Copper Metal Overview

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CopperAn overview

ContentsArticlesOverview 1

Copper 1

Isotopes 19Isotopes of copper 19

Miscellany 23Peak copper 23List of copper alloys 28Copper deficiency 35

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 42Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 43

Article LicensesLicense 44

1Overview

Copper

Copper

Appearance

red-orange metallic luster

Native copper (~4 cm in size)

General properties

Name, symbol, number copper, Cu, 29

Pronunciation /kpr/ kop-r

Element category transition metal

Group, period, block 11,4, d

Standard atomic weight 63.546(3) gmol1

Electron configuration [Ar] 3d10 4s1

Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 1 (Image)

Physical properties

Phase solid

Density (near r.t.) 8.94 gcm3

Liquid density at m.p. 8.02 gcm3

Melting point 1357.77K,1084.62C,1984.32F

Boiling point 2835K,2562C,4643F

Heat of fusion 13.26 kJmol1

Heat of vaporization 300.4 kJmol1

Specific heat capacity (25 C) 24.440 Jmol1K1

Vapor pressure

P/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k

at T/K 1509 1661 1850 2089 2404 2834

Copper 2

Atomic properties

Oxidation states +1, +2, +3, +4(mildly basic oxide)

Electronegativity 1.90 (Pauling scale)

Ionization energies(more)

1st: 745.5 kJmol1

2nd: 1957.9 kJmol1

3rd: 3555 kJmol1

Atomic radius 128 pm

Covalent radius 1324 pm

Van der Waals radius 140 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure face-centered cubic

Magnetic ordering diamagnetic

Electrical resistivity (20C) 16.78 nm

Thermal conductivity (300 K) 401Wm1K1

Thermal expansion (25 C) 16.5 mm1K1

Speed of sound (thin rod) (r.t.) (annealed)3810ms1

Young's modulus 110128 GPa

Shear modulus 48 GPa

Bulk modulus 140 GPa

Poisson ratio 0.34

Mohs hardness 3.0

Vickers hardness 369 MPa

Brinell hardness 874 MPa

CAS registry number 7440-50-8

Most stable isotopes

iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP

63Cu 69.15% 63Cu is stable with 34 neutron

65Cu 30.85% 65Cu is stable with 36 neutron

Copper ( /kpr/ kop-r) is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; anexposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish. It is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, a building material,and a constituent of various metal alloys.The metal and its alloys have been used for thousands of years. In the Roman era, copper was principally mined on Cyprus, hence the origin of the name of the metal as yprium (metal of Cyprus), later shortened to uprum. Its compounds are commonly encountered as copper(II) salts, which often impart blue or green colors to minerals such as turquoise and have been widely used historically as pigments. Architectural structures built with copper corrode to

Copper 3

give green verdigris (or patina). Decorative art prominently features copper, both by itself and as part of pigments.Copper(II) ions are water-soluble, where they function at low concentration as bacteriostatic substances, fungicides,and wood preservatives. In sufficient amounts, they are poisonous to higher organisms; at lower concentrations it isan essential trace nutrient to all higher plant and animal life. The main areas where copper is found in animals aretissues, liver, muscle and bone.

Characteristics

Physical

A copper disc (99.95% pure) made bycontinuous casting and etching.

Copper just above its melting point keepsits pink luster color when enough light

outshines the orange incandescencecolor.

Copper, silver and gold are in group 11 of the periodic table, and they sharecertain attributes: they have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled d-electronshell and are characterized by high ductility and electrical conductivity. Thefilled d-shells in these elements do not contribute much to the interatomicinteractions, which are dominated by the s-electrons through metallic bonds.Contrary to metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper arelacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This explains the lowhardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper.[1] At the macroscopicscale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grainboundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress therebyincreasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is usually supplied in afine-grained polycrystalline form, which has greater strength thanmonocrystalline forms.[2]

The low hardness of copper partly explains its high electrical (59.6106S/m)and thus also high thermal conductivity, which are the second highest amongpure metals at room temperature.[3] This is because the resistivity to electrontransport in metals at room temperature mostly originates from scattering ofelectrons on thermal vibrations of the lattice, which are relatively weak for asoft metal.[1] The maximum permissible current density of copper in open airis approximately 3.1106A/m2 of cross-sectional area, above which it beginsto heat excessively.[4] As with other metals, if copper is placed againstanother metal, galvanic corrosion will occur.[5]

Together with osmium (bluish), and gold (yellow), copper is one of only threeelemental metals with a natural color other than gray or silver.[6] Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddishtarnish when exposed to air. The characteristic color of copper results from the electronic transitions between thefilled 3d and half-empty 4s atomic shells the energy difference between these shells is such that it corresponds toorange light. The same mechanism accounts for the yellow color of gold.[1]

Copper 4

Chemical

Unoxidized copper wire (left) andoxidized copper wire (right).

Copper forms a rich variety of compounds with oxidation states +1 and +2,which are often called cuprous and cupric, respectively.[7] It does not reactwith water, but it slowly reacts with atmospheric oxygen forming a layer ofbrown-black copper oxide. In contrast to the oxidation of iron by wet air, thisoxide layer stops the further, bulk corrosion. A green layer of verdigris(copper carbonate) can often be seen on old copper constructions, such as theStatue of Liberty, the largest copper statue in the world build using repoussand chasing.[8] Hydrogen sulfides and sulfides react with copper to formvarious copper sulfides on the surface. In the latter case, the copper corrodes,as is seen when copper is exposed to air containing sulfur compounds.[9]

Oxygen-containing ammonia solutions give water-soluble complexes withcopper, as do oxygen and hydrochloric acid to form copper chlorides andacidified hydrogen peroxide to form copper(II) salts. Copper(II) chloride and

copper comproportionate to form copper(I) chloride.[10]

IsotopesThere are 29 isotopes of copper. 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturallyoccurring copper; they both have a spin of 3/2.[11] The other isotopes are radioactive, with the most stable being67Cu with a half-life of 61.83hours.[11] Seven metastable isotopes have been characterized, with 68mCu thelongest-lived with a half-life of 3.8 minutes. Isotopes with a mass number above 64 decay by -, whereas those witha mass number below 64 decay by +. 64Cu, which has a half-life of 12.7 hours, decays both ways.[12]62Cu and 64Cu have significant applications. 64Cu is a radiocontrast for X-ray imaging, and complexed with achelate can be used for treating cancer. 62Cu is used in 62Cu-PTSM that is a radioactive tracer for positron emissiontomography.[13]

OccurrenceCopper can be found as either native copper or as part of minerals. Native copper is a polycrystal, with the largestdescribed single crystal measuring 4.43.23.2cm.[14] The largest mass of elemental copper weighed 420 tonnesand was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan, US.[15] There are many examples ofcopper-containing minerals: chalcopyrite and chalcocite are copper sulfides, azurite and malachite are coppercarbonates and cuprite is a copper oxide.[3] Copper is present in the Earth's crust at a concentration of about 50 partsper million (ppm),[15] and is also synthesized in massive stars.[16]

Production

Copper 5

Chuquicamata in Chile is one of the world'slargest open pit copper mines.

World production trend

Copper output in 2005

Copper prices 20032011 in USD per tonne

Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large openpit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper.Examples include Chuquicamata in Chile, Bingham Canyon Mine inUtah, United States and El Chino Mine in New Mexico, United States.According to the British Geological Survey, in 2005, Chile was the topmine producer of copper with at least one-third world share followedby the United States, Indonesia and Peru.[3] The amount of copper inuse is increasing and the quantity available is barely sufficient to allowall countries to reach developed world levels of usage.[17]

Reserves

Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of allcopper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900. As withmany natural resources, the total amount of copper on Earth is vast(around 1014 tons just in the top kilometer of Earth's crust, or about 5million years worth at the current rate of extraction). However, only atiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable, givenpresent-day prices and technologies. Various estimates of existingcopper reserves available for mining vary from 25 years to 60 years,depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate.[18] Recyclingis a major source of copper in the modern world.[19] Because of theseand other factors, the future of copper production and supply is thesubject of much debate, including the concept of Peak copper,analogue to Peak Oil.

The price of copper has historically been unstable,[20] and it quintupledfrom the 60-year low of US$0.60/lb (US$1.32/kg) in June 1999 toUS$3.75 per pound (US$8.27/kg) in May 2006. It dropped toUS$2.40/lb (US$5.29/kg) in February 2007, then rebounded toUS$3.50/lb (US$7.71/kg) in April 2007.[21] In February 2009,weakening global demand and a steep fall in commodity prices sincethe previous year's highs left copper prices at US$1.51/lb.[22]

Methods

The concentration of copper in ores averages only 0.6%, and mostcommercial ores are sulfides, especially chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and to a lesser extent chalcocite (Cu2S).

[23] Theseminerals are concentrated from crushed ores to the level of 1015% copper by froth flotation or bioleaching.[24]

Heating this material with silica in flash smelting removes much of the iron as slag. The process exploits the greaterease of converting iron sulfides into its oxides, which in turn react with the silica to form the silicate slag, whichfloats on top of the heated mass. The resulting copper matte consisting of Cu2S is then roasted to convert all sulfidesinto oxides:[23]

2 Cu2S + 3 O2 2 Cu2O + 2 SO2The cuprous oxide is converted to blister copper upon heating:

2 Cu2O 4 Cu + O2

Copper 6

This step exploits the relatively easy reduction of copper oxides to copper metal. Natural gas is blown across theblister to remove most of the remaining oxygen and electrorefining is performed on the resulting material to producepure copper:[25]

Cu2+ + 2 e Cu

RecyclingCopper, like aluminium, is 100% recyclable without any loss of quality whether in a raw state or contained in amanufactured product. In volume, copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium. It is estimatedthat 80% of the copper ever mined is still in use today.[26] According to the International Resource Panel's MetalStocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of Copper in use in society is 3555kg. Much of this is inmore-developed countries (140300kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (3040kg per capita).The process of recycling copper follows roughly the same steps as is used to extract copper, but requires fewer steps.High purity scrap copper is melted in a furnace and then reduced and cast into billets and ingots; lower purity scrapis refined by electroplating in a bath of sulfuric acid.[27]

Compounds

A sample of copper(I) oxide.

Binary compounds

As for other elements, the simplest compounds of copper are binarycompounds, i.e. those containing only two elements. The principalones are the oxides, sulfides and halides. Both cuprous and cupricoxides are known. Among the numerous copper sulfides, importantexamples include copper(I) sulfide and copper(II) sulfide.

The cuprous halides with chlorine, bromine, and iodine are known, asare the cupric halides with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine. Attempts toprepare copper(II) iodide give cuprous iodide and iodine.[7]

2 Cu2+ + 4 I 2 CuI + I2

Copper 7

Coordination chemistry

Copper(II) gives a deep blue coloration in thepresence of ammonia ligands. The one used here

is tetramminecopper(II) sulfate.

Copper, like all metals, forms coordination complexes with ligands. Inaqueous solution, copper(II) exists as [Cu(H2O)6]

2+. This complexexhibits the fastest water exchange rate (speed of water ligandsattaching and detaching) for any transition metal aquo complex.Adding aqueous sodium hydroxide causes the precipitation of lightblue solid copper(II) hydroxide. A simplified equation is:

Cu2+ + 2 OH Cu(OH)2Aqueous ammonia results in the same precipitate. Upon adding excessammonia, the precipitate dissolves, forming tetraamminecopper(II):

Cu(H2O)4(OH)2 + 4 NH3 [Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4]2+ + 2 H2O + 2

OH

Many other oxyanions form complexes; these include copper(II)acetate, copper(II) nitrate, and copper(II) carbonate. Copper(II) sulfateforms a blue crystalline pentahydrate, which is the most familiar

copper compound in the laboratory. It is used in a fungicide called the Bordeaux mixture.[28]

Ball-and-stick model of the complex[Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]

2+, illustrating the octahedralcoordination geometry common for copper(II).

Polyols, compounds containing more than one alcohol functionalgroup, generally interact with cupric salts. For example, coppersalts are used to test for reducing sugars. Specifically, usingBenedict's reagent and Fehling's solution the presence of the sugaris signaled by a color change from blue Cu(II) to reddish copper(I)oxide.[29] Schweizer's reagent and related complexes withethylenediamine and other amines dissolve cellulose.[30] Aminoacids form very stable chelate complexes with copper(II). Manywet-chemical tests for copper ions exist, one involving potassiumferrocyanide, which gives a brown precipitate with copper(II)salts.

Organocopper chemistry

Compounds that contain a carbon-copper bond are known asorganocopper compounds. They are very reactive towards oxygento form copper(I) oxide and have many uses in chemistry. Theyare synthesized by treating copper(I) compounds with Grignard reagents, terminal alkynes or organolithiumreagents;[31] in particular, the last reaction described produces a Gilman reagent. These can undergo substitution withalkyl halides to form coupling products; as such, they are important in the field of organic synthesis. Copper(I)acetylide is highly shock-sensitive but is an intermediate in reactions such as the Cadiot-Chodkiewicz coupling[32]

and the Sonogashira coupling.[33] Conjugate addition to enones[34] and carbocupration of alkynes[35] can also beachieved with organocopper compounds. Copper(I) forms a variety of weak complexes with alkenes and carbonmonoxide, especially in the presence of amine ligands.[36]

Copper 8

Copper(III) and copper(IV)Complexes of copper(III) are frequent intermediates in reactions of organocopper compounds. Dicopper oxocomplexes also feature copper(III).[37] Fluoride ligands, being highly basic, stabilize metal ions in high oxidationstates; indeed, representative copper(III) and copper(IV) complex are fluorides. These include K3CuF6 andCs2CuF6.

[7] With di- and tripeptides, purple-colored complexes of copper(III) have been observed, this highoxidation state being stabilized by the deprotonated amide ligands.[38]

History

Copper Age

A corroded copper ingot from Zakros, Crete,shaped in the form of an animal skin typical for

that era.

Copper occurs naturally as native copper and was known to some ofthe oldest civilizations on record. It has a history of use that is at least10,000 years old, and estimates of its discovery place it at 9000 BC inthe Middle East;[39] a copper pendant was found in northern Iraq thatdates to 8700 BC.[40] There is evidence that gold and iron were theonly metals used by humans before copper.[41] Copper smelting wasinvented locally in several different places. It was probably discoveredindependently in China before 2800 BC, in Central America perhapsaround 600 AD, and in West Africa about the 9th or 10th centuryAD.[42] Investment casting was invented in 45004000 BC inSoutheast Asia[39] and carbon dating has established mining at

Alderley Edge in Cheshire, UK at 2280 to 1890 BC.[43] tzi the Iceman, a male dated from 33003200 BC, wasfound with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure; high levels of arsenic in his hair suggest his involvement incopper smelting.[44] Experience with copper has assisted the development of other metals; in particular, coppersmelting led to the discovery of iron smelting.[44] Production in the Old Copper Complex in Michigan andWisconsin is dated between 6000 and 3000 BC.[45] [46]

Bronze AgeAlloying of copper with zinc or tin to make brass and bronze was practiced soon after the discovery of copper.Bronze artifacts from Sumerian cities and Egyptian artifacts of copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC.[47] TheBronze Age was from 2500 BC to 600 BC when usage of bronze was widespread in Europe; the transition betweenthe Neolithic period and the Bronze Age is termed the Chalcolithic period (copper-stone), with copper tools beingused with stone tools. Brass was known to the Greeks, but became a significant supplement to bronze during theRoman Empire.[47]

Copper 9

Antiquity and Middle Ages

Chalcolithic copper mine in Timna Valley, NegevDesert, Israel.

In Greece, copper was known by the name chalkos (). It was animportant resource for the Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples.In Roman times, it was known as aes Cyprium, aes being the genericLatin term for copper alloys and Cyprium from Cyprus, where muchcopper was mined. The phrase was simplified to cuprum, hence theEnglish copper. Aphrodite and Venus represented copper in mythologyand alchemy, due to its lustrous beauty, its ancient use in producingmirrors, and its association with Cyprus, which was sacred to thegoddess. The seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients wereassociated with the seven metals known in antiquity, and Venus wasassigned to copper.[48]

Britain's first use of brass occurred around the 3rd2nd century BC. In North America, copper mining began withmarginal workings by Native Americans. Native copper is known to have been extracted from sites on Isle Royalewith primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600.[49] Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America,particularly in Peru around 1000 AD; it proceeded at a much slower rate on other continents. Copper burialornamentals from the 15th century have been uncovered, but the metal's commercial production did not start until theearly 20th century.

The cultural role of copper has been important, particularly in currency. Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries BCused copper lumps as money. At first, the copper itself was valued, but gradually the shape and look of the copperbecame more important. Julius Caesar had his own coins made from brass, while Octavianus Augustus Caesar'scoins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn alloys. With an estimated annual output of around 15,000 t, Roman copper miningand smelting activities reached a scale unsurpassed until the time of the Industrial Revolution; the provinces mostintensely mined were those of Hispania, Cyprus and in Central Europe.[50] [51]

The gates of the Temple of Jerusalem used Corinthian bronze made by depletion gilding. It was most prevalent inAlexandria, where alchemy is thought to have begun.[52] In ancient India, copper was used in the holistic medicalscience Ayurveda for surgical instruments and other medical equipment. Ancient Egyptians (~2400 BC) used copperfor sterilizing wounds and drinking water, and later on for headaches, burns, and itching. The Baghdad Battery, withcopper cylinders soldered to lead, dates back to 248 BC to AD 226 and resembles a galvanic cell, leading people tobelieve this was the first battery; the claim has not been verified.[53]

Copper 10

Modern period

Acid mine drainage affecting the stream runningfrom the disused Parys Mountain copper mines

The Great Copper Mountain was a mine in Falun, Sweden, thatoperated from the 10th century to 1992. It produced two thirds ofEurope's copper demand in the 17th century and helped fund many ofSweden's wars during that time.[54] It was referred to as the nation'streasury; Sweden had a copper backed currency.[55]

The uses of copper in art were not limited to currency: it was used byRenaissance sculptors, in pre-photographic technology known as thedaguerreotype, and the Statue of Liberty. Copper plating and coppersheathing for ships' hulls was widespread; the ships of ChristopherColumbus were among the earliest to have this feature.[56] TheNorddeutsche Affinerie in Hamburg was the first modernelectroplating plant starting its production in 1876.[57] The Germanscientist Gottfried Osann invented powder metallurgy in 1830 whiledetermining the metal's atomic mass; around then it was discoveredthat the amount and type of alloying element (e.g. tin) to copper wouldaffect bell tones. Flash smelting was developed by Outokumpu inFinland and first applied at Harjavalta in 1949; the energy-efficientprocess accounts for 50% of the worlds primary copper production.[58]

The Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries, formed in 1967 with Chile, Peru, Zaire and Zambia,played a similar role for copper as OPEC does for oil. It never achieved the same influence, particularly because thesecond-largest producer, the United States, was never a member; it was dissolved in 1988.[59]

Applications

Assorted copper fittings

The major applications of copper are in electrical wires (60%), roofingand plumbing (20%) and industrial machinery (15%). Copper is mostlyused as a metal, but when a higher hardness is required it is combinedwith other elements to make an alloy (5% of total use) such as brassand bronze.[15] A small part of copper supply is used in production ofcompounds for nutritional supplements and fungicides inagriculture.[28] [60] Machining of copper is possible, although it isusually necessary to use an alloy for intricate parts to get goodmachinability characteristics.

Copper 11

Electronics and related devices

Copper electrical busbars distributing power to alarge building

The electrical properties of copper are exploited in copper wires anddevices such as electromagnets. Integrated circuits and printed circuitboards increasingly feature copper in place of aluminium because of itssuperior electrical conductivity (see Copper interconnect for mainarticle); heat sinks and heat exchangers use copper as a result of itssuperior heat dissipation capacity to aluminium. Vacuum tubes,cathode ray tubes, and the magnetrons in microwave ovens use copper,as do wave guides for microwave radiation.[61]

Architecture and industry

Copper roof on the Minneapolis City Hall, coatedwith patina

Because of the waterproof nature of copper, it has been used as theroofing material of many buildings since ancient times. The greencolor on these buildings is due to a long-term chemical reaction:copper is first oxidized to copper(II) oxide, then to cuprous and cupricsulfide and finally to copper(II) carbonate, also called verdigris, whichis highly corrosion-resistant.[62] The copper used in this application isphosphorus deoxidized copper (Cu-DHP).[63] Lightning rods usecopper as a means to divert electric current throughout the groundinstead of destroying the main structure.[64] Copper has excellentbrazing and soldering properties and can be welded; the best results areobtained with gas metal arc welding.[65]

Copper in alloys

Numerous copper alloys exist, many with important uses. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and bronze usuallyrefers to copper-tin alloys, but can refer to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze. Copper is one of the mostimportant constituents of carat silver and gold alloys and carat solders used in the jewelry industry, modifying thecolor, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys.[66]

The alloy of copper and nickel, called cupronickel, is used in low-denomination statuary coins, often for the outercladding. The US 5-cent coin called nickel consists of 75% copper and 25% nickel and has a homogeneouscomposition. The 90% copper/10% nickel alloy is

Copper 12

Old copper utensils in a Jerusalem restaurant

remarkable by its resistance to corrosion and is used in various partsbeing exposed to seawater. Alloys of copper with aluminium (about7%) have a pleasant golden color and are used in decorations.[15]

Copper alloys with tin are part of lead-free solders.[67]

Antimicrobial applications

Copper-alloy touch surfaces have natural intrinsic properties to destroya wide range of microorganisms (e.g., E. coli O157:H7,methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus,Clostridium difficile, influenza A virus, adenovirus, and fungi).[68]

Some 355 copper alloys were proven to kill more than 99.9% ofdisease-causing bacteria within just two hours when cleanedregularly.[69] The United States Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) has approved the registrations of these copper alloys asantimicrobial materials with public health benefits,"[69] which allowsmanufacturers to legally make claims as to the positive public healthbenefits of products made with registered antimicrobial copper alloys.In addition, the EPA has approved a long list of antimicrobial copperproducts made from these alloys, such as bedrails, handrails, over-bedtables, sinks, faucets, door knobs, toilet hardware, computer keyboards, health club equipment, shopping carthandles, etc. (for a comprehensive list of products, see: Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces#Approvedproducts). Copper doorknobs are used by hospitals to reduce the transfer of disease, and Legionnaires' disease issuppressed by copper tubing in plumbing systems.[70] Antimicrobial copper alloy products are now being installed inhealthcare facilities in the U.K., Ireland, Japan, Korea, France, Denmark, and Brazil and in the subway transit systemin Santiago, Chile, where copper-zinc alloy handrails will be installed in some 30 stations between 20112014.[71][72] [73]

Antibiofouling applicationsCopper has long been used as a biostatic surface to line parts of ships to protect against barnacles and mussels. It wasoriginally used pure, but has since been superseded by Muntz metal. Bacteria will not grow on a copper surfacebecause it is biostatic. Similarly, as discussed in copper alloys in aquaculture, copper alloys have become importantnetting materials in the aquaculture industry for the fact that they are antimicrobial and prevent biofouling even inextreme conditions[74] and have strong structural and corrosion-resistant[75] properties in marine environments.

Other usesCopper compounds in liquid form are used as a wood preservative, particularly in treating original portion ofstructures during restoration of damage due to dry rot. Together with zinc, copper wires may be placed overnon-conductive roofing materials to discourage the growth of moss. Textile fibers use copper to create antimicrobialprotective fabrics,[76] as do ceramic glazes, stained glass and musical instruments. Electroplating commonly usescopper as a base for other metals such as nickel.Copper is one of three metals, along with lead and silver, used in a museum materials testing procedure called theOddy test. In this procedure, copper is used to detect chlorides, oxides, and sulfur compounds.Copper is also commonly found in jewelry, and folklore states that copper bracelets relieve arthritis symptoms,though this is not proven.[77]

Copper 13

Biological role

Rich sources of copper include oysters, beef andlamb liver, Brazil nuts, blackstrap molasses,

cocoa, and black pepper. Good sources includelobster, nuts and sunflower seeds, green olives,

avocados, and wheat bran.

Copper proteins have diverse roles in biological electron transport andoxygen transportation, processes that exploit the easy interconversionof Cu(I) and Cu(II).[78] The biological role for copper commenced withthe appearance of oxygen in earth's atmosphere.[79] The proteinhemocyanin is the oxygen carrier in most mollusks and somearthropods such as the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus).[80]

Because hemocyanin is blue, these organisms have blue blood, not thered blood found in organisms that rely on hemoglobin for this purpose.Structurally related to hemocyanin are the laccases and tyrosinases.Instead of reversibly binding oxygen, these proteins hydroxylatesubstrates, illustrated by their role in the formation of lacquers.[78]

Copper is also a component of other proteins associated with theprocessing of oxygen. In cytochrome c oxidase, which is required foraerobic respiration, copper and iron cooperate in the reduction of oxygen. Copper is also found in many superoxidedismutases, proteins that detoxify superoxides, by converting it (by disproportionation) to oxygen and hydrogenperoxide:

2 HO2 H2O2 + O2Several copper proteins, such as the "blue copper proteins", do not interact directly with substrates, hence they arenot enzymes. These proteins relay electrons by the process called electron transfer.[78]

Photosynthesis functions by an elaborate electron transport chain within the thylakoidmembrane. A central "link" in this chain is plastocyanin, a blue copper protein.

Dietary needs

Copper is an essential trace element inplants and animals, but not somemicroorganisms. The human bodycontains copper at a level of about 1.4to 2.1mg per kg of body mass.[81]

Stated differently, the RDA for copperin normal healthy adults is quoted as0.97mg/day and as 3.0mg/day.[82]

Copper is absorbed in the gut, thentransported to the liver bound toalbumin. It enters the bloodstream viathe plasma protein calledceruloplasmin, where its metabolism iscontrolled, and is excreted in bile.[83]

Copper-based disorders

Because of its role in facilitating iron uptake, copper deficiency can produce anemia-like symptoms, neutropenia,bone abnormalities, hypopigmentation, impaired growth, increased incidence of infections, osteoporosis, andabnormalities in glucose and cholesterol metabolism. Conversely, an accumulation of copper in body tissues causesWilson's disease. Severe deficiency can be found by testing for low plasma or serum copper levels, low

ceruloplasmin, and low red blood cell superoxide dismutase levels; these are not sensitive to marginal copper status. The "cytochrome c oxidase activity of leucocytes and platelets" has been stated as another factor in deficiency, but

Copper 14

the results have not been confirmed by replication.[84]

Antimicrobial propertiesNumerous antimicrobial efficacy studies have been conducted in the past 10 years regarding coppers efficacy todestroy a wide range of bacteria, as well as influenza A virus, adenovirus, and fungi.[68]

Extensive EPA-sanctioned tests using Good Laboratory Practices have found that when cleaned regularly, some 355different EPA-registered antimicrobial copper alloy surfaces: Continuously reduce bacterial contamination, achieving 99.9% reduction within two hours of exposure; Kill greater than 99.9% of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria within two hours of exposure; Deliver continuous and ongoing antibacterial action, remaining effective in killing greater than 99.9% of bacteria

within two hours; Kill greater than 99.9% of bacteria within two hours, and continue to kill 99% of bacteria even after repeated

contamination; Help inhibit the buildup and growth of bacteria within two hours of exposure between routine cleaning and

sanitizing steps. Testing demonstrates effective antibacterial activity against E. coli O157:H7, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus

aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus Epidermidis, Enterobacter aerogenes, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.Several of the aforementioned bacteria are responsible for a large portion of the nearly two million hospital-acquiredinfections contracted each year in the United States.[85]

Precautions

NFPA 704

Fire diamond for copper metal

Gram quantities of various copper salts have been taken in suicide attempts and produced acute copper toxicity inhumans, possibly due to redox cycling and the generation of reactive oxygen species that damage DNA.[86]

Corresponding amounts of copper salts (30mg/kg) are toxic in animals.[87] A minimum dietary value for healthygrowth in rabbits has been reported to be at least 3 ppm in the diet.[88] However, higher concentrations of copper(100 ppm, 200 ppm, or 500 ppm) in the diet of rabbits may favorably influence feed conversion efficiency, growthrates, and carcass dressing percentages.[89]

Chronic copper toxicity does not normally occur in humans because of transport systems that regulate absorption andexcretion. Autosomal recessive mutations in copper transport proteins can disable these systems, leading to Wilson'sdisease with copper accumulation and cirrhosis of the liver in persons who have inherited two defective genes.[81]

Copper 15

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FAQS. htm). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. deforest. lib. wi. us/ FAQS. htm) on 2007-06-25. . Retrieved 2007-09-20.[63] ASTM B 152, Standard Specification for Copper Sheet, Strip, Plate, and Rolled Bar.[64] Physics 1, Jacaranda Science. 3rd Ed.. 2009.[65] Davis, Joseph R. (2001). Copper and Copper Alloys. ASM International. pp.36, 266. ISBN0871707268.[66] "Gold Jewellery Alloys" (http:/ / www. utilisegold. com/ jewellery_technology/ colours/ colour_alloys/ ). World Gold Council. . Retrieved

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2011-11-08.[68] Copper Touch Surfaces (http:/ / coppertouchsurfaces. org/ antimicrobial/ bacteria/ index. html). Copper Touch Surfaces. Retrieved on

2011-11-08.[69] EPA registers copper-containing alloy products (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ pesticides/ factsheets/ copper-alloy-products. htm), May 2008[70] Biurrun, Amaya; Caballero, Luis; Pelaz, Carmen; Len, Elena; Gago, Alberto (1999). "Treatment of a Legionella pneumophilaColonized

Water Distribution System Using CopperSilver Ionization and Continuous Chlorination". Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 20(6): 426428. doi:10.1086/501645. JSTOR30141645.

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[72] Codelco to provide antimicrobial copper for new metro lines (Chile) (http:/ / construpages. com. ve/ nl/ noticia_nl. php?id_noticia=3032&language=en). Construpages.com.ve. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.

[73] PR 811 Chilean Subway Installs Antimicrobial Copper (http:/ / www. antimicrobialcopper. com/ media/ 149689/pr811-chilean-subway-installs-antimicrobial-copper. pdf). (PDF). antimicrobialcopper.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.

[74] Edding, Mario E., Flores, Hector, and Miranda, Claudio, (1995), Experimental Usage of Copper-Nickel Alloy Mesh in Mariculture. Part 1:Feasibility of usage in a temperate zone; Part 2: Demonstration of usage in a cold zone; Final report to the International Copper AssociationLtd.

[75] Corrosion Behaviour of Copper Alloys used in Marine Aquaculture (http:/ / www. copper. org/ applications/ cuni/ pdf/ marine_aquaculture.pdf). (PDF) . copper.org. Retrieved on 2011-11-08.

[76] "Antimicrobial Products that Shield Against Bacteria and Fungi" (http:/ / www. cupron. com/ ). Cupron, Inc.. 2008. . Retrieved 2008-07-13.[77] Walker, W. R.; Keats, D. M. (1976). "An investigation of the therapeutic value of the 'copper bracelet'-dermal assimilation of copper in

arthritic/rheumatoid conditions". Agents Actions 6 (4): 454459. PMID961545.[78] S. J. Lippard, J. M. Berg Principles of bioinorganic chemistry University Science Books: Mill Valley, CA; 1994. ISBN 0-935702-73-3.[79] Decker, H. and Terwilliger, N. (2000). "COPs and Robbers: Putative evolution of copper oxygen-binding proteins". Journal of Experimental

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2008-07-13.[81] "Amount of copper in the normal human body, and other nutritional copper facts" (http:/ / www. copper. org/ consumers/ health/ papers/

cu_health_uk/ cu_health_uk. html). . Retrieved April 3, 2009.[82] Copper. In: Recommended Dietary Allowances. Washington, D.C.: National Research Council, Food Nutrition Board, NRC/NAS. 1980.

pp.151154.[83] Adelstein, S. J.; Vallee, B. L. (1961). "Copper metabolism in man". New England Journal of Medicine 265: 892897.

doi:10.1056/NEJM196111022651806.[84] Bonham, M. et al. (2002). "The immune system as a physiological indicator of marginal copper status?". British Journal of Nutrition 87 (5):

393403. doi:10.1079/BJN2002558. PMID12010579.[85] "Center for Disease Control and Prevention" (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ ncidod/ eid/ vol7no2/ pdfs/ peterson. pdf). . Retrieved 2009-06-06.[86] Li, Yunbo; Trush, Michael; Yager, James (1994). "DNA damage caused by reactive oxygen species originating from a copper-dependent

oxidation of the 2-hydroxy catechol of estradiol". Carcinogenesis 15 (7): 14211427. doi:10.1093/carcin/15.7.1421. PMID8033320.[87] "Pesticide Information Profile for Copper Sulfate" (http:/ / pmep. cce. cornell. edu/ profiles/ extoxnet/ carbaryl-dicrotophos/

copper-sulfate-ext. html). Cornell University. . Retrieved 2008-07-10.[88] Hunt, Charles E. and William W. Carlton (1965). "Cardiovascular Lesions Associated with Experimental Copper Deficiency in the Rabbit".

Journal of Nutrition 87: 385394. PMID5841854.[89] Ayyat M.S., Marai I.F.M., Alazab A.M. (1995). "Copper-Protein Nutrition of New Zealand White Rabbits under Egyptian Conditions"

(http:/ / riunet. upv. es/ handle/ 10251/ 10503?locale-attribute=en). World Rabbit Science 3: 113118. .

Copper 18

Notes

Pourbaix diagrams for copper

in pure water, or acidic or alkaliconditions. Copper in neutral water is

more noble than hydrogen.

in water containing sulfide in 10 M ammonia solution in a chloride solution

Further reading Massaro, Edward J., ed (2002). Handbook of Copper Pharmacology and Toxicology. Humana Press.

ISBN0-89603-943-9. "Copper: Technology & Competitiveness (Summary) Chapter 6: Copper Production Technology" (http:/ / www.

princeton. edu/ ~ota/ disk2/ 1988/ 8808/ 880808. PDF). Office of Technology Assessment. 2005. Current Medicinal Chemistry, Volume 12, Number 10, May 2005, pp.11611208(48) Metals, Toxicity and

Oxidative Stress William D. Callister (2003). Materials Science and Engineering: an Introduction, 6th Ed.. Table 6.1, p. 137:

Wiley, New York. ISBN0471736961. Material: Copper (Cu), bulk (http:/ / www. memsnet. org/ material/ coppercubulk/ ), MEMS and Nanotechnology

Clearinghouse. Kim BE, Nevitt T, Thiele DJ (2008). "Mechanisms for copper acquisition, distribution and regulation" (http:/ /

www. nature. com/ nchembio/ journal/ v4/ n3/ abs/ nchembio. 72. html). Nat. Chem. Biol. 4 (3): 176.doi:10.1038/nchembio.72. PMID18277979.

Copper transport disorders (http:/ / www. rsc. org/ Publishing/ Journals/ cb/ Volume/ 2009/ 1/ Copper. asp): anInstant insight from the Royal Society of Chemistry

External links National Pollutant Inventory Copper and compounds fact sheet (http:/ / www. npi. gov. au/ substances/ copper/

index. html) Copper Resource Page. (http:/ / www. weldaloy. com/ resource_center. php) Includes 12 PDF files detailing the

material properties of various kinds of copper, as well as various guides and tools for the copper industry. The Copper Development Association (http:/ / www. copper. org) has an extensive site of properties and uses of

copper; it also maintains a web site dedicated to [[brass (http:/ / www. brass. org)], a copper alloy]. The Third Millennium Online page on Copper (http:/ / www. 3rd1000. com/ elements/ Copper. htm) Price history of copper, according to the IMF (http:/ / www. indexmundi. com/ commodities/

?commodity=copper& months=300)

19

Isotopes

Isotopes of copperCopper (Cu) has two stable isotopes, 63Cu and 65Cu, along with 27 radioisotopes. The most stable of these is 67Cuwith a half-life of 61.83hours. The least stable is 54Cu with a half-life of approximately 75ns. Most have half-livesunder a minute. Unstable copper isotopes with atomic masses below 63 tend to undergo + decay, while isotopeswith atomic masses above 65 tend to undergo decay. 64Cu decays by both + and .[1]68Cu, 69Cu, 71Cu, 72Cu, and 76Cu each have one metastable isomer. 70Cu has two isomers, making a total of 7distinct isomers. The most stable of these is 68mCu with a half-life of 3.75minutes. The least stable is 69mCu with ahalf-life of 360ns.[1]

Standard atomic mass: 63.546(3) u.

Table

nuclidesymbol

Z(p) N(n) isotopic mass(u)

half-life decaymode(s)[2]

[3]

daughterisotope(s)[4]

nuclearspin

representativeisotopic

composition(mole

fraction)

range of naturalvariation

(mole fraction)

excitation energy

52Cu 29 23 51.99718(28)# p 51Ni (3+)#

53Cu 29 24 52.98555(28)#

Isotopes of copper 20

63Cu 29 34 62.9295975(6) Stable 3/2- 0.6915(15) 0.68983-0.69338

64Cu 29 35 63.9297642(6) 12.700(2) h + (61%) 64Ni 1+

- (39%) 64Zn65Cu 29 36 64.9277895(7) Stable 3/2- 0.3085(15)

0.30662-0.31017

66Cu 29 37 65.9288688(7) 5.120(14)min

- 66Zn 1+

67Cu 29 38 66.9277303(13)

61.83(12)h

- 67Zn 3/2-

68Cu 29 39 67.9296109(17)

31.1(15) s - 68Zn 1+

68mCu 721.6(7) keV 3.75(5) min IT (84%) 68Cu (6-)

- (16%) 68Zn69Cu 29 40

68.9294293(15) 2.85(15)min

- 69Zn 3/2-

69mCu 2741.8(10) keV 360(30) ns (13/2+)

70Cu 29 41 69.9323923(17)

44.5(2) s - 70Zn (6-)

70m1Cu 101.1(3) keV 33(2) s - 70Zn (3-)

70m2Cu 242.6(5) keV 6.6(2) s 1+

71Cu 29 42 70.9326768(16)

19.4(14) s - 71Zn (3/2-)

71mCu 2756(10) keV 271(13) ns (19/2-)

72Cu 29 43 71.9358203(15)

6.6(1) s - 72Zn (1+)

72mCu 270(3) keV 1.76(3) s (4-)

73Cu 29 44 72.936675(4) 4.2(3) s -(>99.9%)

73Zn (3/2-)

-, n(


75Cu 29 46 74.94190(105) 1.224(3) s - (96.5%) 75Zn (3/2-)#

-, n(3.5%)

74Zn

76Cu 29 47 75.945275(7) 641(6) ms - (97%) 76Zn (3,5)

-, n (3%) 75Zn76mCu 0(200)# keV 1.27(30) s - 76Zn (1,3)

77Cu 29 48 76.94785(43)# 469(8) ms - 77Zn 3/2-#

78Cu 29 49 77.95196(43)# 342(11)ms

- 78Zn

79Cu 29 50 78.95456(54)# 188(25) ms -, n (55%) 78Zn 3/2-#

- (45%) 79Zn80Cu 29 51 79.96087(64)# 100# ms

[>300 ns]- 80Zn

[1] G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties" (http:/ /www. nndc. bnl. gov/ amdc/ nubase/ Nubase2003. pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729: 3128. Bibcode2003NuPhA.729....3A.doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001. .

[2] Nucleonica: Universal Nuclide Chart (http:/ / www. nucleonica. net/ unc. aspx)[3] Abbreviations:

IT: Isomeric transition[4] Bold for stable isotopes

Notes The precision of the isotope abundances and atomic mass is limited through variations. The given ranges should

be applicable to any normal terrestrial material. Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends. Spins

with weak assignment arguments are enclosed in parentheses. Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty values

denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from IUPAC which useexpanded uncertainties.

References Isotope masses from:

G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclearand decay properties" (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ amdc/ nubase/ Nubase2003. pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729:3128. Bibcode2003NuPhA.729....3A. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.

Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from: J. R. de Laeter, J. K. Bhlke, P. De Bivre, H. Hidaka, H. S. Peiser, K. J. R. Rosman and P. D. P. Taylor

(2003). "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/publications/ pac/ 75/ 6/ 0683/ pdf/ ). Pure and Applied Chemistry 75 (6): 683800.doi:10.1351/pac200375060683.

M. E. Wieser (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)" (http:/ / iupac. org/ publications/ pac/ 78/ 11/ 2051/ pdf/ ). Pure and Applied Chemistry 78 (11): 20512066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051. Lay summary (http:/ / old. iupac. org/ news/ archives/ 2005/


atomic-weights_revised05. html). Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources. See editing notes on this article's talk page.

G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclearand decay properties" (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ amdc/ nubase/ Nubase2003. pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729:3128. Bibcode2003NuPhA.729....3A. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001.

National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.1 database" (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ nudat2/ ). BrookhavenNational Laboratory. Retrieved September 2005.

N. E. Holden (2004). "Table of the Isotopes". In D. R. Lide. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85thed.). CRC Press. Section 11. ISBN978-0849304859.

23

Miscellany

Peak copper

World copper production, 1900-2002

Peak copper is the point in time at whichthe maximum global copper production rateis reached. Since copper is a finite resource,at some point in the future new productionfrom within the earth will diminish, and atsome earlier time production will reach amaximum. When this will occur is a matterof dispute. Unlike fossil fuels, however,copper is scrapped and reused and it hasbeen estimated that at least 80% of allcopper ever mined is still available (havingbeen repeatedly recycled).[1] Copper isamong the most important industrial metals.Copper is used in electrical power cables,data cables, electrical equipment,automobile radiators, cooling and refrigeration tubing, heat exchangers, artillery shell casings, small armsammunition, water pipes, and jewellery. Copper has been in use at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of allcopper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900. As India and China race to catch up with the West,the copper supply chain is becoming more strained,[2] leading to increased prices and an increase in copper theft.

Copper demandTotal world production is about 15 million tons per year.[3] Copper demand is increasing by more than 575,000 tonsannually and accelerating.[2] Based on 2006 figures for per capita consumption, Tom Graedel and colleagues at YaleUniversity calculate that by 2100 global demand for copper will outstrip the amount extractable from the ground.[4]

China accounts for more than 22% of world copper demand.[5]

For some purposes, other metals can substitute. During a copper shortage in the 1970s, aluminium wire wassubstituted in many applications, but improper design caused a fire danger. The safety issues have since been solvedby use of larger sizes of aluminium wire (#8AWG and up), and properly designed aluminium wiring is still beinginstalled in place of copper.

Peak copper 24

Copper supply

Globally, economic copper resources arebeing depleted with the equivalentproduction of three world-class coppermines being consumed annually.[2]

Environmental analyst Lester Brown hassuggested copper might run out within 25years based on what he considered areasonable extrapolation of 2% growth peryear.[6]

New copper discoveries

56 new copper discoveries have been made during the past three decades.[2] World discoveries of copper peaked in1996.[7]

ProductionThe chief producers of copper are Chile, United States, and Peru.[8] 21 of the 28 largest copper mines in the worldare not amenable to expansion.[2] Many large copper mines will be exhausted between 2010 and 2015.[2]

Country 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Chile 4,580 4,860 5,410 5,320 5,560 5,600 5,330 5,390

Peru 843 850 1,040 1,090 1,049 1,190 1,270 1,275

United States 1,140 1,120 1,160 1,150 1,200 1,170 1,310 1,180

China 585 565 620 640 890 946 950 995

Australia 873 870 854 930 859 860 886 854

Indonesia 1,160 1,170 840 1,050 816 797 651 996

Russia 695 700 675 675 725 740 750 725

Canada 600 580 546 580 607 589 607 491

Zambia 330 330 427 450 476 520 546 697

Poland 503 500 531 530 512 452 430 439

Kazakhstan 490 480 461 400 457 407 420 390

Mexico 330 330 406 420 338 347 247 238

Other countries 1,500 1,500 1,610 1,750 1,835 1,840 2,030 2,190

World 13,600 13,900 14,600 14,900 15,100 15,400 15,400 15,900

|+ Copper production (thousands tonnes)[9] [10] [11]

ReservesCopper is a fairly common element, with an estimated concentration of 50-70 ppm (0.005-0.007%) in Earth's crust(1kg of copper per 15-20 tons of crustal rock). If all this copper were extractable, that would provide humans with anearly inexhaustible supply of the element (millions of years worth). Unfortunately, most of it can't be extractedprofitably at the current level of technology. At the present time, copper deposits are considered potentiallyprofitable if they are located sufficiently close to the surface and they contain at least 0.3-0.5% of copper.

Peak copper 25

The U.S. Geological Survey reported a current total reserve base of copper (economic and uneconomic) of 1.6billion tonnes as of 2005, of which 950 million tonnes was considered economically recoverable.[12]

Country Reserves Percent Reserve Base Percent

Chile 150,000 30.61% 360,000 38.30%

United States 35,000 7.14% 70,000 7.45%

China 26,000 5.31% 63,000 6.70%

Peru 30,000 6.12% 60,000 6.38%

Poland 30,000 6.12% 48,000 5.11%

Australia 24,000 4.90% 43,000 4.57%

Mexico 30,000 6.12% 40,000 4.26%

Indonesia 35,000 7.14% 38,000 4.04%

Zambia 19,000 3.88% 35,000 3.72%

Russia 20,000 4.08% 30,000 3.19%

Kazakhstan 14,000 2.86% 20,000 2.13%

Canada 9,000 1.84% 20,000 2.13%

Other countries 35,000 7.14% 110,000 11.70%

World 490,000 100% 940,000 100%

|+ Copper Reserves (thousands of tonnes)[11]

Recycling

Each year in the USA, more copper is recovered and put back into service from recycled material than is derivedfrom newly mined ore. Coppers recycle value is so great that premium-grade scrap normally has at least 95% of thevalue of primary metal from newly mined ore.[13]

Undiscovered conventional resources

Based on current discovery rates and existing geologic surveys, researchers have estimated that 1.6 billion metrictons of copper exist that could potentially be brought into use. This figure relies on the broadest possible definitionof available copper as well as a lack of energy constraints and environmental concerns.[12]

Unconventional resourcesDeep-sea nodules are estimated to contain 700 million tonnes of copper.[11]

Polities

ChileChile is the world's largest copper producer, and in 2007 accounted for 37% of the world's primary copperproduction (see table above). One researcher has stated that Chile copper production may begin to declineirreversibly in 2008.[2] However, this is contradicted by the Chilean Copper Commission, which has projected that,based on planned expansion projects, Chilean copper production will continue to increase through at least 2012.[14]

Peak copper 26

ZaireIn Zaire, Copper production fell by 90% from 1976 (502,000 tons) to wartime 1993 (50,000 tons). Resumptiondepends on political factors.[15]

Copper price

Copper Tonne Prices 1986 - early 2011 in USD, showing 2008'sprice collapse

The price of copper struck a first peak level on March6, 2008 on the London Metal Exchange (LME), surging5.8 percent over the previous trading day to US$4.02per pound. The previous record was set on May 12,2006 at $3.98/lb. The international copper priceincreased rapidly in early 2008, rising 23 percent inFebruary 2008,[16] then declined 40% before December2008,[17] and reached $1.30 by year's end.[18] InFebruary 2011 the price peaked at over10,100US$/tonne.[19]

CriticismIn his book The Ultimate Resource 2, Julian Simon extensively criticizes the notion of "peak resources", and usescopper as one example. He argues that, even though "peak copper" has been a persistent scare since the early 20thcentury, "known reserves" grew at a rate that outpaced demand, and the price of copper was not rising but falling inthe long run. For example, even though world production of copper in 1950 was only 1/8th of what it was today,known reserves were also much lower at the time around 100 million metric tons making it appear that the worldwould run out of copper in 40 to 50 years at most (which has not proven to be the case).Simon's own explanation for this development is that the very notion of known reserves is deeply flawed,[20] as itdoes not take into account changes in mining profitability. As richer mines are exhausted, developers turn theirattention to poorer sources of the element and eventually develop cheap methods of extracting it, rising "knownreserves". Thus, for example, copper was so abundant 5000 years ago, occurring in pure form as well as in highlyconcentrated copper ores, that prehistoric peoples were able to collect and process it with very basic technology. Asof the early 21st century, copper is commonly mined from ores that contain 0.3% to 0.6% of copper by weight. Yet,despite the fact that the material is far less "widespread", the cost of, for example, a copper pot is vastly lower todayin real terms than it was 5000 years ago.[21]

References[1] http:/ / www. copperinfo. com/ environment/ recycling. html[2] Andrew Leonard (2006-03-02). "Peak copper?" (http:/ / www. salon. com/ tech/ htww/ 2006/ 03/ 02/ peak_copper/ index. html). Salon - How

the World Works. . Retrieved 2008-03-23.[3] Giurco, D: "Towards sustainable metal cycles:the case of copper", page 8, 2005, http:/ / hdl. handle. net/ 2123/ 1521[4] David Cohen (2007-05-23). "Earth's natural wealth: an audit" (http:/ / www. science. org. au/ nova/ newscientist/ 027ns_005.

htm?id=mg19426051. 200& print=true). New Scientist (2605): 3441. . Retrieved 2008-04-09.[5] Dan Glaister, Tania Branigan and Owen Bowcott (2008-03-20). "Deaths and disruption as price rise sees copper thefts soar" (http:/ / www.

guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2008/ mar/ 20/ internationalcrime). The Guardian. . Retrieved 2008-04-09.[6] Brown, Lester (2006). Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble. New York: W.W. Norton. p.109.

ISBN0393328317.[7] "Peak Copper Means Peak Silver" (http:/ / news. silverseek. com/ CharlestonVoice/ 1135873932. php). Charleston Voice. 2005-12-29. .

Retrieved 2008-04-09.[8] Samuel K. Moore (2008-03). "Supply Risk, Scarcity, and Cellphones" (http:/ / spectrum. ieee. org/ mar08/ 6007). IEEE Spectrum. IEEE. .

Retrieved 2008-03-23.

Peak copper 27

[9] "pg. 54 - Copper" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ copper/ coppemcs04. pdf) (PDF). USGS. 2004. . Retrieved2008-04-09.

[10] "pg. 56 - Copper" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ copper/ coppemcs06. pdf) (PDF). USGS. 2006. . Retrieved2008-04-09.

[11] "pg. 54 - Copper" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ copper/ mcs-2008-coppe. pdf) (PDF). USGS. 2008. . Retrieved2008-04-09.

[12] David Biello (2006-01-17). "Measure of Metal Supply Finds Future Shortage" (http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article.cfm?id=measure-of-metal-supply-f). Scientific American. . Retrieved 2008-03-23.

[13] "Copper in the USA: Bright Future Glorious Past" (http:/ / www. copper. org/ education/ history/ g_fact_future. html). CopperDevelopment Association. . Retrieved 2008-04-09.

[14] Chilean Copper Commission (Sept. 2006): Current and future situation of the copper industry in Chile (Adobe *.PDF file) (http:/ / www.icsg. org/ conferences/ Sep_06_meeting_Cochilco_Presentation. pdf)

[15] "Zaire: IRIN Briefing Part II" (http:/ / www. africa. upenn. edu/ Hornet/ irin_2277. html). University Of Pennsylvania. 1997-02-27. .Retrieved 2008-04-09.

[16] "International copper price hits record high" (http:/ / news. xinhuanet. com/ english/ 2008-03/ 08/ content_7744648. htm). China view.2008-03-08. . Retrieved 2008-04-09.

[17] Base Metals decline (http:/ / www. business-standard. com/ india/ news/ falling-demand-may-dent-base-metal-prices/ 00/ 48/ 341701/ )Times of India

[18] $1.30 price (http:/ / charts3. barchart. com/ chart. asp?sym=HGZ8& data=A& jav=adv& vol=Y& divd=Y& evnt=adv& grid=Y&code=BSTK& org=stk& fix=)

[19] http:/ / www. lme. com/ copper. asp[20] Chapt 12, The Ultimate Resource II, by Julina Simon (http:/ / www. juliansimon. com/ writings/ Ultimate_Resource/ TCHAR12. txt)[21] The Ultimate Resource 2 (http:/ / www. juliansimon. com/ writings/ Ultimate_Resource/ ), by Julian Simon

External links Copper.org (http:/ / www. copper. org/ ) "US Minerals Databrowser" (http:/ / mazamascience. com/ Minerals/ USGS). Mazama Science. Retrieved

2010-03-25. R. B. Gordon*, M. Bertram and T. E. Graedel (2006-01-31). "Metal Stocks and Sustainability" (http:/ / www.

pnas. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 103/ 5/ 1209). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (U.S. NationalAcademy of Sciences) 103 (5): 12091214. doi:10.1073/pnas.0509498103. PMC1360560. PMID16432205.Retrieved 2008-03-23.

List of copper alloys 28

List of copper alloysCopper alloys are metal alloys that have copper as their principal component. They have high resistance againstcorrosion. The best known traditional types are bronze, where tin is a significant addition, and brass, using zincinstead. Both these are imprecise terms, and today the term copper alloy tends to be substituted, especially bymuseums.[1]

CompositionsThe similarity in external appearance of the various alloys, along with the different combinations of elements usedwhen making each alloy, can lead to confusion when categorizing the different compositions. There are as many as400 different copper and copper-alloy compositions loosely grouped into the categories: copper, high copper alloy,brasses, bronzes, copper nickels, coppernickelzinc (nickel silver), leaded copper, and special alloys. The followingtable lists the principal alloying element for four of the more common types used in modern industry, along with thename for each type. Historical types, such as those that characterize the Bronze Age, are vaguer as the mixtures weregenerally .

Classification of copper and its alloys

Family Principal alloying element UNS numbers

Copper alloys, brass Zinc (Zn) C1xxxxC4xxxx,C66400C69800

Phosphor bronze Tin (Sn) C5xxxx

Aluminium bronzes Aluminium (Al) C60600C64200

Silicon bronzes Silicon (Si) C64700C66100

Copper nickel, nickel silvers Nickel (Ni) C7xxxx

Mechanical properties of common copper alloys[2]

Name Nominalcomposition

(percentages)

Form andcondition

Yieldstrength(0.2%

offset, ksi)

Tensilestrength

(ksi)

Elongationin 2inches(percent)

Hardness(Brinellscale)

Comments

Copper (ASTM B1, B2,B3, B152, B124, R133)

Cu 99.9 Annealed 10 32 45 42 Electrical equipment,roofing, screens

" " Cold-drawn 40 45 15 90 "

" " Cold-rolled 40 46 5 100 "

Gilding metal (ASTMB36)

Cu 95.0, Zn 5.0 Cold-rolled 50 56 5 114 Coins, bullet jackets

Cartridge brass (ASTMB14, B19, B36, B134,B135)

Cu 70.0, Zn 30.0 Cold-rolled 63 76 8 155 Good forcold-working;radiators, hardware,electrical, drawncartridge cases.

Phosphor bronze(ASTM B103, B139,B159)

Cu 70.0, Sn 10.0, P0.25

Spring temper 122 4 241 High fatigue-strengthand spring qualities


Yellow or High brass(ASTM B36, B134,B135)

Cu 65.0, Zn 35.0 Annealed 18 48 60 55 Good corrosionresistance

" " Cold-drawn 55 70 15 115 "

" " Cold-rolled(HT)

60 74 10 180 "

Manganese bronze(ASTM 138)

Cu 58.5, Zn 39.2,Fe 1.0, Sn 1.0, Mn0.3

Annealed 30 60 30 95 Forgings

" " Cold-drawn 50 80 20 180 "

Naval brass (ASTMB21)

Cu 60.0, Zn 39.25,Sn 0.75

Annealed 22 56 40 90 Resistance to saltcorrosion

" " Cold-drawn 40 65 35 150 "

Muntz metal (ASTMB111)

Cu 60.0, Zn 40.0 Annealed 20 54 45 80 Condensor tubes

Aluminium bronze(ASTM B169 alloy A,B124, B150)

Cu 92.0, Al 8.0 Annealed 25 70 60 80

" " Hard 65 105 7 210 "

Beryllium copper(ASTM B194, B196,B197)

Cu 97.75, Be 2.0,Co or Ni 0.25

Annealed,solution-treated

32 70 45 B60(Rockwell)

Electrical, valves,pumps

" " Cold-rolled 104 110 5 B81(Rockwell)

"

Free-cutting brass Cu 62.0, Zn 35.5,Pb 2.5

Cold-drawn 44 70 18 B80(Rockwell)

Screws, nuts, gears,keys

Nickel silver (ASTMB112)

Cu 65.0, Zn 17.0,Ni 18.0

Annealed 25 58 40 70 Hardware

" " Cold-rolled 70 85 4 170 "

Nickel silver (ASTMB149)

Cu 76.5, Ni 12.5,Pb 9.0, Sn 2.0

Cast 18 35 15 55 Easy to machine;ornaments, plumbing

Cupronickel (ASTMB111, B171)

Cu 88.35, Ni 10.0,Fe 1.25, Mn 0.4

Annealed 22 44 45 Condensor, salt-waterpipes

" " Cold-drawn tube 57 60 15 "

Cupronickel Cu 70.0, Ni 30.0 Wrought Heat-exchangeequipment, valves

Ounce metal[3] CopperAlloy C83600 (alsoknown as "Red brass"or "composition metal")(ASTM B62)

Cu 85.0, Zn 5.0, Pb5.0, Sn 5.0

Cast 17 37 25 60

Gunmetal (known as"red brass" in US)

Varies Cu 80-90%,Zn


Mechanical properties of Copper Development Association (CDA) copper alloys[4]

Family CDA Tensile strength[ksi]

Yield strength[ksi]

Elongation (typ.)[%]

Hardness[Brinell

10mm-500kg]

Machinability [YB =100]

Min. Typ. Min. Typ.

Red brass 833 32 10 35 35 35

836 30 37 14 17 30 5065 84

838 29 35 12 16 25 5060 90

Semi-red brass 844 29 34 13 15 26 5060 90

848 25 36 12 14 30 5060 90

Manganese bronze 862 90 95 45 48 20 170195 30

863 110 119 60 83 18 225 8

865 65 71 25 28 30 130 26

Tin bronze 903 40 45 18 21 30 6075 30

905 40 45 18 22 25 75 30

907 35 44 18 22 20 80 20

Leaded tin bronze 922 34 40 16 20 30 6072 42

923 36 40 16 20 25 6075 42

926 40 44 18 20 30 6580 40

927 35 42 21 20 77 45

High-leaded tinbronze

932 30 35 14 18 20 6070 70

934 25 32 16 20 5565 70

935 25 32 12 16 30 5565 70

936 33 30 16 21 15 79-83 80

937 25 35 12 18 20 5570 80

938 25 30 14 16 18 5060 80

943 21 27 13 10 4255 80

Aluminium bronze 952 65 80 25 27 35 110140 50

953 65 75 25 27 25 140 55

954 75 85 30 35 18 140170 60

955 90 100 40 44 12 180200 50

958 85 95 35 38 25 150-170 50

Silicon bronze 878 80 83 30 37 29 115 40

Brinell scale with 3000kg load


Comparison of copper alloy standards[4]

Family CDA ASTM SAE SAE superseded Federal Military

Red brass 833

836 B145-836 836 40 QQ-C-390 (B5) C-2229 Gr2

838 B145-838 838 QQ-C-390 (B4)

Semi-red brass 844 B145-844 QQ-C-390 (B2)

848 B145-848 QQ-C-390 (B1)

Manganese bronze 862 B147-862 862 430A QQ-C-390 (C4) C-2229 Gr9

863 B147-863 863 430B QQ-C-390 (C7) C-2229 Gr8

865 B147-865 865 43 QQ-C-390 (C3) C-2229 Gr7

Tin bronze 903 B143-903 903 620 QQ-C-390 (D5) C-2229 Gr1

905 B143-905 905 62 QQ-C-390 (D6)

907 907 65

Leaded tin bronze 922 B143-922 922 622 QQ-C-390 (D4) B-16541

923 B143-923 923 621 QQ-C-390 (D3) C-15345 Gr10

926 926

927 927 63

High-leaded tin bronze 932 B144-932 932 660 QQ-C-390 (E7) C-15345 Gr12

934 QQ-C-390 (E8) C-22229 Gr3

935 B144-935 935 66 QQ-C-390 (E9)

937 B144-937 937 64 QQ-C-390 (E10)

938 B144-938 938 67 QQ-C-390 (E6)

943 B144-943 943 QQ-C-390 (E1)

Aluminium bronze 952 B148-952 952 68A QQ-C-390 (G6) C-22229 Gr5

953 B148-953 953 68B QQ-C-390 (G7)

954 B148-954 954 QQ-C-390 (G5) C-15345 Gr13

955 B148-955 955 QQ-C-390 (G3) C-22229 Gr8

958 QQ-C-390 (G8)

Silicon bronze 878 B30 878

The following table outlines the chemical composition of various grades of copper alloys.


Chemical composition of copper alloys[4] [5]

Family CDA AMS UNS Cu [%] Sn [%] Pb [%] Zn [%] Ni [%] Fe [%] Al [%] Other [%]

Red brass 833 C83300 93 1.5 1.5 4

C83400[6] 90 10

836 4855B C83600 85 5 5 5

838 C83800 83 4 6 7

Semi-red brass 844 C84400 81 3 7 9

845 C84500 78 3 7 12

848 C84800 76 3 6 15

Manganese bronze C86100[7] 67 0.5 21 3 5 Mn 4

862 C86200 64 26 3 4 Mn 3

863 4862B C86300 63 25 3 6 Mn 3

865 4860A C86500 58 0.5 39.5 1 1 Mn 0.25

Tin bronze 903 C90300 88 8 4

905 4845D C90500 88 10 0.3 max 2

907 C90700 89 11 0.5 max 0.5 max

Leaded tin bronze 922 C92200 88 6 1.5 4.5

923 C92300 87 8 1 max 4

926 4846A C92600 87 10 1 2

927 C92700 88 10 2 0.7 max

High-leaded tin bronze 932 C93200 83 7 7 3

934 C93400 84 8 8 0.7 max

935 C93500 85 5 9 1 0.5 max

937 4842A C93700 80 10 10 0.7 max

938 C93800 78 7 15 0.75 max

943 4840A C94300 70 5 25 0.7 max

Aluminium bronze 952 C95200 88 3 9

953 C95200 89 1 10

954 4870B4872B

C95400 85 4 11

C95410[8] 85 4 11 Ni 2

955 C95500 81 4 4 11

C95600[9] 91 7 Si 2

C95700[10] 75 2 3 8 Mn 12

958 C95800 81 5 4 9 Mn 1


Silicon bronze C87200[11] 89 Si 4

C87400[12] 83 14 Si 3

C87500[13] 82 14 Si 4

C87600[14] 90 5.5 Si 4.5

878 C87800[15] 80 14 Si 4

C87900[16] 65 34 Si 1

Chemical composition may vary to yield mechanical properties

BrassesA brass is an alloy of copper with zinc. Brasses are usually yellow in color. The zinc content can vary between few% to about 40%; as long as it is kept under 15%, it does not markedly decrease corrosion resistance of copper.Brasses can be sensitive to selective leaching corrosion under certain conditions, when zinc is leached from the alloy(dezincification), leaving behind a spongy copper structure.

BronzesA bronze is an alloy of copper and other metals, most often tin, but also aluminium and silicon. Aluminium bronzes are alloys of copper and aluminium. The content of aluminium ranges mostly between

5-11%. Iron, nickel, manganese and silicon are sometimes added. They have higher strength and corrosionresistance than other bronzes, especially in marine environment, and have low reactivity to sulfur compounds.Aluminium forms a thin passivation layer on the surface of the metal.

Bell metal Phosphor bronze Nickel bronzes, e.g. nickel silver and cupronickel Speculum metal UNS C69100

Precious metal alloysCopper is often alloyed with precious metals like silver and gold, to create, for example, Corinthian bronze,hepatizon, tumbaga and shakudo.

References[1] British Museum, "Scope Note" for "copper alloy" (http:/ / www. britishmuseum. org/ research/ search_the_collection_database/ term_details.

aspx?scopeType=Terms& scopeId=18864)[2] Lyons, William C. and Plisga, Gary J. (eds.) Standard Handbook of Petroleum & Natural Gas Engineering, Elsevier, 2006[3] Cast copper alloy C83600 (Ounce Metal) (http:/ / www. substech. com/ dokuwiki/ doku. php?id=cast_copper_alloy_c83600_ounce_metal)

substech.com[4] Standard brass & bronze casting alloys (http:/ / www. franklinbronze. com/ sand-casting/ bronze-casting. htm), , retrieved 2009-09-07.[5] Brass and Bronze Alloys (http:/ / www. ischumann. com/ brass_bronze. html), , retrieved 2009-09-08.[6] UNS C83400 (http:/ / www. efunda. com/ materials/ alloys/ copper/ show_copper. cfm?ID=UNS_C83400& show_prop=all&

Page_Title=UNS C83400), , retrieved 2009-09-08.[7] UNS C86100 (http:/ / www. efunda. com/ materials/ alloys/ copper/ show_copper. cfm?ID=UNS_C86100& show_prop=all&

Page_Title=UNS C86100), , retrieved 2009-09-08.[8] UNS C95410 (http:/ / www. efunda. com/ materials/ alloys/ copper/ show_copper. cfm?ID=UNS_C95410& show_prop=all&

Page_Title=UNS C95410), , retrieved 2009-09-08.


[9] UNS C95600 (http:/ / www. efunda. com/ materials/ alloys/ copper/ show_copper. cfm?ID=UNS_C95600& show_prop=all&Page_Title=UNS C95600), , retrieved 2009-09-08.

[10] UNS C95700 (http:/ / www. efunda. com/ materials/ alloys/ copper/ show_copper. cfm?ID=UNS_C95700 & show_prop=all&Page_Title=UNS C95700), , retrieved 2009-09-08.







Bibliography Machinery's Handbook, Industrial Press Inc, New York, ISBN 0-8311-2492-X, Edition 24, page 501

External links Corrosion tests and standards: application and interpretation (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=8C7pXhnqje4C& pg=PA565& dq=alloy+ number+ copper& as_brr=3&ei=qdamSqTdKZK0MKmcvKoK& client=firefox-a#v=onepage& q=alloy number copper& f=false)

Copper Development Association (http:/ / www. copper. org/ )

Copper deficiency 35

Copper deficiency

Copper deficiencyClassification and external resources

ICD-10 E61.0 [1]

ICD-9 275.1 [2]

Copper deficiency is a very rare hematological and neurological disorder.[3] [4] [5] The neurodegenerative syndromeof copper deficiency has been recognized for some time in ruminant animals, in which it is commonly known as"swayback"[5] The disease involves a nutritional deficiency in the trace element copper.[5] Copper is ubiquitous anddaily requirement is low making acquired copper deficiency very rare. Copper deficiency can manifest in parallelwith vitamin B12 deficiency and zinc toxicity.[4] The most common cause of copper deficiency is a remotegastrointestinal surgery, such as gastric bypass surgery, due to malabsorption of copper. On the other hand, Menkesdisease is a genetic disorder of copper deficiency involving a wide variety of symptoms that is often fatal.[6] Copperis involved in normalized function of many enzymes, such as cytochrome c oxidase, which is complex IV inmitochondrial electron transport chain, ceruloplasmin, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, and in amine oxidases.[5] Theseenzyme catalyze reactions for oxidative phosphorylation, iron transportation, antioxidant and free radical scavengingand neutralization, and neurotransmitter synthesis, respectively.[5] A regular diet contains a variable amount ofcopper, but may provide 5mg/day, of which only 20-50% is absorbed.[4] The diet of the elderly may contain a lowercopper content than the recommended daily intake.[4] Dietary copper can be found in whole grain cereals, legumes,oysters, organ meats (particularly liver), cherries, dark chocolate, fruits, leafy green vegetables, nuts, poultry, prunes,and soybeans products like tofu.[7] The deficiency in copper can cause many hematological manifestations, such asmyelodysplasia, anemia, leukopenia (low white blood cell count) and neutropenia (low count of neutrophils, a typeof white blood cell that is often called "the first line of defense" for the immune system).[4] Copper deficiency haslong been known for as a cause of myelodysplasia(when a blood profile has indicators of possible future leukemiadevelopment), but it was until recently in 2001 that copper deficiency was associated with neurologicalmanifestations. Some neurological manifestations can be sensory ataxia (irregular muscle coordination), peripheralneuropathy (damage in the peripheral nerves) and myelopathy (disease of the spinal cord).[5]

Symptoms

Hematological Presentation

Ring Sideroblast smear 2010-01-13

Most sufferers generally complain about tiredness, fatigue, and lightheadedness. These are all common symptoms of anemia. Around halfof the patients displayed some kind of anemia with markedly reducedleukocytes also known as leukopenia.[3] [4] [8] In addition toleukopenia, many patients are deficient in neutrophils (neutropenia).[4][8] Neutropenia has become a hematological hallmark, enablingphysicians to investigate copper deficiency as a diagnosis.[8] All typesof anemia including microcytic (small red blood cells), macrocytic(large red blood cells, leaving insufficient amounts of hemoglobin perunit volume of blood) and normocytic (a deficiency in normal sized redblood cells) manifest.[3] [8] It is very rarely that thrombocytopenia,

Copper deficiency 36

which is a syndrome of low blood platelets leading to slowed clotting and abnormal bleeding, is observed inpatients.[4] [8] Usually prolonged copper deficiency has to persist to manifest thrombocytopenia.[8] Many timesduring a bone marrow biopsy, decreased granulocyte (which are granulated white blood cells including neutrophils,eosinophils, and basophils) maturation, vacuolization of red blood cell precursors, and ringed sideroblastic cells arepresent.[3] [4] [8] Sideroblastic cells have unusual patterns of iron clumping in the mitochondria that is visible whenthe cell is stained, receiving its name ringed sideroblast.[5] [9] Subacute combined degeneration is also adegeneration of the spinal cord, but instead of copper deficiency as the cause of degeneration, vitamin B12deficiency is the cause.[4] [5] These bone marrow findings can lead to a diagnosis of myelodysplasia.[3] [8]

Myelodysplasia is sometimes referred to preleukemia..[10] This disease often later progresses into a form ofleukem

Copper Metal Overview

Documents

isotopes of copper

number copper

copper deficiency

peak copper

pure copper

list of copper alloys

symbol cu

ductile metal