it may be faulty because it is based on insufficient information. And that’s why in English we say: it seems, appears, might be, and could be, and so on.

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Exercise: Make two possible but contradictory inferences for each scene described:

Two young men dressed in T-shirt and jeans are pushing a high-priced sport car down the street.

You arrived at Critical Thinking class after being absent for the last two classed sessions and find the classroom empty.

Your professor has spent the last four classes on the “Organizing Information skills”. The midterm exam is next week.

Why We Have To Infer?

1. Writers and speakers usually cannot include (often because of limited space or time) all the information that might be relevant to their subject. Thus, they must rely on their audience’s ability to infer.

2. Writers and speakers sometimes leave out information because including it would divert attention from the point being made or from the train of reasoning.

3. Writers and speakers sometimes leave out information because they assume their readers or listeners are already familiar with it.

4. Writers and speakers often rely on inference to create or sustain emotional power and artistic value. This technique is often applied in creative writing such as poetry or fiction. Leaving something unstated often contributes to humor; fear, irony, or climax when the reader has to infer a point or draw a conclusion.

5. Writers and speakers sometimes leave information they don’t want their audience to know when they want to present a one-sided argument. They hope that their audience will not be aware of the facts left out. This is questionable writing at worst, and editorial writing at best. Be aware of calculated evasions.

6. Writers or speakers sometimes must trust their audience’s inferential skills because including specific information may be illegal or dangerous (in some countries), or it may leave the writer/speaker open to a lawsuit.

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Generating Skills

2. Summarizing

Summarizing Definition:

Condensing the essence of the information accurately and efficiently.

When we summarize material, we actively engage our thinking abilities in order to condense it, to determine its essence. We are deciding “what counts.”

How long is a summary?

A summary can be as short as one word or as long as an entire book.

The longer the summary, the more details that are included; the shorter the summary, the fewer details. When the summary must be brief, the summarizer must choose which points are most important to include and which words best convey the points.

When we summarize, we are attempting to identify only a few things:

the main point,

the purpose of the discussion,

reasons or facts that support the main point,

any conclusion that is drawn.

Summarizing the Shorter Passage:

Ask yourself these three key questions:

1. What is this passage about? (What is the topic?)

2. What is the purpose of discussing this subject?

3. What is the main thing that the writer wants you to know about this specific subject?

Summarizing the Longer Passage:

1. Eliminate what appears to be unnecessary material.

2. Eliminate redundant material. Even if it is important. Don’t mention it more than once.

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3. Use a summary word wherever possible instead of listing items, ideas, or arguments.(cars, trucks, buses…can be replaced by one word “vehicles”)

4. Use an encompassing word or phrase for a series of actions or events.

Example: “The bank fired their in –house marketing staff, recruited industry outsiders and stock exchange marketing staff, refocused marketing proprieties, and developed a new marketing and advertising program for its retail…..etc.” this can be summarized as: the bank changed its marketing plan.

5. When summarizing lengthy or complicated passages, begin by selecting a key sentence or a topic sentence for each paragraph.

6. If the passage or paragraph has no topic sentence, create your own.

7. Combine your summary statements into a “summary of summaries.” If necessary, reduce the length of this final summary still further.

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Generating Skills

3. Synthesizing

Synthesizing Definition:

Creating new information by combining two or more pieces of information.

The synthesizing process functions like thinking software, allowing the rest of your thinking skills to operate both independently of one another and together.

Examples:

Which of these birds, plants, and animals will be able to live both in cold and hot weather?

You have to combine what you know about birds, plants and animals with what you know about weather in order to give the answer.

Given that a room measures 8 feet by 12 feet and that carpet costs AED 50 a square yard. How much would it cost to carpet the room?

Is wool, fur, cotton, or silk the best heat insulator for a chicken egg incubator?

Exercise: Think about this! Putting it all together

Ali and Hassan are the same age. Ali is older than Ahmad, who in turn is older than Khalid. Sami is older than Khalid, but he is younger than Ali and Ahmad. Hassan is younger than Fahad.

What is the order of age of these six people?

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Generating Skills

4. Generating Ideas

Generating Ideas Definition:

Creating new information, alternatives, or applications.

The need for new ideas never diminishes. It is usually lumped in a category called “Creative Thinking” because it involves generating and developing new information by reusing “old” information in new ways.

“Having an Idea” is not the same thing

Generating an idea is different than having an idea. When we generate an idea, we maintain an attitude of flexibility and focus actively on creating new information, a new idea. When we have an idea, as we do hundreds of times a day, we are thinking passively and not actively attempting to exercise our creative thinking.

Think about this! Crazy Predictions

Predicting the future is something we all like to do. It’s also big business: just think about psychic telephone lines, betting on sports scores, buying lottery tickets with “special” numbers on them, or business and election “forecasting”. Frequently, however, predictions are not just wrong, they are not even close. Following are some predictions from the past that we now know were really off the mark:

“We might as well close the Patent Office. Everything that can be invented has been invented.”

(Charles Duell, Director of the Patent Office, in 1899)

“Heavier than air flying machines are impossible.”

(Lord Kelvin, President, Royal Society in 1895)

Exercise: Think about this!

Making rational predictions is a great critical thinking activity. You are forced to employ many of your thinking abilities, such as synthesizing, analyzing, evaluating, deducing, and inducing. Stir up your thinking. On the lines below, make some predictions about the future (at least 50 years from now) that you really believe may come true.

...............................................................................................................................................

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...............................................................................................................................................

Common ways to generate ideas:

When we employ our idea generating skills, we do it in relationship to some problem, idea, or experience. What we are attempting to do is alter the way we think about something and create new ideas related to it. That something is the raw material that we can manipulate in order to generate new ideas.

We can do any of the following things:

Break it into smaller parts and list ideas for each part. We can divide into pieces, functions, spaces, roles. looking at the pieces often stimulates ideas

Combine it with something else. We can combine ideas, uses, purposes, and see what we come up with.

Simplify it. We can make it streamlined, easier, more natural.

Substitute. We try substituting other materials, power sources, approaches, ingredients, processes, people, or places.

Subtract from it. We can take away one part or several parts. We reduce the number. We reduce what’s no longer necessary.

Reverse it. What are its opposites? We can look at it upside down, inside out, backwards, or transpose cause and effect.

Add to it. We can add other parts, ingredients, motion, color, flavor, functions, sounds, or texture.

Redesign it. We can redesign the interior or the exterior, or both. We can make fun of it. We can change the pace, shape, capacity, function.

Magnify it. We can make it bigger, better. We can make some parts bigger or more important.

Minimize it. We can make it smaller, lower, or lighter. We can understate it or condense it.

Individuals may generate ideas, but …

Generating ideas is a different kind of thinking because it is usually an enjoyable experience (unlike other kinds of thinking) that can occur when you are alone.

Idea generation frequently occurs at family and social get – together, wedding, birthday parties...etc. Here the idea generation activities are called Games. At

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work or in class rooms, idea generation is known as Brainstorming and occurs as a group process.

Brainstorming Activity:

Suggest as many different ideas as you can, as quickly as you can.

No judgment or evaluation.

Sometimes an idea seems to be irrelevant at the time of suggestion will later prove valuable.

Quality and quantity of generated ideas

The quality and quantity of ideas we generate depends on:

Our willingness to put forth effort,

involve others,

postpone judgment,

how we simulate our thinking.

The more practice idea generating the more prolific we get at it and the easier it becomes.

Later Ideas are the better Ideas!

Our early ideas tend to be ordinary, while later ideas tend to be better.

Idea generation tends to be of better quality if more than one person is doing the generating and if ample time is spent in the process. It is reported that Thomas Edison created many prototypes in the process of inventing the light bulb.

Generate Ideas!

We use our idea generating skill when we think about and answer questions like this:

How many uses can you think of for a paper clip?

The average new automobile tire loses about two pounds of rubber through use before it wears down – becomes “bald” – and is discarded. Where could all the rubber that is worn off millions of tires each year possibly go?

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Chapter 6

Recognizing Skills

5.Recognizing Fact and Opinion

6.Recognizing Tone

7.Recognizing Bias

8.Recognizing Underlying Assumptions

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Recognizing Skills

1. Recognizing Fact and Opinion

Recognizing Fact and Opinion Definition:

Distinguishing between a statement of fact and a statement of opinion.

It is important for us to be able to determine the value of what we read and hear. We must be able to decide whether we should accept or reject new information, or seek additional information.

Students who do not think critically assume that because a statement appears in a textbook, journal … that statement is automatically a fact.

In order to do this we must develop habits of questioning and evaluating while reading and listening, and we must become adept at distinguishing between statements of fact and statements of opinion.

To be an efficient thinker and decision-maker, we will need to know if we are being presented an opinion, a fact or fact and opinion combined. Once we are able to differentiate in this way, we will be able to draw proper conclusions about what we have read or heard. As we learn, we keep questions similar to the following in mind:

Where can we check to see if this is really true?

Is this a mixture of fact and opinion?

How is our judgment of a person’s credibility affected if we know he or she is stating an opinion as if it were a fact?

The important difference between fact and opinion

A fact is anything that can be validated or proved. If a statement can be proved right or wrong by measurement or testing, it is a fact (sometimes with one or more of our senses: smell, distance, …).

An opinion cannot be validated. An opinion is what a person believes. A statement is an opinion when there is no way to check its accuracy.

Statements of facts

Statements of fact present information without interpreting it. They imply neither judgment nor evaluation. Unlike statements of opinion, statements of fact can be verified in records or historical or scientific documents, or by means of tests or measurements.

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It is important to note that statements of fact may contain incorrect information.

Statements of opinion

Statements of opinion express an author’s or speaker’s impressions, beliefs, and judgments about something.

Opinions cannot be judged true or false, or right or wrong, because they are a person’s individual impressions about something.

It is important to note that an opinion is not necessarily incorrect – it just hasn’t been proved.

Guidelines help you determine what is a statement of fact:

1. Statements that can be proved or disproved are still statements of fact even when they are in error and proved false. A statement of fact, then, is not always accurate or correct. It could very easily be an incorrect statement of fact. For example: “40 students attended the meeting on Sunday”, (there were only 25 students, and it was on Monday).

2. Statements that present evaluations, attitudes, or probabilities are statements of opinion, because they cannot be proved true or false. Statements of opinion are often presented in an authoritative voice, and may be true, but they are still statements of opinion. For example: “Not enough people care about protecting the environment to ensure any positive change”.

3. Statements dealing with persons, places objects, occurrences, or processes that exist or did exist, and which can be proved or disproved, are statements of fact. Example: “Last class I showed a presentation about problem solving procedure”.

4. Statements about future events are statements of opinion even when the events seem likely to occur. Example: “Eventually, there will be cure for H1 N1 virus”.

5. Statements of fact often use concrete words referring to things, events, or measurable characteristics. Example: “gallon, salt water, 25 years ago, 56 millimeters, …”.

6. Statements of opinion frequently rely on abstract words. (Can’t be touched or measured: love, faith, hope, courage, health … etc). These words can’t be specifically defined and limited; people use them to use different degrees of the same thing or even to mean something completely different.

7. Watch for clue words and phrases in statements of opinion. Value-judgment words (good, bad, necessary), opinion phrase (I believe, we suggest, it appears), emotion words (loving, honest, evil, warm).

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8. Cultivate a spirit of healthy skepticism about what you read and hear in college. Ask questions like: (where is the proof? Who says?)

9. Beware of expert opinion disguised as fact. Don’t be impressed by what experts say. (A doctor promoted a toothpaste!)

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Recognizing Skills

2. Recognizing Tone

Recognizing Tone Definition:

Identifying a sentiment or mood by assessing the writer’s or speaker’s choice of words.

We must be able to recognize the attitude the writer or speaker takes toward the material he or she discusses. That attitude can be anything: lighthearted or malicious, ironic or gentle, or funny, or any number of others.

Why is recognizing tone important?

It can tell you a great deal about writers’ or speakers’ purpose.

The feelings and attitudes of speakers and writers toward the ideas they express greatly influence word choice and emphasis.

If the tone in a statement is one of ridicule and irony, the author or speaker may be trying to turn you against the person, event, or idea that is being discussed. If the tone is serious, formal, or sympathetic, then perhaps the author intends to encourage your support of some cause or idea.

Tone is a clue to purpose!

Take the following example:

The school board’s policy has proved to be as liberal and unthinking as it was when it traded choice land to corporations and industrialists rather than preserve it as sites for future schools.

The same can be addressed in a completely different approach.

The school board has an established policy to trade or sell large sections of valuable land to manufacturing and industrial corporations in exchange for commitments to provide future school sites and fund the building of schools located in planned growth areas of the country.

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Recognizing Skills

3. Recognizing Bias

Recognizing Bias Definition:

Noting the presence and nature of a writer’s or speaker’s prejudice

What is Bias?

Bias is an inclination or preference that influences one's judgment from being balanced or even-handed.

It is when a writer or speaker uses a selection of facts, choice of words, and the quality and tone of description, to convey a particular feeling or attitude.

Bias Purpose:

Bias purpose is to convey a certain attitude or point of view toward the subject.

Biased information tries to change your mind, how you think.

Importance of Recognizing Bias:

Probably now more than ever before in this century, we are bombarded by propaganda of all sorts.

Politicians and public relations experts are adept at molding public opinion on political and social issues.

We are generally aware that the public media are “loaded” with bias, that is, with a predisposition, prejudice, or pre-judgment.

We see bias especially in such things as commercials, political speeches, and even pep talks by religious and charitable fundraisers. They are loaded with words and phrases that pay upon our emotions in order to move our thinking – and thus our actions – in a specific direction.

The presence of bias has become routine in much of what we read and hear. In fact, we take bias so much for granted that we usually don’t even think about its presence unless our emotions are strongly touched in some way, and then we may question the cause.

It is important for us as thinkers to realize that what we see, hear, and read all through life is usually not fair and unbiased.

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Bias in Textbooks, Lectures and Life

We seldom think of questioning statements that we hear in lectures or read in textbooks or journals and wonder if they are unbiased in presenting facts. We should be more questioning because it is possible that they are biased.

Some newspapers and magazines, as well as some journalists, have widely recognized reputations for being biased, primarily because of the liberal or conservative stands they take on issues. Nothing is wrong with this “fixed” bias unless you allow yourself to be unknowingly influenced.

Accepting every bit of information and interpretation without question will result in confusion.

Example:

Do you really believe that the state government has a right to invade your private life by requiring that you fill in and return that questionnaire?

The Need to Detect Bias

In order to be skillful and efficient thinkers we need to be able to detect bias and allow for it when we evaluate what is written or said. We ought to develop an attitude that routinely causes us to raise questions similar to these:

Did the writer of this piece seem to like the social worker, the police officer, the single parent, or the child best?

Which is more likely to be fair and objective, this newspaper or my psychology textbook?

What makes me feel that the instructor is biased in her presentation of the events?

Is the sample in this study representative? Does it have the same characteristics in the same proportion as the target population?

Are these experts affiliated with any interest groups? Do they subscribe to a cause?

As you read or listen to biased materials, keep the following questions in mind:

1. What facts has the author omitted?

2. What additional information is necessary?

3. What words create positive or negative impressions?

4. What impression would I have if different words had been used?

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How to Recognize Bias?

Bias is often present when a writer’s choice of words arouses the reader’s emotions, but it is always there when the material includes one or more of these elements:

1. Name-calling (example: the military officer was not able to continue speaking because of irresponsible interruptions by ill-mannered….. )

2. Contradictions (example: our charitable organization is in no trouble at all. The recent scandal will blow over, and people will resume their donations.)

3. Highly emotional, even inflammatory statements (example: we will feel the same way: let them go back where they came from and stop causing trouble in our community. They don’t belong here with normal people).

4. False assumptions based on weak or inaccurate information (example: Asian refugees have a hard time adjusting to western society because they are used to being told when to do everything ,and in this country people are free to do whatever they want to do).

5. Stereotyping, often with inaccurate overgeneralizations (example: Everyone knows that men make much better airline pilots than women).

6. The argument appeals more to the emotions than to logic.

7. Things are worded with the intent to oversimplify or over generalize.

8. The author wishes to present a limited view of the topic.

Keep in mind that biased writing may be very interesting to read and biased speaking may be very interesting to listen to because of the colorful, emotional language designed to sway you. This doesn’t mean you should be suspicious of all interesting speaking and writing, but you should heighten your sensitivity to bias.

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Recognizing Skills

4. Recognizing Underlying Assumptions

Recognizing Underlying Assumptions Definition

Recognizing the suppositions that are taken for granted and that are the foundation of a proposition, notion, or idea.

In every situation where a conclusion is called for, even the most simple, there are underlying assumptions. Not to consider these assumptions is to increase the likelihood of responding incorrectly to the situation.

Assumptions are part of our lives:

Everything we think, reason, say, or do is based on assumptions, things we believe are true. Assumptions are those unstated beliefs that we take for granted and upon which we base our actions or rest our arguments.

Assumptions differ from person to person, but they all tend to become deeply ingrained over time in our thinking. We seldom examine them or check them for appropriateness or consistency until we are confronted by conflicting ideas. Until then, assumptions are simply there and not thought about. In any discussion, debate, or presentation of an argument, assumptions are usually left unstated, but they are still present. They determine not just what we say but what we really mean.

Two Kinds of Assumptions

1. Value assumptions

Value assumptions are beliefs [ideals really] that we accept and hold about the way things ought to be. These assumptions are based on the values communicated to us by such people as family members, religious leaders, and people we associate with. The values we absorb and accept as we mature form the basis of our opinions. Some values are so universally accepted that we assume that everyone holds them. (for example: murder, rape, violence against individuals is wrong, helping the poor, sick and weak is right).

However, not all values that we may hold are held by other people, or are held as strongly as we hold them. In many cases, arguments and conflicts occur because the opposing sides have different values.

It is common to hear the words “you are assuming that I …” when two people disagree.

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2. Reality assumptions

Reality assumptions are beliefs [perceptions really] that we hold about the way things are. They are assumptions that we make and hold about what happened or what exists or how something works.

Example: when two cars collide at a busy intersection, the two drivers usually have different reality assumptions. In fact their perceptions of what happened may differ dramatically. It is not surprising that police officers must rely on detached, unemotional observers to determine what really occurred.

Exercise: What are the assumptions behind the statements below?

Several assumptions can usually be seen at work in each case. Where do you think the assumptions came from? Under what conditions might they have been formed? Are they value assumptions or reality assumptions? Who is making these statements?

1. I don’t care if you are going to the beach; you are not wearing that bathing suit.

2. Growing, selling, and smoking marijuana should be legalized.

3. Radios are as necessary in cars as airbags.

4. You’re going to love this shirt I bought you.

5. That bottled mineral water is of superior quality; it comes from Europe.

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Chapter 7

Analyzing Skills

4.Evaluating

5.Inducing

6.Deducing

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Analyzing Skills

1. Evaluating

Evaluating Definition:

Appraising something according to certain criteria and forming a judgment as to its worth or quality.

When we employ the thinking skill of evaluation, we express our conclusions about such things as the appropriateness of underlying assumptions, the accuracy of reporting, the credibility of sources, the authority of someone or some idea, and the relevancy, consistency, appropriateness, and value of evidence.

In the process, we also give clues to our preferences, our attitudes, our likes and dislikes, our values. What sets evaluation apart from opinion is the foundation of criteria on which the evaluation rests and which is missing when we merely express our opinion or attitude.

In order for evaluation to be evaluation, justifiable criteria must be offered for the evaluations made, and all evaluations must be set forth in the light of those criteria.

It is not sufficient in evaluation to say “the play is bad”; “the book is great”; “the solution is inadequate”. We must also indicate our criteria for this judgment.

It is always important to know – and sometimes to indicate – the standards or criteria that are being used for an evaluation. Otherwise, the evaluation may be simply “opinionating” and lack value or authority.

Establishing evaluation criteria:

We continually evaluate people, ideas, objects, experiences, relationships, and everything else in life. Every time we evaluate something we evaluate it against one or more criteria that we have established.

It would be nice if we could use the same set of criteria for evaluating everything, but we can’t. Different kinds of evaluation require different evaluation criteria. It is the careful establishment of evaluation criteria what allows the evaluation process to work.

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Establishing evaluation criteria, How?

Whenever we called upon to evaluate, we must follow essentially the same steps:

1. Determine exactly what we are going to evaluate.

2. Identify the criteria to be used in the evaluation. [We can use an existing set of criteria or create our own.]

3. Illustrate these criteria by descriptive limits or examples.

4. Examine the situation or information against each criterion.

5. Determine the extent to which the situation or information matches the criteria.

6. State a judgment.

Exercise:

How reasonable and appropriate are your criteria in each of the following cases?

1. Task: Selecting a college major / vocation.

Criteria: …………………………………………………………………………….

………………...…………………………………………………………………….

2. Task: selecting a used car.

Criteria: …………………………………………………………………………….

………………………...…………………………………………………………….

3. Task: Selecting a personal computer.

Criteria: …………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………

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Analyzing Skills

2. Inducing

Inducing Definition:

Analyzing individual facts or premises in order to derive a general conclusion

Inductive reasoning is the process of arriving at a conclusion about a broad group based on a set of observations of a sample of the group.

When we reason inductively we start with specific premises, evidence, details, and facts. Then we use these specifics in our thinking process to formulate inferences and conclusions of a broad and general nature.

Example:

I’ve noticed previously that every time I kick a ball up, it comes back down, so I guess this next time when I kick it up, it will come back down, too.

With inductive thinking, we can take limited evidence about some members of a class or about the facts of a problem in order to form a conclusion about all members of the class or to arrive at a probable solution for the problem.

When it is impossible to examine all the data, we derive a conclusion from the data that we have.

In reasoning inductively, scientists work from a collection of particular events to formulate general principles.

We Start with Observation

Arguments based on experience or observation are best expressed inductively.

1. We start by observing something, by acquiring and understanding the basics, the premises, facts, details, and specific information about it.

2. Then we move to arranging and combining the individual pieces of information so that we can see a pattern on them.

3. We draw inferences, and come to a conclusion, or formulate a principle or a rule.

Inducing Applications:

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In the practice of medicine, doctors rely heavily on inductive thinking. They look at the evidence -the symptoms- in order to come to a conclusion- a diagnosis. The diagnosis is the general principle formulated from the particular symptoms.

Inductive thinking occurs regularly during televised election-day voting coverage. Network experts predict the winners after interviewing a limited number of voters. This representative sampling of voters allows for an inference, a prediction, as to the winner of the race.

Validity:

In itself, it is not a valid method of proof. Just because a person observes a number of situations in which a pattern exists doesn't mean that that pattern is true for all situations.

It is important that these inferences be probable, not improbable. Because inductive thinking relies on probable inferences, our conclusions can be probable, but they are seldom totally certain.

A hypothesis based on inductive reasoning, can, however, lead to a more careful study of a situation. The observer could then conduct a more formal study based on this hypothesis and conclude that his hypothesis was either right, wrong, or only partially wrong.

Why Did That Happen?

Another common form of inductive thinking (sometimes called causal thinking or reasoning) occurs when we ask questions such as, Why did that happen? Why did that accident occur? Why did the clothes dryer stop working? Why do I have such a bad headache? Why did the fish stop biting? Why are our winters much colder in recent years?

We fre quently observe (or experience) an event, a problem, and then attempt to determine the cause. The procedure we follow is the process of inductive thinking . We compile data related to the problem, analyze and evaluate the data in light of the question raised, and then infer or conclude the answer. (Gathering data - analyzing - forming a general conclusion).

When we attempt to state why something happened, the correctness of our conclusion depends on whether or not we can answer yes to the following questions:

1. Are all the related facts or events known?

2. Are these facts or events sufficient to arrive at a conclusion or infer ence that answers the question “Why did that happen?”

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3. Does the conclusion or inference arrived at (the answer to the ques tion) arise naturally and logically from the facts or events?

The Scientific Method

It is a systematic procedure that relies on inductive thinking in order to discover causal relationships. The steps in the scientific method are as follows. A real-life problem is used to illustrate the thinking that takes place.

1. Identify the event or events to be investigated. Example: The fish have not been biting for the last month in the Gulf waters near my home.

2. Gather information about the event or events. I use lures, not live bait. The water is very warm. I fish in the early evenings, after work. No one else usually fishes at that time. In past months I often used to catch fish.

3. Develop a theory or hypothesis (a conclusion derived from inductive reason-ing) to explain, what is happening. Possible explanations for not catching fish are:

I’m using the wrong bait. The water is too warm. I’m fishing at the wrong time of day for this season.

4. Test the theory or hypothesis through experimentation.

Of the possible explanations listed above:

I can rule out the bait because I used the same bait in the past and caught fish.

It's probably not water temperature because it is only a few degrees warmer than it was a few months ago when I caught fish.

Perhaps I'm fishing at the wrong time of day for the season.

That seems the most reasonable theory to test. It can be tested a couple of ways. I’ll ask other people when they fish and when the fish are biting best, and I’ll go fishing at different times of the day.

5. Evaluate the theory or hypothesis. The theory that I was fishing at the wrong time of the day was correct. I evaluated the theory by going fishing several times earlier in the day, and each time I caught something.

As you can see from these steps, and as you may remember from your experiences in school, the scientific method leads thinkers step by step in inducing causal relationships, first analyzing individual facts or premises, then deriving a general conclusion, and then testing the accuracy of the conclusion.

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Exercise: Stir It Up

Select one of the following situations and analyze it by working through the steps of the scientific method described above.

You drove to school, parked your car, and went to class, but now your car won't start. What's wrong?

You are having a hard time passing the quizzes and exams in one of your courses. What’s wrong?

Step 1: describe the situation.

Step 2: Gather information (Details? Possible causes?).

Step 3: What is your theory about what is happening? (What is the likely reason?).

Step 4: Test your theory. (How can you test your theory?).

Step 5: Evaluate your theory. (Results? Do you accept or reject your theory?)

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Analyzing Skills

3. Deducing

Deducing Definition:

Applying general principles or a broad framework to a situation in order to come to a conclusion about it.

When we think inductively about specifics, we can infer broad conclusions, generalizations, and principles. When deducing, we move from an understanding of the general principle to conclusions about related specifics. Deducing is a kind of mirror image of inducing.

Deductive reasoning can be employed to make predictions from the general statements, principles, or hypothesis believed to be true.

A broad conclusion, generalization, or principle reached through inducing can be used as the general premises in deductive applications.

Examples:

Newton's Law states: Everything that goes up must come down. And so, if you kick the ball up, it must come down.

The sum of the angles in any triangle is always 180 degrees.

Arguments based on laws, rules, or other widely accepted principles are best expressed deductively.

Deductive reasoning, unlike inductive reasoning, is a valid form of proof.

When we use the thinking skill of deduction, we are reasoning from the general to the specific.

The challenge in deductive thinking is to be certain that the general truth or statement actually applies to the particular cases and to avoid the many thinking fallacies that are associated with deductive thinking.

In the following list there is a principle or general concept stated or implied, and then a specific question is asked that requires you to apply that principle or information to a particular case:

1. Sweet foods with lots of sugar in them are not good for you. Which of the foods listed below are not good for you? (In this case, the particular foods must each be

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measured against the “lots of sugar” condition to determine which foods on the list are not good for you.)

2. If radiation can cause cancer, as indicated by extensive research, then which of the following illness best justifies the use of radiation? (Since we accept the truth of the statement that radiation can cause cancer, we must look at the specific illness to see which illness is already so serious that the potential benefit of the treatment outweighs the threat of cancer).

To deduce; you rely on what you already know

Broad framework: The majority of high school students who get called to the office during class are in trouble or have an emergency at home.

Specific situation: Tiffany, a student in class, got called to the office.

Specific situation: Tiffany has never been called out of class before.

Specific situation: Tiffany never gets into trouble in school.

Deductive conclusion: Tiffany probably has a family emergency.

Now figure this out:

Since we already make use of our deductive thinking skills, why is deducing included in this book?

Simply apply deduction to answer this question

Broad framework: The book discusses only the things we don’t know well enough.

Specific situation: We already make use of the deductive thinking skill

Specific situation: This book discusses deduction

Deductive conclusion: We don’t use our deductive skills well enough.

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Chapter 8

Studying and Thinking Critically

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The intention of this chapter is to assist you in applying what you learnt in the previous chapters to the textbooks that you are required to read for your other classes.

Do Your Assignments with a Questioning Mind

Know what is required of you.

Begin work on assignments as soon as they are assigned.

Do each assignment carefully and thoroughly, frequently asking yourself if you are focused on what is important in what you are assigned to do.

Do all assignments.

Before submitting an assignment, reread it, and ask for a peer’s opinion.

Turn in assignments when they are due, if not before.

Keep a copy of each paper you write.

Use Study Aids

Set a specific time to study for each class. And don’t let anything interfere.

Study in a specific place every day. Associate a specific spot with studying. Then when you sit there, you will slip more easily into a studious frame of mind.

Eliminate distractions when you study, including the radio. No, you can’t study better with the radio on. If your goal is to learn and retain (not simply to read) as efficiently and quickly as possible, why disrupt your concentration by dividing your attention.

Adjust your study schedule periodically to match the requirements of different classes. Some classes are easier than others!

Use helpful people. You will find many helpful people on campus, including classmates who will help you succeed in a problem course. Many students form study groups and assist each other in mastering difficult material or in preparing for exam.

Dealing with Reading Assignments:

Read with a Purpose: have at least one purpose for everything you read, purpose gives meaning to your reading. Think deeply about the assignment, then determine your purpose and keep that purpose in mind. This will help keep you from being distracted and from slowing down.

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Adjust your Reading Rate:

Your reading speed depends upon the difficulty of the material, your prior knowledge of it, and your purpose for reading. You read light fiction quickly, but you can’t do the same with technical books. Different kinds of materials ought to be read at different speeds. You will even have different rates of reading the same page.

Don’t Always Read Everything: Skim, Scan, Glance, and Skip

Skimming: This is a very simple but effective means of identifying the main idea of a passage. You read only the first sentence of the paragraph in order to get the central idea of the entire passage.

Scanning: This technique allows you to look for a word, a phrase, a number, or other detail. You must know what you are looking for.

Glancing: This skill will be useful for reading and for taking tests. Glancing involves flicking your eyes over a passage in no particular pattern in order to get an impression of the internal structure or organization of the passage.

Skipping: You will be able to skip some portions of your reading assignments altogether. Perhaps you are very familiar with something and don’t need to review. Save time. Skip it!

Pre-reading and Post-reading Techniques

Before reading the material, take five to ten seconds to glance at each page, using a pacing motion to guide your eyes down the page. This will give you a preview, an overview or suggestion, of what you are about to read. You should be able to glimpse such things as the main ideas, the thesis, the style, and the illustration. Pre-reading enables us to identify useless materials without wasting time reading it in details.

The effect of pre-reading is a feeling of confidence and assurance that will increase your speed and comprehension.

Pre-reading is essential in defining your purpose in reading a particular work. It helps you identify content that is familiar, irrelevant to your purpose, or too technical for you to handle, and that can therefore be safely skipped.

Post-reading’s purpose is to note for a second time the important points that were covered during the reading.

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Critical Reading – Study Systems

A reading – study system is a step –by- step method for identifying, reading ,studying, retaining, and recalling the most important information in a textbook chapter. Using a reading – study system can help focus your concentration on important information, assist you in acquiring and retaining the information, and aid you in recalling the information at a later time.

Reading-Study System Emphasis

SQ3R Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Review

SQ4R Survey-Question-Read-Recite-”Rite”-Review

POINT Purpose-Overview-Interpret-Note-Test

OK4R Overview-Key ideas-Read-Recite-Review-Reflect

PQRST Preview-Question-Read-Summarize-Test

RSVP Review-Study-Verbalize-Preview

EARTH Explore-Ask-Read-Tell-Harvest

OARWET Overview-Ask-Read-Write-Evaluate-Test

PANORAMA Purpose-Adaptability-need to question-Overview-Read-Annotate-Memorize-Assess

PARS Set a purpose-Ask questions re purpose-Read for answer-Summarize

SQRQCQ [for math] Survey-Question-Read-Question-Computer-Question

SQ3R: A Reading and Study Skill System

SURVEY: Gather the information necessary to focus and formulate goals

1. Read the title - help your mind prepare to receive the subject at hand.

2. Read the introduction and/or summary - orient yourself to how this chapter fits the author's purposes, and focus on the author's statement of most important points.

3. Notice each boldface heading and subheading - organize your mind before you begin to read - build a structure for the thoughts and details to come.

4. Notice any graphics - charts, maps, diagrams, etc. are there to make a point - don't miss them.

5. Notice reading aids - italics, bold face print, chapter objective, end-of -chapter questions are all included to help you sort, comprehend, and remember.

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QUESTION: Help your mind engage and concentrate

One section at a time, turn the boldface heading into as many questions as you think will be answered in that section. The better the questions, the better your comprehension is likely to be. You may always add further questions as you proceed. When your mind is actively searching for answers to questions it becomes engaged in learning.

READ: Fill in the information around the mental structures you've been building

Read each section (one at a time) with your questions in mind. Look for the answers, and notice if you need to make up some new questions.

RECITE: Retrain your mind to concentrate and learn as it reads

After each section - stop, recall your questions, and see if you can answer them from memory. If not, look back again (as often as necessary) but don't go on to the next section until you can recite.

REVIEW: Refine your mental organization and begin building memory

Once you've finished the entire chapter using the preceding steps, go back over all the questions from all the headings. See if you can still answer them. If not, look back and refresh your memory, then continue.

Remember:

The information you gain from reading is important. If you just "do it" without learning something; you're wasting a lot of time. Train your mind to learn!!!

Comprehension Monitoring

Comprehension monitoring consists of five basic activities in which the reader engages during silent reading:

Summarizing, Clarifying, Rereading, Questioning, Predicting

Summarizing is simply stopping periodically and telling yourself in abbreviated fashion what you have read.

Clarifying is asking yourself, “Do I understand this? Is this clear?”

Rereading is carefully reading again any passages that were not clear, or that perhaps were clear but did not fit in with the rest of the text.

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Questioning is asking yourself teacher-type questions that might come up on a test about the passage.

Predicting is trying to tell yourself what is likely to come next in the passage you are about to read.

Marking and Underlining a Textbook

Most of us like to read with a pen in our hand so that we can mark important ideas or facts when we come to them , this combination of reading and marking serves to focus our attention on what we are reading . But this has to be done in a certain style.

“Doing It Right” Margin Symbols

Main ideas, thesis, topic sentences (Solid line) ___________

Secondary importance, supporting detail (Broken line)−−−−−−

Things in a series, items that follow in order (Number) 1 ,2 3 ….

A good quote, statement, “neat” thought (Quotation marks) “”

Something questionable, puzzling (Question mark) ?

Summary (1st one, 2nd one, etc.) (Brackets) [ ]

New/Strange words or phrases; to look up (Circle words) ○

Strongly agree / dis-agree (Capital A or D) A / D

Check with the professor on this (Check) ck.

Example, illustration (Capital E)

Definition (def)

Good exam question (x)

Reread later (RR)

Control Your Attitude

Students have different attitudes toward exams, attitudes that affect their ability to prepare for the exams. Here are three common ones:

It’s hopeless: As just another way to defeat students. So it is pointless to prepare thoroughly because they will fail any way.

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Tests are to be feared: Fear of taking tests is quite common. It results in tension that that can make you forget answers that you knew minutes before the test.

Test results can be controlled: This third attitude is positive. It suggests self-confidence and understanding of the nature of tests and the proper ways to prepare for them.

Know When to Study and When to Stop

1. Study every day.

2. Start your review a week before exam.

3. Identify what you don’t know a few days before the exam.

4. Review the night before.

5. Get a good night sleep.

6. Review shortly before the test.

Eliminating Test-Taking Anxiety

1. Be Prepared.

2. Preview the test before doing anything.

3. Schedule your time.

4. Answer easiest questions first.

5. Try to answer all questions.

6. Be the last one to finish.

7. Rarely change answers.

8. Don’t cheat or allow cheating.

Know the Professor – Listen for Clues.

Teachers often let you know what they feel is important. Be aware of the following clues:

This important.

You need to know this.

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This will be covered in the exam.

You may be tested on this.

When your instructors make statements like these, they are giving you clues about what you will need to know:

1. A change in voice.

2. A change in rate of speaking.

3. Use of visuals.

4. Body language.

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