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Transformations in Roman Europe in Late Antiquity By the time of Hadrian, the Roman Empire was a very stable melting pot. So much so that many emperors were “provincial”: e.g., Septimius Severus was from Libya and his wife, Julia Domna from Syria. But problems would arise: Increasing conflict amongst Roman leaders that would lead to civil war, ca. AD 217-284 and an East-West rift in Empire (4th-5th c. AD); Increasing movement amongst free native Europeans and pressure from outside groups, such as the Huns; • Natives’ increasing knowledge of the Empire – benefits of civilization, social and military organization, law, economy; Part of East/West rift involved Christianity East more strongly Christian, viewed West as still largely “pagan” – therefore sometimes let barbarians in the back door (perhaps with view that East could claim West).
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Constantine in Rome

Nov 28, 2014

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Overview of urban developments in Rome during late Roman Empire
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Page 1: Constantine in Rome

Transformations in Roman Europe in Late Antiquity

By the time of Hadrian, the Roman Empire was a very stable melting pot. So much

so that many emperors were “provincial”: e.g., Septimius Severus was from Libya

and his wife, Julia Domna from Syria. But problems would arise:

• Increasing conflict amongst Roman leaders that would lead to civil war,

ca. AD 217-284 and an East-West rift in Empire (4th-5th c. AD);

• Increasing movement amongst free native Europeans and pressure from outside

groups, such as the Huns;

• Natives’ increasing knowledge of the Empire – benefits of civilization, social and

military organization, law, economy;

• Part of East/West rift involved Christianity – East more strongly Christian, viewed

West as still largely “pagan” – therefore sometimes let barbarians in the back door

(perhaps with view that East could claim West).

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Third century AD crisis

Factors:

Breakdown in dynastic system and rise of usurpers with personal ambitions;

Strength of army and Praetorian Guard coupled with weakening of the Senate;

Pressure from “barbarian” groups.

Intellectual challenges – what did “Roman” mean? Augustus lay 250 years in the

past.

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Senate and People of Rome

Sacred in Republic and Early Empire, although disregarded by certain emperors

such as Caligula and Nero.

The more “Rome” meant the Empire, rather than city, SPQR were less effective.

Still yearly elections; also aristocracy increasinging non Italian – spread

throughout Empire; thus inability to convene in a serious manner. People more

frequently seeking election for power and wealth rather than to serve the State.

Nevertheless, solid through early Severan period.

Government was increasingly bureaucratic – Empire thrived well, but not so

many strong and ambitious leaders amongst the political ranks.

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Army and Praetorian Guard

Army, at first, highly mobile – troops not maintained in same place for very long

and Auxiliary troops mixed (Tower of Babel theory – if soliders do not develop

strong ties to each other, they cannot pose an internal threat.

With relative peace, soldiers often in given location for long time and cohorts

based in frontier zones for generations. Psychologically – this leads to greater

sense of power. Strong ties to governors who are seeing to their upkeep and

pay.

Praetorian Guard (10,000 men) =

Emperor’s body guard and elite military

unit. Praetorian Prefect was leader.

Already at time of Tiberius, there was a

conspiracy vs. the Emperor. Few

Emperors were killed, though, but

increased violence and plots in late 2rd

and early 3rd century until the Crisis.

Dissolved by Constantine.

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With the exception of the Marcomannic-Sarmatian wars under Marcus

Aurelius, the frontier zone was quite stable for much of Imperial period.

Economic exchange/reliance – “barbarians” frequently provided basic goods

and services in exchange for money.

Movement across border – natives entering Empire for trade or enlisting in

auxiliary forces; Romans crossing into Barbaricum for trade. Opportunity for

natives to comprehend Roman culture, see benefits and understand the system,

including military and political organization. Some “barbarian” kings began to

rule their populations like a mini-Roman emperor and populations adopted some

aspects of Roman culture (dress, coinage, Christianity).

With Roman political crisis in 3rd century, some native groups became

aggressive and attempted to gain Roman territories – Germans and Goths.

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Germans and Goths waged war on Roman frontier

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As strong and centralized as the government was, regions were also strong

and (too) many individuals had access to power: at any given time Emperor

(and co-regents), Praetorian Prefect, ca. 40 governors, 24 legionary generals.

Constant warfare along European frontier and in East.

In AD 214, all residents of the Empire granted citizenship under Caracalla;

therefore, while a great democracy, anyone now had access to power and

would use any means at their disposal to achieve power

General state of uncertainty – life and death? right and wrong? who should

people pay alligence to? who were Romans? what did Roman mean?

Religion did not necessarily play a direct role in Fall of Rome, but

philosophical thinking and nature of “monotheistic” religions had an influence

on leaders and the people.

Basis of 3rd century crisis.

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General events:

Death of Septimius Severus, AD 211;

his sons Geta and Caracalla to co-rule,

BUT Caracalla with Praetorian Guard

backing him eliminated his brother;

Caracalla, in turn killed in AD 217,

setting off sequence of civil wars. One

emperor, Severus Alexander almost re-

established Imperial system, but killed

in AD 235.

Aurelian (AD 270-275) nearly settled

matters, but Diocletian (AD 284-305)

would have the ultimate solution…at

least for the next 20 years…

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During these years little attention to city of Rome; even in Severan period,

not much building

Septimius: Arch of SS, Arch of Argentarii, Baths of Severus on Palatine and

Septemzodium (monumental fountain) also some major re-building (Forum of

Peace, Porticus of Octavia, Pantheon)

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Temple of Elagabulus – Palatine Hill

Short-lived Severan emperor, AD 218-222

Deus Sol Invictus – Eastern sun god, which would become strongly worshipped.

(Romans ready for a new divinity – search for new identity, new greatness. Third

century also height of many mystery cults, such as Mithras).

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Arch of Gallienus, Esquiline Hill

Gallienus, AD 253-268 (longest-lived

Emperor of crisis years, but only sole

emperor 260-268).

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Aurelian Wall (AD 270-275)

Unified Empire once again after Gaul and Britiain formed a separate empire and

Syrians/Palmyrenes formed separate kingdom.

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Diocletian – from Split, Dalmatia from

plebian family; skilled military commander

who rose through the ranks, trusted by

Emperor Carus; came to power 284 AD

following death of Carus and his sons.

Tetrarchy 293 AD – four-man rule:

Diocletian Aug. in East with Galerius as

Caesar

Maximian – Aug. In west with Constantius

as Caesar

Price Edict – AD 301 – set maximum

prices on goods and services

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Diocletian’s period

AD 284-305

Monumental building and reconstruction,

But Diocletian himself only visited Rome

once, AD 304.

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Diocletian and Maximian retired in AD 305

Constantius Chlorus and Galerius rose to rank of Augusti

Maximinus Daia and Severus named Caesars BUT

Constantine and Maxentius (sons of Constantius and Maximian) thought they

should have been chosen…

Constantius died in York 25 July 306, Constantine named emperor; Maxentius

named emperor a few months later……AND THEN THERE WERE FIVE…

Severus died in 307 in attempt to take Rome from Maxentius, prompted by

Galerius. Maximian had been brought back as emperor by Maxentius…

Galerius would elevate Licinius to Augustus…AND THEN THERE WERE SIX

Galerius, Licinius, Maximian – Augusti

Maximinus Daia, Constantine, Maxentius - Caesars

Maximian would go against his son, Maxentius, but lost; sought aid from

Constantine. Maximian forced to abdicate power…AND THEN THERE WERE

FIVE…

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Galerius and Licinius – AUG

Constantine, Maxentius, Maximinus Daia – CAES

Galerius died 311 AND THEN THERE WERE FOUR…

Maximinus Daia self-elevated to AUG upon death of Galerius

Licinius and Constantine would form an alliance

Maximinus Daia and Maxentius would form an alliance

WAR – 312 – Constantine stormed down Italy, gaining support from cities as he

approached Rome

Verona

Milvian (Mulvian) Bridge – October 28 – Sibylline prophesy – “enemy of Rome

will be defeated”; famous sign of Cross

Licinisu defeated Maximinus Daia in 313

Constantine and Licinius victors…AND THEN THERE WERE TWO…

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Maxentius in Rome

AD 306-312

Construction in Rome – Villa and circus of Maxentius, via Appia; re-built

Temple of Venus and Roma

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Maxentius in Rome

AD 306-312

Characterized as ruthless / a tyrant, but everyone was fighting each other,

including Constantine. Supported Senate and People of Rome – probably

not as bad as Constantine portrayed him. Damnatio memoriae.

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Reign of Constantine (Licinius in East)

Legalized and promoted Christianity, although how deep his faith was is still a

matter of debate:

AD 313 – Edict of Milan – Christianity legalized, all religions tolerated, Christian

property confiscated during Diocletian to be returned

AD 325 – Council of Nicea – in opening speech

Constantine urged harmony and deplored dissention,

saying that it was worse than war or disaster. Established

basis of Catholicism.

Brief wars vs. Franks, Sarmatians and Visigoths

AD 316-324 – Civil War between emperors

with Constantine as victor

During most of this time, Constantine’s base

was Trier, where his father had been based.

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Building in Rome

Arch of Constantine

Monumentality

Triumph

Integration of art from

different periods.

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Church building in Rome

About a dozen, including

St. Peter’s

St. John in Lateran

Catacomb churches

San Martino

Santa Croce

True, as Marina indicated, that most churches were outside city limits.

Reasons:

• Most pre-Constantinian Christian features were outside walls (catacombs

and villas used for congregations; saints and martyrs buried here;

• Space = grandeur – not much space available inside walls except on Lateran

property and the (small) San Martino;

• Did not want to compete (yet) with State religion (?). Unsure how

conservative pagans might react; Christianity still somewhat marginal?

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St. John in Lateran, begun 312-315.

Estate owned by Laterani family in 1st c. AD, ownership changed hands;

belonged to Fausta (wife of C.), donated to Pope Miltiades. Baptistry adjacent.

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Helena resided on Sessorian Estate – directly opposite St. John’s

Her grandsons built Santa Croce in Geraselemme

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Development of Constantinople

Founded as Byzantium by Greeks, 7th c. BC, control Bosporus, linking

Black Sea and Aegean

Taken by Rome in early 1st c. BC – increasingly important port as Rome

claimed territories in Anatolia, Balkans and lower Danube.

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Destroyed by Septimius Severus in late 2nd c. AD, but immediately

rebuilt. Original Roman features included the Hippodrome.

Summer 324 AD – Constantine became sole emperor – battle vs. rival

Licinius nearby; reportedly fell in love with the city and decided to

construct a “New Rome”

“New Rome” founded May 11, 330 AD

(20 days after April 21) – festivities

in Hippodrome.

Enlargement and embellishments

under later emperors: Theodosius,

Arcadius, Justinian…

Capital of the Byzantine Empire

Until AD 1453 ; then capital of the

Ottoman Empire…

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Assessment of Constantine…

• Clearly interested in power/wealth/status

• Genuine interest/vision to unite Empire

• Perhaps did not immediately develop this Vision, nor did he understand, at first,

how to achieve this

• Eventually understood unifying elements of society and what elements cause

dissolution

• Displays of might and triumph – inspires awe

• Element of regality – Emperor as above all and in contact with God(s)

• Religion and superstition – can unite, but can also cause dissent. On this

note, while he promoted Christianity, all religious beliefs were tolerated;

always tried to intermediate between and within religions. Would ultimately

use Christianity as new and widely accepted mythology into which he,

himself, was placed, just as Caesar and Augustus had placed themselves in

pagan mythology (Venus – Aeneas – Romulus (Mars) – Caesar – Augustus).

Considered himself to be 13th Apostle (he was buried in Church of Holy

Apostles, Constantinople).

• Did he give up on Rome, the city? New city for a new age?

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CONSTANTINOPLE:

THE “NEW ROME”