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World War II 1

World War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War (often abbreviated as WWII or WW2), was a global armed conflict thatwas underway by 1939 and ended in 1945. It involved a vast majority of the world's nations—including all of thegreat powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the mostwidespread war in history, with more than 100 million people serving in military units. In a state of "total war", themajor participants placed their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities at the service of the war effort,erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by significant events involving the massdeath of civilians, including the Holocaust and the only use of nuclear weapons in warfare, it resulted in 50 millionto over 70 million fatalities. These deaths make the war the deadliest conflict in human history.[1]

Although Japan was already at war with China in 1937,[2] the world war is generally said to have begun on1 September 1939, with the invasion of Poland by Germany, and subsequent declarations of war on Germany byFrance and most of the countries of the British Empire and Commonwealth. Germany set out to establish a largeempire in Europe. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered orsubdued much of continental Europe; amid Nazi-Soviet agreements, the nominally neutral Soviet Union fully orpartially occupied and annexed territories of its six European neighbours, including Poland. Britain and theCommonwealth remained the only major force continuing the fight against the Axis, with battles taking place inNorth Africa as well as the long-running Battle of the Atlantic. In June 1941, the European Axis launched aninvasion of the Soviet Union, giving a start to the largest land theatre of war in history, which tied down the majorpart of the Axis' military forces. In December 1941, Japan, which aimed to dominate Asia, attacked the United Statesand European possessions in the Pacific Ocean, quickly conquering much of the West Pacific.The Axis advance was stopped in 1942, after Japan lost a series of naval battles and European Axis troops weredefeated in North Africa and, decisively, at Stalingrad. In 1943, with a series of German defeats in Eastern Europe,the Allied invasion of Fascist Italy, and American victories in the Pacific, the Axis lost the initiative and undertookstrategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France, while the Soviet Union regained all of itsterritorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. The war in Europe ended with the capture of Berlin by Sovietand Polish troops and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. The Japanese Navy wasdefeated by the United States, and invasion of the Japanese Archipelago ("Home Islands") became imminent. Thewar in Asia ended on 15 August 1945 when Japan agreed to surrender.The war ended with the total victory of the Allies over the Axis in 1945. World War II altered the political alignmentand social structure of the world. The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international cooperation andprevent future conflicts. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage forthe Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers started todecline, while the decolonisation of Asia and Africa began. Most countries whose industries had been damagedmoved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to stabilisepostwar relations.

World War II 2

ChronologyThe start of the war is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland; Britainand France declared war on Germany two days later. Other dates for the beginning of war include the start of theSecond Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937.[3][4]

Others follow British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that there was a simultaneous Sino-Japanese War in EastAsia, and a Second European War in Europe and her colonies. The two wars merged in 1941, becoming a singleglobal conflict, at which point the war continued until 1945. This article uses the conventional dating. Other startingdates sometimes used for World War II include the 1935 Italian invasion of Abyssinia.[5]

The exact date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It has been suggested that the war ended at thearmistice of 14 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than the formal surrender of Japan (2 September 1945); in someEuropean histories, it ended on V-E Day (8 May 1945). However, the Treaty of Peace with Japan was not signeduntil 1951,[6] and that with Germany not until 1990.[7]

BackgroundWorld War I radically altered the political map, with the defeat of the Central Powers, including Austria-Hungary,Germany and the Ottoman Empire; and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia. Meanwhile, existingvictorious Allies such as France, Belgium, Italy, Greece and Romania gained territories, while new states werecreated out of the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Russian and Ottoman Empires. In the aftermath of the war,irredentist and revanchist nationalism became important in a number of European states. Irredentism and revanchismwere strong in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses incurred by the Treaty ofVersailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all of its overseas colonies,while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on thesize and capability of the country's armed forces.[8] Meanwhile, the Russian Civil War had led to the creation of theSoviet Union.[9]

The German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, laterknown as the Weimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republicand hardline opponents on both the right and left. Although Italy as an Entente ally made some territorial gains,Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by Britain and France to secure Italian entrance into the warwere not fulfilled with the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussoliniseized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representativedemocracy, repressed socialist, left wing and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed atforcefully forging Italy as a world power - a "New Roman Empire."[10] In Germany, the Nazi Party led by AdolfHitler sought to establish a fascist government in Germany. With the onset of the Great Depression, domesticsupport for the Nazis rose and, in 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany. In the aftermath of theReichstag fire, Hitler created a totalitarian single-party state led by the Nazis.[11]

The Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominallyunified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese communistallies.[12] In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Japanese Empire, which had long sought influence in China[13] as thefirst step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia, used the Mukden Incident as a pretext tolaunch an invasion of Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo.[14] Too weak to resist Japan, Chinaappealed to the League of Nations for help. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned forits incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei, until theTanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japaneseaggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan.[15]

World War II 3

Benito Mussolini (left) and AdolfHitler (right)

Adolf Hitler, after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German governmentin 1923, became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933. He abolished democracy,espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soonbegan a massive rearmament campaign.[16] Meanwhile, France, to secure itsalliance, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonialpossession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of theSaar Basin was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treatyof Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme and introducedconscription.[17]

Hoping to contain Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy formed theStresa Front. The Soviet Union, concerned due to Germany's goals of capturingvast areas of eastern Europe, wrote a treaty of mutual assistance with France.Before taking effect though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go throughthe bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentiallytoothless.[18][19] However, in June 1935, the United Kingdom made anindependent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. TheUnited States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August.[20] In October, Italyinvaded Ethiopia, and Germany was the only major European nation to support the invasion. Italy subsequentlydropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria.[21]

Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by remilitarizing the Rhineland in March 1936. He received littleresponse from other European powers.[22] When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July, Hitler and Mussolinisupported the fascist and authoritarian Nationalist forces in their civil war against the Soviet-supported SpanishRepublic. Both sides used the conflict to test new weapons and methods of warfare,[23] with the Nationalists winningthe war in early 1939. In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome-Berlin Axis. A month later, Germanyand Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy would join in the following year. In China, after the Xi'anIncident the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire in order to present a united front to opposeJapan.[24]

Pre-war events

Invasion of EthiopiaThe Second Italo–Abyssinian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. Thewar was fought between the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia) and the armed forces of theEthiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia). The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and itsannexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition, itexposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were membernations, but the League did nothing when the former clearly violated the League's own Article X.[25]

World War II 4

Spanish Civil War

The ruins of Guernica after the bombing.

Germany and Italy lent support to the Nationalist insurrection led bygeneral Francisco Franco in Spain. The Soviet Union supported theexisting government, the Spanish Republic, which showed leftisttendencies. Both Germany and the USSR used this proxy war as anopportunity to test improved weapons and tactics. The deliberateBombing of Guernica by the German Condor Legion in April 1937contributed to widespread concerns that the next major war wouldinclude extensive terror bombing attacks on civilians.[26][27]

Japanese invasion of China

A Chinese machine gun nest in the Battle ofShanghai, 1937.

In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital ofBeijing after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, whichculminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China.[28] TheSoviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lendmateriel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation withGermany. Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army todefend Shanghai, but after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. TheJapanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing thecapital Nanjing in December 1937 and committed the NankingMassacre.

In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by floodingthe Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defenses at Wuhan, the city was takenby October.[29] Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan hadhoped to achieve, instead the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war.[30]

Japanese invasion of the Soviet Union and Mongolia

Soviet troops fought the Japanese during theBattle of Khalkhin Gol in Mongolia, 1939.

On 29 July 1938, the Japanese invaded the USSR and were checked atthe Battle of Lake Khasan. Although the battle was a Soviet victory,the Japanese dismissed it as an inconclusive draw, and on 11 May 1939decided to move the Japanese-Mongolian border up to the KhalkhinGol River by force. After initial successes the Japanese assault onMongolia was checked by the Red Army that inflicted the first majordefeat on the Japanese Kwantung Army.[31][32]

These clashes convinced some factions in the Japanese governmentthat they should focus on conciliating the Soviet government to avoidinterference in the war against China and instead turn their militaryattention southward, towards the US and European holdings in the Pacific, and also prevented the sacking ofexperienced Soviet military leaders such as Georgy Zhukov, who would later play a vital role in the defence ofMoscow.[33]

World War II 5

European occupations and agreementsFurther information: Anschluss, Appeasement, Munich Agreement, German occupation ofCzechoslovakia, and Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact

From left to right (front): Chamberlain, Daladier,Hitler, Mussolini, and Ciano pictured before

signing the Munich Agreement.

In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming bolder. In March 1938,Germany annexed Austria, again provoking little response from otherEuropean powers.[34] Encouraged, Hitler began pressing Germanclaims on the Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia with apredominantly ethnic German population; and soon France and Britainconceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement, whichwas made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, inexchange for a promise of no further territorial demands.[35] Soon afterthat, however, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cedeadditional territory to Hungary and Poland.[36] In March 1939,Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequentlysplit it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and thepro-German client state, the Slovak Republic.[37]

Alarmed, and with Hitler making further demands on Danzig, France and Britain guaranteed their support for Polishindependence; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to Romania andGreece.[38] Shortly after the Franco-British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance withthe Pact of Steel.[39]

In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact,[40] a non-aggression treatywith a secret protocol. The parties gave each other rights, "in the event of a territorial and political rearrangement," to"spheres of influence" (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany, and eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia andBessarabia for the USSR). It also raised the question of continuing Polish independence.[41]

Course of the war

War breaks out in Europe

Common parade of GermanWehrmacht and Soviet Red Army on23 September 1939 in Brest, EasternPoland at the end of the Invasion ofPoland. At centre is Major General

Heinz Guderian and at right isBrigadier Semyon Krivoshein.

On 1 September 1939, Germany and Slovakia—a client state in 1939—attackedPoland.[42] On 3 September France and Britain, followed by the countries of theCommonwealth,[43] declared war on Germany but provided little support toPoland other than a small French attack into the Saarland.[44] Britain and Francealso began a naval blockade of Germany on 3 September which aimed to damagethe country's economy and war effort.[45][46] On 17 September, after signing acease-fire with Japan, the Soviets also invaded Poland.[47] Poland's territory wasdivided between Germany and the Soviet Union, with Lithuania and Slovakiaalso receiving small shares. The Poles did not surrender and established a PolishUnderground State, an underground Home Army, and continued to fight with theAllies on all fronts outside Poland.[48] About 100,000 Polish military personnelwere evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries; many of these soldiers laterfought against the Germans in other theaters of the war.[49] Poland's Enigmacodebreakers were also evacuated to France.[50] During this time, Japan launchedits first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but wasrepulsed by late September.[51]

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Following the invasion of Poland and a German-Soviet treaty governing Lithuania, the Soviet Union forced theBaltic countries to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under pacts of "mutual assistance."[52][53][54]

Finland rejected territorial demands and was invaded by the Soviet Union in November 1939.[55] The resultingconflict ended in March 1940 with Finnish concessions.[56] France and the United Kingdom, treating the Sovietattack on Finland as tantamount to entering the war on the side of the Germans, responded to the Soviet invasion bysupporting the USSR's expulsion from the League of Nations.[54]

German troops by the Arc de Triomphe, Paris,after the 1940 fall of France.

In Western Europe, British troops deployed to the Continent, but in aphase nicknamed the Phoney War by the British and "Sitzkrieg"(sitting war) by the Germans, neither side launched major operationsagainst the other until April 1940.[57] The Soviet Union and Germanyentered a trade pact in February 1940, pursuant to which the Sovietsreceived German military and industrial equipment in exchange forsupplying raw materials to Germany to help circumvent the Alliedblockade.[58]

In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to secureshipments of iron ore from Sweden, which the Allies were about to

disrupt.[59] Denmark immediately capitulated, and despite Allied support, Norway was conquered within twomonths.[60] In May 1940 Britain invaded Iceland to preempt a possible German invasion of the island.[61] Britishdiscontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the replacement of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain withWinston Churchill on 10 May 1940.[62]

Axis advancesGermany invaded France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg on 10 May 1940.[63] The Netherlands andBelgium were overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a few days and weeks, respectively.[64] The French fortifiedMaginot Line and the Allied forces in Belgium were circumvented by a flanking movement through the thicklywooded Ardennes region,[65] mistakenly perceived by French planners as an impenetrable natural barrier againstarmoured vehicles.[66] British troops were forced to evacuate the continent at Dunkirk, abandoning their heavyequipment by early June.[67] On 10 June, Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the UnitedKingdom;[68] twelve days later France surrendered and was soon divided into German and Italian occupationzones,[69] and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime. On 3 July, the British attacked the French fleet inAlgeria to prevent its possible seizure by Germany.[70]

In June, during the last days of the Battle of France, the Soviet Union rigged elections in the Baltic states andforcibly and illegally annexed them;[53] it then annexed the region of Bessarabia in Romania. Whereas the increasedcooperation between the USSR and Nazi Germany, which included broad economic cooperation, limited militaryassistance, population exchange and border agreements made the former a de facto German ally,[71][72] Soviettakeover of the Baltic states, Bessarabia and North Bukovina had been seen with disquiet by Germany.[73][74] This,as well as growing tensions over spheres of influence demonstrated the impossibility of further expansion ofNazi-Soviet cooperation, and both states had begun the countdown to war.[75]

With France neutralized, Germany began an air superiority campaign over Britain (the Battle of Britain) to preparefor an invasion.[76] The campaign failed, and the invasion plans were canceled by September.[77] Using newlycaptured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boatsagainst British shipping in the Atlantic.[78] Italy began operations in the Mediterranean, initiating a siege of Malta inJune, conquering British Somaliland in August, and making an incursion into British-held Egypt in September 1940.Japan increased its blockade of China in September by seizing several bases in the northern part of the now-isolatedFrench Indochina.[79]

World War II 7

The Battle of Britain ended the German advancein Western Europe.

Throughout this period, the neutral United States took measures toassist China and the Western Allies. In November 1939, the AmericanNeutrality Act was amended to allow "cash and carry" purchases bythe Allies.[80] In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the sizeof the United States Navy was significantly increased and, after theJapanese incursion into Indochina, the United States embargoed iron,steel and mechanical parts against Japan.[81] In September, the UnitedStates further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for Britishbases.[82] Still, a large majority of the American public continued tooppose any direct military intervention into the conflict well into1941.[83]

At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact united Japan, Italyand Germany to formalize the Axis Powers.[84] The Tripartite Pactstipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, notin the war which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go towar against all three.[85] During this time, the United States continuedto support the United Kingdom and China by introducing theLend-Lease policy authorizing the provision of materiel and other

items[86] and creating a security zone spanning roughly half of the Atlantic Ocean where the United States Navyprotected British convoys.[87] As a result, Germany and the United States found themselves engaged in sustainednaval warfare in the North and Central Atlantic by October 1941, even though the United States remained officiallyneutral.[88][89]

The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact.[90] Thesecountries participated in the subsequent invasion of the USSR, with Romania making the largest contribution torecapture territory ceded to the USSR and pursue its leader Ion Antonescu's desire to combat communism.[91] InOctober 1940, Italy invaded Greece but within days was repulsed and pushed back into Albania, where a stalematesoon occurred.[92] In December 1940, British Commonwealth forces began counter-offensives against Italian forcesin Egypt and Italian East Africa.[93] By early 1941, with Italian forces having been pushed back into Libya by theCommonwealth, Churchill ordered a dispatch of troops from Africa to bolster the Greeks.[94] The Italian Navy alsosuffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission by a carrierattack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan.[95]

German paratroopers invading the Greek islandof Crete, May 1941.

The Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent German forcesto Libya in February, and by the end of March they had launched anoffensive against the diminished Commonwealth forces.[96] In under amonth, Commonwealth forces were pushed back into Egypt with theexception of the besieged port of Tobruk.[97] The Commonwealthattempted to dislodge Axis forces in May and again in June, but failedon both occasions.[98] In early April, following Bulgaria's signing ofthe Tripartite Pact, the Germans intervened in the Balkans by invadingGreece and Yugoslavia following a coup; here too they made rapidprogress, eventually forcing the Allies to evacuate after Germanyconquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May.[99]

The Allies did have some successes during this time. In the Middle East, Commonwealth forces first quashed a coup in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria,[100] then, with the assistance of the Free French, invaded Syria and Lebanon to prevent further such occurrences.[101] In the Atlantic,

World War II 8

the British scored a much-needed public morale boost by sinking the German flagship Bismarck.[102] Perhaps mostimportantly, during the Battle of Britain the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe's assault, andthe German bombing campaign largely ended in May 1941.[103]

In Asia, despite several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. In orderto increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a warwith the Western powers, Japan had seized military control of southern Indochina[104] In August of that year,Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures (theThree Alls Policy) in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.[105] Continuedantipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941,effectively ending their co-operation.[106] With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan,and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and theJapanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions inSoutheast Asia, the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941.[107] By contrast, theGermans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, amassing forces on the Sovietborder.[108]

The war becomes global

German infantry and armoured vehicles battle theSoviet defenders on the streets of Kharkov,

October 1941.

On 22 June 1941, Germany, along with other European Axis membersand Finland, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Theprimary targets of this surprise offensive[109] were the Baltic region,Moscow and Ukraine, with an ultimate goal of ending the 1941campaign near the Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line, connecting theCaspian and White Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate theSoviet Union as a military power, exterminate Communism, generateLebensraum ("living space")[110] by dispossessing the nativepopulation[111] and guarantee access to the strategic resources neededto defeat Germany's remaining rivals.[112]

Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensivesbefore the war,[113] Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence. During thesummer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel andmateriel. By the middle of August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive ofa considerably depleted Army Group Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancingtowards central Ukraine and Leningrad.[114] The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting inencirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made further advance into Crimea and industriallydeveloped Eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov) possible.[115]

World War II 9

Soviet counter-attack during the battle ofMoscow, December, 1941.

The diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority oftheir air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to theEastern Front[116] prompted Britain to reconsider its grandstrategy.[117] In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a militaryalliance against Germany[118] The British and Soviets invaded Iran tosecure the Persian Corridor and Iran's oil fields.[119] In August, theUnited Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the AtlanticCharter.[120]

By October, when Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and theBaltic region were achieved, with only the sieges of Leningrad[121] andSevastopol continuing,[122] a major offensive against Moscow hadbeen renewed. After two months of fierce battles, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow,where the exhausted troops[123] were forced to suspend their offensive.[124] Large territorial gains were made byAxis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands,the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its militarypotential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended.[125]

The Axis-controlled territory in Europe at the time of its maximal expansion(1941–42).

By early December, freshly mobilisedreserves[126] allowed the Soviets to achievenumerical parity with Axis troops.[127] This,as well as intelligence data that established aminimal number of Soviet troops in the Eastsufficient to prevent any attack by theJapanese Kwantung Army,[128] allowed theSoviets to begin a massive counter-offensivethat started on 5 December along a 1000kilometres (unknown operator:u'strong' mi) front and pushed Germantroops 100–250 kilometres (unknownoperator: u'strong'unknown operator:u'strong'unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u'strong') west.[129]

German successes in Europe encouragedJapan to increase pressure on Europeangovernments in south-east Asia. The Dutchgovernment agreed to provide Japan oilsupplies from the Dutch East Indies, while refusing to hand over political control of the colonies. Vichy France, bycontrast, agreed to a Japanese occupation of French Indochina.[130] The United States, United Kingdom and otherWestern governments reacted to the seizure of Indochina with a freeze on Japanese assets, while the United States(which supplied 80 percent of Japan's oil[131]) responded by placing a complete oil embargo.[132] That meant Japanwas essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in Asia and the prosecution of the war againstChina, or seizing the natural resources it needed by force; the Japanese military did not consider the former anoption, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.[133]

Japan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific; the Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.[134] To prevent American intervention while securing the

World War II 10

perimeter it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet from the outset.[135] On 7 December (8December in Asian time zones), 1941, Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneousoffensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.[136] These included an attack on the American fleet atPearl Harbor, landings in Thailand and Malaya[136] and the battle of Hong Kong.

The February 1942 Fall of Singapore saw 80,000Allied soldiers captured and enslaved by the

Japanese.

These attacks led the U.S., Britain, Australia and other Allies toformally declare war on Japan. Germany and the other members of theTripartite Pact responded by declaring war on the United States. InJanuary, the United States, Britain, Soviet Union, China, and 22smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by UnitedNations, which affirmed the Atlantic Charter.[137] The Soviet Uniondid not adhere to the declaration; it maintained a neutrality agreementwith Japan,[138][139] and exempted itself from the principle ofself-determination.[120] From 1941, Stalin persistently asked Churchill,and then Roosevelt, to open a 'second front' in France.[140] The Easternfront became the major theatre of war in Europe and the many millionsof Soviet casualties dwarfed the few hundred thousand of the WesternAllies; Churchill and Roosevelt said they needed more preparation time, leading to claims they stalled to saveWestern lives at the expense of Soviet lives.[141]

Meanwhile, by the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma, Malaya, theDutch East Indies, Singapore,[142] and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number ofprisoners. Despite a stubborn resistance in Corregidor, the Philippines was eventually captured in May 1942, forcingthe government of the Philippine Commonwealth into exile.[143] Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in theSouth China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean,[144] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia. The onlyreal Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha in early January 1942.[145] These easy victoriesover unprepared opponents left Japan overconfident, as well as overextended.[146]

Germany retained the initiative as well. Exploiting dubious American naval command decisions, the German navyravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.[147] Despite considerable losses, European Axis membersstopped a major Soviet offensive in Central and Southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they achieved duringthe previous year.[148] In North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back topositions at the Gazala Line by early February,[149] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used toprepare for their upcoming offensives.[150]

Axis advance stalls

American dive bombers engage the Mikuma atthe Battle of Midway, June 1942.

In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresbyby amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply linesbetween the United States and Australia. The Allies, however,prevented the invasion by intercepting and defeating the Japanesenaval forces in the Battle of the Coral Sea.[151] Japan's next plan,motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll andlure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion,Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands inAlaska.[152] In early June, Japan put its operations into action but theAmericans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, werefully aware of the plans and force dispositions and used this knowledgeto achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial JapaneseNavy.[153]

World War II 11

With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on abelated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua.[154] The Americansplanned a counter-attack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as afirst step towards capturing Rabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.[155]

Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, andtroops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island, wherethey faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna-Gona.[156] Guadalcanal soon became a focalpoint for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943,the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops.[157] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mountedtwo operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942, went disastrously, forcing a retreat backto India by May 1943.[158] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in Februarywhich, by the end of April, had achieved dubious results.[159]

Soviet soldiers attack a house during the Battle of Stalingrad, 1943.

On Germany's eastern front, the Axisdefeated Soviet offensives in the KerchPeninsula and at Kharkov,[160] and thenlaunched their main summer offensiveagainst southern Russia in June 1942, toseize the oil fields of the Caucasus andoccupy Kuban steppe, while maintainingpositions on the northern and central areasof the front. The Germans split the ArmyGroup South into two groups: Army GroupA struck lower Don River while Army

Group B struck south-east to the Caucasus, towards Volga River.[161] The Soviets decided to make their stand atStalingrad, which was in the path of the advancing German armies.

By mid-November the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began theirsecond winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad[162] and an assault onthe Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.[163] By early February 1943, the German Armyhad taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender[164] and the front-line hadbeen pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push hadtapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front line around the Russiancity of Kursk.[165]

World War II 12

British Crusader tanks moving to forwardpositions during the North African Campaign.

By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched acounter-offensive, Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimedall the gains the Germans and Italians had made.[166] In the West,concerns the Japanese might utilize bases in Vichy-held Madagascarcaused the British to invade the island in early May 1942.[167] Thissuccess was offset soon after by an Axis offensive in Libya whichpushed the Allies back into Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at ElAlamein.[168] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos onstrategic targets, culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid,[169]

demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion ofcontinental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, andoperational security.[170]

In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attackagainst El Alamein[171] and, at a high cost, managed to deliverdesperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.[172] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of theirown in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.[173] This attack was followed upshortly after by an Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining theAllies.[174] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France;[174]

although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent itscapture by German forces.[175] The now pincered Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conqueredby the Allies in May 1943.[176]

Allies gain momentumFollowing the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May1943, Allied forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians,[177] and soon after began majoroperations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and to breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter atthe Gilbert and Marshall Islands.[178] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives,and additionally neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies thenlaunched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.[179]

Soviet Il-2 planes attacking a Wehrmacht columnduring the Battle of Kursk, 1 July 1943.

In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the springand early summer of 1943 making preparations for large offensives inCentral Russia. On 4 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forcesaround the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhaustedthemselves against the Soviets' deeply echeloned and well-constructeddefences[180][181] and, for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled theoperation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.[182]

This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion ofSicily launched on 9 July which, combined with previous Italianfailures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later thatmonth.[183]

On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby dispelling any hopes of the GermanArmy for victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk heralded the downfall of Germansuperiority,[184] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.[185][186] The Germans attempted tostabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther-Wotan line, however, the Soviets broke through it atSmolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensives.[187]

World War II 13

In early September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following an Italian armistice with theAllies.[188] Germany responded by disarming Italian forces, seizing military control of Italian areas,[189] and creatinga series of defensive lines.[190] German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a newclient state in German occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic.[191] The Western Allies fought throughseveral lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.[192]

German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasinglyeffective, the resulting sizable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic navalcampaign.[193] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek inCairo[194] and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran.[195] The former conference determined the post-war return ofJapanese territory,[194] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 andthat the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.[195]

British troops firing a mortar during the Battle ofImphal, North East India, 1944.

From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde, theChinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while awaitingAllied relief.[196][197] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series ofattacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and attempted tooutflank it with landings at Anzio.[198] By the end of January, a majorSoviet offensive expelled German forces from the Leningradregion,[199] ending the longest and most lethal siege in history. Thefollowing Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian borderby the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping tore-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequentSoviet operations in the Baltic Sea region.[200] By late May 1944, theSoviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, whichwere repulsed by the Axis troops.[201] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowingseveral German divisions to retreat, on 4 June Rome was captured.[202]

The Allies experienced mixed fortunes in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of twoinvasions, an operation against British positions in Assam, India,[203] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions atImphal and Kohima.[204] In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops backto Burma,[204] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops inMyitkyina.[205] The second Japanese invasion attempted to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railwaysbetween Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.[206] By June, the Japanese had conquered the provinceof Henan and begun a renewed attack against Changsha in the Hunan province.[207]

Allies close in

Allied Invasion of Normandy, 6 June 1944

On 6 June 1944 (known as D-Day), after three years of Sovietpressure,[208] the Western Allies invaded northern France. Afterreassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attackedsouthern France.[209] These landings were successful, and led to thedefeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated by thelocal resistance assisted by the Free French Forces on 25 August[210]

and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces inWestern Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt toadvance into northern Germany spear-headed by a major airborneoperation in the Netherlands ended with a failure.[211] After that, theWestern Allies slowly pushed into Germany, unsuccessfully trying to cross the Rur river in a large offensive. In Italythe Allied advance also slowed down, when they ran into the last major German defensive line.

World War II 14

Red Army personnel and equipment crossing ariver during the northern Summer of 1944

On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus(known as "Operation Bagration") that resulted in the almost completedestruction of the German Army Group Centre.[212] Soon after that,another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from WesternUkraine and Eastern Poland. The successful advance of Soviet troopsprompted resistance forces in Poland to initiate several uprisings,though the largest of these, in Warsaw, as well as a Slovak Uprising inthe south, were not assisted by the Soviets and were put down byGerman forces.[213] The Red Army's strategic offensive in easternRomania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there

and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Alliedside.[214]

Polish insurgents during the Warsaw Uprising.

In September 1944, Soviet Red Army troops advanced into Yugoslaviaand forced the rapid withdrawal of the German Army Groups E and Fin Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cutoff.[215] By this point, the Communist-led Partisans under MarshalJosip Broz Tito, who had led an increasingly successful guerrillacampaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of theterritory of Yugoslavia and were engaged in delaying efforts againstthe German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Red Army,with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in ajoint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few

days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall ofBudapest in February 1945.[216] In contrast with impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, the bitter Finnishresistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to thesigning of Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions,[217][218] with a subsequent shift to the Allied sideby Finland.

By the start of July, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing theJapanese back to the Chindwin River[219] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In China, the Japanese were havinggreater successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August.[220]

Soon after, they further invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces atGuilin and Liuzhou by the end of November[221] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina bythe middle of December.[222]

In the Pacific, American forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944 they began theiroffensive against the Mariana and Palau islands, and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of thePhilippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of Japanese Prime Minister Tōjō and provided the United Stateswith air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, Americanforces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory during theBattle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history.[223]

World War II 15

Axis collapse, Allied victory

American and Soviet troops meet in April 1945,east of the Elbe River.

On 16 December 1944, Germany attempted its last desperate measurefor success on the Western Front by using most of its remainingreserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes toattempt to split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of WesternAllied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp in orderto prompt a political settlement.[224] By January, the offensive hadbeen repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.[224] In Italy, theWestern Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. Inmid-January 1945, the Soviets attacked in Poland, pushing from theVistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia.[225] On4 February, U.S., British, and Soviet leaders met in Yalta. They agreedon the occupation of post-war Germany,[226] and when the SovietUnion would join the war against Japan.[227]

In February, the Soviets invaded Silesia and Pomerania, while Western Allies invaded Western Germany and closedto the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling theGerman Army Group B,[228] while the Soviets advanced to Vienna. In early April, the Western Allies finally pushedforward in Italy and swept across Western Germany, while Soviet forces stormed Berlin in late April; the two forceslinked up on Elbe river on 25 April. On 30 April 1945, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat ofThird Reich.[229]

A devastated Berlin street in the city centre postBattle of Berlin, taken 3 July 1945.

Several changes in leadership occurred during this period. On 12 April,U.S. President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry Truman.Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April.[230] Twodays later, Hitler committed suicide, and was succeeded by GrandAdmiral Karl Dönitz.[231]

German forces surrendered in Italy on 29 April. The Germaninstrument of surrender was signed on 7 May in Rheims,[232] andratified on 8 May in Berlin.[233] German Army Group Centre resistedin Prague until 11 May.[234]

In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces ofthe Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearingLeyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945and captured Manila in March following a battle which reduced thecity to ruins. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao and other islands

of the Philippines until the end of the war.[235]

World War II 16

Atomic explosion at Nagasaki, 9August 1945.

In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there.British, American and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma inMarch, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May.[236] Chineseforces started to counterattack in Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6April and 7 June 1945. American forces also moved towards Japan, taking IwoJima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June.[237] American bombersdestroyed Japanese cities, and American submarines cut off Japaneseimports.[238]

On 11 July, the Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlieragreements about Germany,[239] and reiterated the demand for unconditionalsurrender of all Japanese forces by Japan, specifically stating that "the alternativefor Japan is prompt and utter destruction".[240] During this conference the UnitedKingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill asPrime Minister.[241] When Japan continued to ignore the Potsdam terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs onthe Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August. Between the two bombs, the Soviets, pursuant to theYalta agreement, invaded Japanese-held Manchuria, and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was thelargest Japanese fighting force.[242][243] The Red Army also captured Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On 15August 1945 Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed aboard the deck of the Americanbattleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war.[232]

Aftermath

The Supreme Commanders on 5 June 1945 inBerlin: Bernard Montgomery, Dwight D.

Eisenhower, Georgy Zhukov and Jean de Lattrede Tassigny

The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria andGermany. The former became a neutral state, non-aligned with anypolitical bloc. The latter was divided onto western and easternoccupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the USSR,accordingly. A denazification program in Germany led to theprosecution of Nazi war criminals and the removal of ex-Nazis frompower, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integrationof ex-Nazis into West German society.[244] Germany lost a quarter ofits pre-war (1937) territory, the eastern territories: Silesia, Neumarkand most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland; East Prussia wasdivided between Poland and the USSR, followed by the expulsion ofthe 9 million Germans from these provinces, as well as of 3 millionGermans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, to Germany. By the1950s, every fifth West German was a refugee from the east. The USSR also took over the Polish provinces east ofthe Curzon line (from which 2 million Poles were expelled),[245] Eastern Romania,[246][247] and part of easternFinland[248] and three Baltic states.[249][250]

World War II 17

Prime Minister Winston Churchill gives the"Victory" sign to crowds in London on Victory in

Europe Day.

In an effort to maintain peace,[251] the Allies formed the UnitedNations, which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,[252]

and adopted The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, as acommon standard for all member nations.[253] The alliance between theWestern Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate evenbefore the war was over,[254] Germany had been de facto divided, andtwo independent states, Federal Republic of Germany and GermanDemocratic Republic[255] were created within the borders of Allied andSoviet occupation zones, accordingly. The rest of Europe was alsodivided onto Western and Soviet spheres of influence.[256] Mosteastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere,which led to establishment of Communist led regimes, with full orpartial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, Poland,Hungary,[257] Czechoslovakia,[258] Romania, Albania,[259] and East

Germany became Soviet Satellite states. Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy causingtension with the USSR.[260]

Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATOand the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact;[261] the long period of political tensions and military competition between them, theCold War, would be accompanied by unprecedented arms race and proxy wars.[262]

World map of colonization at the end of theSecond World War in 1945. With the end of the

war, the wars of national liberation ensued,leading to the creation of Israel, the often bloodydecolonization of Asia and (somewhat later) of

Africa.

In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan andadministrated Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while theSoviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands.[263] Korea, formerlyunder Japanese rule, was divided and occupied by the US in the Southand the Soviet Union in the North between 1945 and 1948. Separaterepublics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, eachclaiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which ledultimately to the Korean War.[264] In China, nationalist and communistforces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces werevictorious and established the People's Republic of China on themainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949.[265] Inthe Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations PartitionPlan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab-Israeli conflict. While Europeancolonial powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources duringthe war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation.[266][267]

The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The USemerged much richer than any other nation; it had a baby boom and by 1950 its gross domestic product per personwas much higher than that of any of the other powers and it dominated the world economy.[268][269] The UK and USpursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945–1948.[270] Due to internationaltrade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for severalyears.[271][272] Recovery began with the mid 1948 currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by theliberalization of European economic policy that the Marshall plan (1948–1951) both directly and indirectlycaused.[273][274] The post 1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle.[275] Also theItalian[276][277] and French economies rebounded.[278] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economicruin,[279] and continued relative economic decline for decades.[280] The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and

World War II 18

material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era.[281] Japan experiencedincredibly rapid economic growth, becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s.[282]

China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952.[283]

Impact

Casualties and war crimes

World War II deaths

Estimates for the total casualties of thewar vary, because many deaths wentunrecorded. Most suggest that some 60million people died in the war,including about 20 million soldiers and40 million civilians.[284][285][286] Manycivilians died because of disease,starvation, massacres, bombing anddeliberate genocide. The Soviet Unionlost around 27 million people duringthe war,[287] including 8.7 millionmilitary and 19 million civilian deaths.The largest portion of military deadwere ethnic Russians (5,756,000),followed by ethnic Ukrainians

(1,377,400).[288] One of every four Soviet citizens was killed or wounded in that war.[289] Germany sustained 5.3million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany.[290]

Of the total deaths in World War II approximately 85 percent—mostly Soviet and Chinese—were on the Allied sideand 15 percent on the Axis side. Many of these deaths were caused by war crimes committed by German andJapanese forces in occupied territories. An estimated 11[291] to 17[292] million civilians died as a direct or indirectresult of Nazi ideological policies, including the systematic genocide of around six million Jews during TheHolocaust along with a further five million Roma, homosexuals as well as Slavs and other ethnic and minoritygroups.[293] Roughly 7.5 million civilians died in China under Japanese occupation,[294] and hundreds of thousands(varying estimates) of ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies and Jews, were murdered by the Axis-aligned CroatianUstaše in what would become Yugoslavia, with retribution-related killings of Croatian civilians later in the war.[295]

Chinese civilians to be buried alive by Japanesesoldiers.

The best-known Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre, in whichseveral hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped andmurdered.[296] Between 3 million to more than 10 million civilians,mostly Chinese, were killed by the Japanese occupation forces.[297]

Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported 2.7 million casualties occurred during theSankō Sakusen. General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy inHeipei and Shantung.[298]

The Axis forces employed limited biological and chemical weapons.The Italians used mustard gas during their conquest of Abyssinia,[299]

while the Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weaponsduring their invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731)[300][301]

World War II 19

and in early conflicts against the Soviets.[302] Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons againstcivilians[303] and, in some cases, on prisoners of war.[304]

While many of the Axis's acts were brought to trial in the world's first international tribunals,[305] incidents causedby the Allies were not. Examples of such Allied actions include population transfers in the Soviet Union andJapanese American internment in the United States; the Operation Keelhaul,[306] expulsion of Germans after WorldWar II, mass rape of German women by Soviet Red Army; the Soviet Union's Katyn massacre, for which Germansfaced counter-accusations of responsibility. Large numbers of famine deaths can also be partially attributed to thewar, such as the Bengal famine of 1943 and the Vietnamese famine of 1944–45.[307]

It has been suggested by some historians that the mass-bombing of civilian areas in enemy territory, including Tokyoand most notably the German cities of Dresden, Hamburg and Cologne by Western Allies,[308] which resulted in thedestruction of more than 160 cities and the deaths of more than 600,000 German civilians[309] be considered as warcrimes.

Concentration camps and slave workFurther information: The Holocaust, Consequences of German Nazism, Japanese war crimes, and Allied war crimesduring World War IIThe Nazis were responsible for The Holocaust, the killing of approximately six million Jews (overwhelminglyAshkenazim), as well as two million ethnic Poles and four million others who were deemed "unworthy of life"(including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet POWs, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Romani)as part of a programme of deliberate extermination. About 12 million, most of whom were Eastern Europeans, wereemployed in the German war economy as forced labourers.[310]

Dead bodies in theMauthausen-Gusen concentration

camp after liberation, possiblypolitical prisoners or Soviet POWs

In addition to Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet gulags (labour camps) led tothe death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, andEstonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POWs) and even Soviet citizenswho had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis.[311] Sixty percent ofSoviet POWs of the Germans died during the war.[312] Richard Overy gives thenumber of 5.7 million Soviet POWs. Of those, 57 percent died or were killed, atotal of 3.6 million.[313] Soviet ex-POWs and repatriated civilians were treatedwith great suspicion as potential Nazi collaborators, and some of them were sentto the GULAG upon being checked by the NKVD.[314]

Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, alsohad high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East foundthe death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1 percent (for American POWs, 37percent),[315] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.[316]

While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473from United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number for the Chinese was only 56.[317]

According to historian Zhifen Ju, at least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo wereenslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board, or Kōain, for work in mines and warindustries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.[318] The U.S. Library of Congress estimates that in Java,between 4 and 10 million romusha (Japanese: "manual laborers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military.About 270,000 of these Javanese laborers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000were repatriated to Java.[319]

World War II 20

Mistreated and starved prisoners in theMauthausen camp, Austria, 1945

On 19 February 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066,interning thousands of Japanese, Italians, German Americans, andsome emigrants from Hawaii who fled after the bombing of PearlHarbor for the duration of the war. The U.S. and Canadiangovernments interned 150,000 Japanese-Americans,[320][321] Inaddition, 14,000 German and Italian residents of the U.S. who hadbeen assessed as being security risks were also interned.[322]

In accordance with the Allied agreement made at the Yalta conferencemillions of POWs and civilians were used as forced labor by the SovietUnion.[323] In Hungary's case, Hungarians were forced to work for theSoviet Union until 1955.[324]

Home fronts and production

Allied to Axis GDP ratio

The Soviet T-34, the most-produced tank of the war, goingto the front. Over 57,000 T-34s had been built in the USSR

by 1945.

In Europe, before the outbreak of thewar, the Allies had significantadvantages in both population andeconomics. In 1938, the Western Allies(United Kingdom, France, Poland andBritish Dominions) had a 30 percentlarger population and a 30 percenthigher gross domestic product than theEuropean Axis (Germany and Italy); ifcolonies are included, it then gives theAllies more than a 5:1 advantage inpopulation and nearly 2:1 advantage inGDP.[325] In Asia at the same time,China had roughly six times thepopulation of Japan, but only an 89percent higher GDP; this is reduced tothree times the population and only a38 percent higher GDP if Japanesecolonies are included.[325]

Though the Allies' economic andpopulation advantages were largelymitigated during the initial rapidblitzkrieg attacks of Germany andJapan, they became the decisive factorby 1942, after the United States andSoviet Union joined the Allies, as thewar largely settled into one ofattrition.[326] While the Allies' abilityto out-produce the Axis is oftenattributed to the Allies having more

access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force,[327][328] Allied strategic bombing,[329][330] and Germany's late shift to a war economy[331] contributed

World War II 21

significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and were not equipped todo so.[332][333] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers;[334] Germany usedabout 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,[310] while Japan pressed more than 18 million people in FarEast Asia.[318][319]

Occupation

Soviet partisans hanged by German forces inJanuary 1943

In Europe, occupation came under two very different forms. InWestern, Northern and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, theLow Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germanyestablished economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5billion reichmarks (27.8 billion US Dollars) by the end of the war; thisfigure does not include the sizable plunder of industrial products,military equipment, raw materials and other goods.[335] Thus, theincome from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the incomeGermany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40percent of total German income as the war went on.[336]

In the East, the much hoped for bounties of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Sovietscorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders.[337] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policyencouraged excessive brutality against what it considered to be the "inferior people" of Slavic descent; most Germanadvances were thus followed by mass executions.[338] Although resistance groups did form in most occupiedterritories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East[339] or the West[340] until late1943.

In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere,essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.[341] AlthoughJapanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European domination in many territories, theirexcessive brutality turned local public opinions against them within weeks.[342] During Japan's initial conquest itcaptured 4000000 barrels (unknown operator: u'strong' m3) of oil (~5.5×105 tonnes) left behind by retreatingAllied forces, and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (~6.8×106 t),76 percent of its 1940 output rate.[342]

Advances in technology and warfareAircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers and ground-support, and each role was advancedconsiderably. Innovation included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipmentand personnel);[343] and of strategic bombing (the bombing of civilian areas to destroy industry and morale).[344]

Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, such as theGerman 88 mm gun. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered, and though late introduction meant it had little impact,it led to jets becoming standard in worldwide air forces.[345]

World War II 22

U-995 Type VIIC at the German navy memorialat Laboe. Between 1939 and 1945, 3,500 Allied

merchant ships were sunk at a cost of 783German U-boats.

Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare, mostnotably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Although at the start ofthe war aeronautical warfare had relatively little success, actions atTaranto, Pearl Harbor, the South China Sea and the Coral Seaestablished the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of thebattleship.[346][347][348] In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be avital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radiusand helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap.[349] Carriers were also moreeconomical than battleships due to the relatively low cost ofaircraft[350] and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured.[351]

Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during theFirst World War[352] were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development onanti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensivecapability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics.[353] Gradually, improving Alliedtechnologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious.

Land warfare changed from the static front lines of World War I to increased mobility and combined arms. The tank,which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primaryweapon.[354] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World WarI,[355] and advances continued throughout the war in increasing speed, armour and firepower.

Boeing B-17E in flight. The Allies had lost160,000 airmen and 33,700 planes during the air

war over Europe.[356]

At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks shouldbe met by tanks with superior specifications.[357] This idea waschallenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tankguns against armour, and German doctrine of avoidingtank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combinedarms, were among the key elements of their highly successfulblitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.[354] Many means ofdestroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (bothtowed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitankweapons, and other tanks were utilised.[357] Even with large-scalemechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,[358] andthroughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.[359]

The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG42, and various submachine guns whichwere suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings.[359] The assault rifle, a late war development incorporatingmany features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armedforces.[360][361]

Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security presented by using largecodebooks for cryptography with the use of ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigmamachine.[362] SIGINT (signals intelligence) was the countering process of decryption, with the notable examplesbeing the Allied breaking of Japanese naval codes[363] and British Ultra, which was derived from methodology givento Britain by the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding Enigma for seven years before the war.[364]

Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception, which the Allies used to great effect, such as inoperations Mincemeat and Bodyguard.[363][365] Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as aresult of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles andmodern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons and the development of artificial harboursand oil pipelines under the English Channel.[366]

World War II 23

NotesFootnotes[1] Sommerville, Donald (2008). The Complete Illustrated History of World War Two: An Authoritative Account of the Deadliest Conflict in

Human History with Analysis of Decisive Encounters and Landmark Engagements. Lorenz Books. p. 5. ISBN 0754818985.[2] Barrett, David P; Shyu, Lawrence N (2001). China in the anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945: politics, culture and society. Volume 1 of Studies in

modern Chinese history. New York: Peter Lang. p. 6. ISBN 0-8204-4556-8.[3] Chickering, Roger (2006) (Google books). A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937–1945 (http:/ / books.

google. com/ ?id=evVPoSwqrG4C& dq=A+ World+ at+ Total+ War:+ Global+ Conflict+ and+ the+ Politics+ of+ Destruction,+1937â��1945& printsec=frontcover& q=A World at Total War: Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937â��1945). CambridgeUniversity Press. p. 64. ISBN 0275987108. . Retrieved 15 November 2009.

[4] Fiscus, James W (2007) (Google books). Critical Perspectives on World War II (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=6MTcnkLfDZAC&dq=Critical+ Perspectives+ on+ World+ War+ II& printsec=frontcover& q=). Rosen Publishing Group. p. 44. ISBN 1404200657. . Retrieved15 November 2009.

[5] (Ben-Horin, Eliahu (1943). The Middle East: Crossroads of History. W. W. Norton & Co. p. 169; Taylor, A. J. P (1979). How Wars Begin.Hamilton. p. 124. ISBN 0241100178; Yisreelit, Hevrah Mizrahit (1965). Asian and African Studies, p. 191). For 1941 see (Taylor, A. J. P(1961). The Origins of the Second World War. Hamilton. p. vii; Kellogg, William O (2003). American History the Easy Way. Barron'sEducational Series. p. 236 ISBN 0764119737). There also exists the viewpoint that both World War I and World War II are part of the same"European Civil War" or "Second Thirty Years War". (Canfora, Luciano; Jones, Simon (2006). Democracy in Europe: A History of anIdeology. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 155. ISBN 1405111313; Prin, Gwyn (2002). The Heart of War: On Power, Conflict and Obligation in theTwenty-First Century. Routledge. p. 11. ISBN 0415369606).

[6] Masaya, Shiraishi (1990). Japanese relations with Vietnam, 1951–1987. SEAP Publications. p. 4. ISBN 087727124.[7] "German-American Relations – Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (two plus four)" (http:/ / usa. usembassy. de/ etexts/

2plusfour8994e. htm). Usa.usembassy.de. . Retrieved 29 January 2012.[8][8] Kantowicz 1999, p. 149[9] Davies 2008, pp. 134–140[10][10] Shaw 2000, p. 35[11][11] Bullock 1962, p. 265[12][12] Preston 1998, p. 104[13][13] Myers 1987, p. 458[14][14] Smith 2004, p. 28[15] Coogan, Anthony (July 1993). "The Volunteer Armies of Northeast China" (http:/ / www. questia. com/ googleScholar.

qst?docId=5000186948). History Today 43. . Retrieved 14 November 2009. "Although some Chinese troops in the Northeast managed toretreat south, others were trapped by the advancing Japanese Army and were faced with the choice of resistance in defiance of orders, orsurrender. A few commanders submitted, receiving high office in the puppet government, but others took up arms against the invader. Theforces they commanded were the first of the volunteer armies"

[16][16] Brody 1999, p. 4[17][17] Zalampas 1989, p. 62[18][18] Record 2005, p. 50[19][19] Mandelbaum 1988, p. 96[20] Schmitz, David F (2001). The First Wise Man. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 124. ISBN 0842026320.[21][21] Kitson 2001, p. 231[22][22] Adamthwaite 1992, p. 52[23][23] Graham 2005, p. 110[24][24] Busky 2002, p. 10[25] Barker, A. J (1971). The Rape of Ethiopia 1936. Ballantine Books. pp. 131–2. ISBN 0345024621.[26] Beevor, Antony (2006). The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939. London: Phoenix. pp. 258–260. ISBN 0753821656.[27] Budiansky, Stephen (2004). Air power : The Men, Machines, and Ideas that Revolutionized War, from Kitty Hawk to Gulf War II. London:

Viking. pp. 209–211. ISBN 0670032859.[28] Fairbank, John King; Feuerwerker, Albert; Twitchett, Denis Crispin (1986). The Cambridge history of China. Cambridge University Press.

pp. 547–551. ISBN 0521243386.[29] Fairbank, John King; Feuerwerker, Albert; Twitchett, Denis Crispin (1986). The Cambridge history of China. Cambridge University Press.

p. 566. ISBN 0521243386.[30] Taylor, Jay (2009). The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the struggle for modern China. Harvard University Press. pp. 150–152.

ISBN 9780674033382.[31] Coox, Alvin D. (1990). Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia, 1939. Stanford University Press. p. 189. ISBN 0804718350.[32] Sella, Amnon (October 1983). "Khalkhin-Gol: The Forgotten War". Journal of Contemporary History 18 (4): 651–87.[33] Chaney, Otto Preston (1996). Zhukov. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 76. ISBN 0806128070.[34] Collier, Martin; Pedley, Philip (2000). Germany 1919–45. Heinemann. p. 144. ISBN 0435327216.

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[35] Kershaw 2001, pp. 121–2[36][36] Kershaw 2001, p. 157[37] Davies 2008, pp. 143–4[38] Lowe, Cedric James; Marzari, F (2002). Italian Foreign Policy 1870–1940. Taylor & Francis. p. 330. ISBN 0415273722.[39] Dear, I. C. B.; Foot, M. R. D, eds. (2002). "Pact of Steel". Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford University Press. p. 674.

ISBN 0198604467.[40] Shore, Zachary (2003). What Hitler Knew: The Battle for Information in Nazi Foreign Policy. Oxford University Press US. p. 108.

ISBN 0195154592.[41][41] Dear, I. C. B.; Foot, M. R. D, eds. (2002). "Nazi-Soviet Pact". Oxford University Press. p. 608. ISBN 0198604467.[42] Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War 1939-1945. London: Allen Lane. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9780713997422.[43] Weinberg 2005, pp. 64–65[44] Keegan, John (1997). The Second World War. London: Pimlico. p. 35. ISBN 0712673482.[45] Roskill, S.W. (1954). The War at Sea 1939–1945 Volume 1 : The Defensive (http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ hyperwar/ UN/ UK/ UK-RN-I/

index. html). History of the Second World War. United Kingdom Military Series. London: HMSO. p. 64. .[46] Fritz, Martin (2005). "Economic Warfare". In Dear, I.C.B and Foot, M.R.D.. The Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford: Oxford

University Press. p. 248. ISBN 9780192806703.[47] Zaloga, Steven J.; Gerrard, Howard (2002) (Google books). Poland 1939: The Birth of Blitzkrieg (http:/ / books. google. com/

?id=oQeAKAjlEwMC& printsec=frontcover& dq=poland+ 1939:+ The+ Birth+ of+ Blitzkrieg#v=onepage& q=). Osprey Publishing. p. 83.ISBN 1841764086. . Retrieved 15 November 2009.

[48] Hempel, Andrew (2003) (Google books). Poland in World War II: An Illustrated Military History (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=9SmbqqQfp1gC& dq=Poland+ in+ World+ War+ II:+ An+ Illustrated+ Military+ History'& printsec=frontcover& q=). HippocreneBooks. p. 24. ISBN 0781810043. . Retrieved 15 November 2009.

[49] Zaloga, Stephen J. (2004). Poland 1939 : The Birth of Blitzkrieg. London: Praeger. pp. 88–89. ISBN 0275982785.[50] Budiansky, Stephen (2001). Battle of Wits : The Complete Story of Codebreaking in World War II. London: Penguin. pp. 120–121.

ISBN 0140281053.[51] Jowett & Andrew 2002, p. 14[52] Smith, David J. (2002) (Google books). The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (http:/ / books. google. com/

?id=YaYbzQQN97EC& lpg=PA142& dq=The Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania& pg=PA142#v=onepage& q=). Routledge. 1stedition. p. 24. ISBN 0415285801. . Retrieved 15 November 2009.

[53] Bilinsky, Yaroslav (1999) (Google books). Endgame in NATO's Enlargement: The Baltic States and Ukraine (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=pbocXztNVsUC& lpg=PR3& dq=Endgame in NATO's Enlargement: The Baltic States and Ukraine|& pg=PR3#v=onepage& q=).Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 9. ISBN 0275963632. . Retrieved 15 November 2009.

[54] Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 55–56[55] Spring, D. W (April 1986). "The Soviet Decision for War against Finland, 30 November 1939". Europe-Asia Studies (Taylor & Francis,

Ltd.) 38 (2): 207–226. doi:10.1080/09668138608411636. JSTOR 151203.[56] Hanhimäki, Jussi M (1997) (Google books). Containing Coexistence: America, Russia, and the "Finnish Solution (http:/ / books. google.

com/ ?id=OWfudYWUOt0C& lpg=PP1& dq=Containing Coexistence: America, Russia, and the "Finnish Solution& pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=). Kent State University Press. p. 12. ISBN 0873385586. . Retrieved 15 November 2009.

[57][57] Weinberg 1995, pp. 95, 121[58] Shirer, William L (1990). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany. Simon and Schuster. pp. 668–9.

ISBN 0671728687.[59] Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 57–63[60] Commager, Henry Steele (2004) (Google books). The Story of the Second World War (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=H2nUNdqobOkC&

lpg=PP1& dq=The Story of the Second World War& pg=PP1#v=onepage& q=). Brassey's. p. 9. ISBN 1574887416. . Retrieved 15 November2009.

[61] Dear, I. C. B.; Foot, M. R. D, eds. (2002). "Iceland". Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford University Press. p. 436.ISBN 0198604467.

[62] Reynolds, David (27 April 2006) (Google books). From World War to Cold War: Churchill, Roosevelt, and the International History of the1940s (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Qk_xKD62G7cC& lpg=PP1& dq=From World War to Cold War: Churchill, Roosevelt, and theInternational History of the 1940s& pg=PP1#v=onepage& q=). Oxford University Press, USA. p. 76. ISBN 0199284113. . Retrieved 15November 2009.

[63] Evans, Richard J. (2008). The Third Reich at War 1939-1945. London: Allen Lane. pp. 122–123. ISBN 9780713997422.[64] Shirer, William L (1990). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany. Simon and Schuster. pp. 721–3.

ISBN 0671728687.[65] Keegan, John (1997). The Second World War. London: Pimlico. pp. 59–60. ISBN 0712673482.[66] Regan, Geoffrey (2000). The Brassey's book of military blunders. Brassey's. p. 152. ISBN 157488252X.[67] Keegan, John (1997). The Second World War. London: Pimlico. pp. 66–67. ISBN 0712673482.[68] Overy, Richard; Wheatcroft, Andrew (1999). The Road to War (Revised and updated ed.). London: Penguin. p. 207. ISBN 014028530X.

World War II 25

[69] Klaus, Autbert (2001). Germany and the Second World War Volume 2: Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=Z5p4tGO7-VkC& lpg=PA1& dq=Germany and the Second World War Volume 2: Germany's Initial Conquests in Europe&pg=PA1#v=onepage& q=). Oxford University Press. p. 311. ISBN 0198228880. . Retrieved 15 November 2009.

[70] Brown, David (2004). The Road to Oran: Anglo-French Naval Relations, September 1939 – July 1940. Taylor & Francis. p. xxx.ISBN 0714654612.

[71] Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World Penguin, pp.367, 376, 379, 417[72] Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands, Random House, from p. 118 onwards[73] H. W. Koch. Hitler's 'Programme' and the Genesis of Operation 'Barbarossa'. The Historical Journal, Vol. 26, No. 4 (Dec., 1983), pp.

891–920[74] Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. Yale University Press. p. 56. ISBN 0300112041.[75] Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. Yale University Press. p. 59. ISBN 0300112041.[76] Kelly, Nigel; Rees, Rosemary; Shuter, Jane (1998). Twentieth Century World. Heinemann. p. 38. ISBN 0435309838.[77] Kelly, Nigel; Rees, Rosemary; Shuter, Jane (1998). Twentieth Century World. Heinemann. p. 38. ISBN 0435309838.[78] Goldstein, Margaret J (2004). World War II. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 35. ISBN 0822501392.[79] Overy, Richard; Wheatcroft, Andrew (1999). The Road to War (Revised and updated ed.). London: Penguin. pp. 288–289.

ISBN 014028530X.[80] Overy, Richard; Wheatcroft, Andrew (1999). The Road to War (Revised and updated ed.). London: Penguin. pp. 328–330.

ISBN 014028530X.[81] Morison, Samuel Eliot (2002). History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. University of Illinois Press. p. 60.

ISBN 0252070658.[82] Maingot, Anthony P. (1994). The United States and the Caribbean: Challenges of an Asymmetrical Relationship. Westview Press. p. 52.

ISBN 0813322413.[83] Cantril, Hadley (September 1940). "America Faces the War: A Study in Public Opinion". The Public Opinion Quarterly 4 (3): 390.[84][84] Weinberg 1995, p. 182[85] Bilhartz, Terry D.; Elliott, Alan C. (2007). Currents in American History: A Brief History of the United States. M.E. Sharpe. p. 179.

ISBN 9780765618214.[86] Murray & Millett 2001, p. 165[87] Knell, Hermann (2003). To Destroy a City: Strategic Bombing and Its Human Consequences in World War II. Da Capo. p. 205.

ISBN 0306811693.[88] Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 233–245[89] Schoenherr, Steven (1 October 2005). "Undeclared Naval War in the Atlantic 1941" (http:/ / history. sandiego. edu/ gen/ ww2Timeline/

Prelude18. html). History Department at the University of San Diego. . Retrieved 15 February 2010.[90] Dear, I. C. B.; Foot, M. R. D, eds. (2002). "Tripartite Pact". Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford University Press. p. 877.

ISBN 0198604467.[91] Deletant, Dennis (2002). "Romania". In Dear, I. C. B.; Foot, M. R. D. Oxford Companion to World War II. pp. 745–46. ISBN 0198604467.[92] Clogg, Richard (1992). A Concise History of Greece. Cambridge University Press. p. 118. ISBN 0521808723.[93] Andrew, Stephen (2001). The Italian Army 1940–45 (2): Africa 1940–43. Osprey Publishing. pp. 9–10. ISBN 1855328658.[94] Brown, David (2002). The Royal Navy and the Mediterranean. Routledge. pp. 64–65. ISBN 0714652059.[95] Jackson, Ashley (2006). The British Empire and the Second World War. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 106.

ISBN 1852854170.[96] Laurier, Jim (2001). Tobruk 1941: Rommel's opening move. Osprey Publishing. pp. 7–8. ISBN 1841760927.[97] Murray & Millett 2001, pp. 263–67[98] Macksey, Kenneth (1997). Rommel: battles and campaigns. Da Capo Press. pp. 61–63. ISBN 0306807866.[99][99] Weinberg 1995, p. 229[100] Watson, William E (2003). Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 80. ISBN 0275974707.[101] Jackson, Ashley (2006). The British Empire and the Second World War. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 154.

ISBN 1852854170.[102] Stewart, Vance (2002). Three Against One: Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin Vs Adolph Hitler. Sunstone Press. p. 159. ISBN 0865343772.[103] Dear, I.C.B and Foot, M.R.D. (editors) (2005). "Blitz". The Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

pp. 108–109. ISBN 9780192806703.[104] Overy, Richard; Wheatcroft, Andrew (1999). The Road to War (Revised and updated ed.). London: Penguin. p. 289. ISBN 014028530X.[105] Joes, Anthony James (2004). Resisting Rebellion: The History And Politics of Counterinsurgency. University Press of Kentucky. p. 224.

ISBN 0813123399.[106] Fairbank, John King; Goldman, Merle (1994). China: A New History. Harvard University Press. p. 320. ISBN 0674116739.[107] Garver, John W (1988). Chinese-Soviet Relations, 1937–1945: The Diplomacy of Chinese Nationalism. Oxford University Press. p. 114.

ISBN 0195054326.[108][108] Weinberg 1995, p. 195[109] Sella, Amnon (July 1978). ""Barbarossa": Surprise Attack and Communication". Journal of Contemporary History 13 (3): 555–83.

doi:10.1177/002200947801300308.

World War II 26

[110] Kershaw, Ian (2007). Fateful Choices. Allen Lane. pp. 66–69. ISBN 0713997125.[111] Steinberg, Jonathan (June 1995). "The Third Reich Reflected: German Civil Administration in the Occupied Soviet Union, 1941–4". The

English Historical Review 110 (437): 620–51.[112] Hauner, Milan (January 1978). "Did Hitler Want a World Dominion?". Journal of Contemporary History 13 (1): 15–32.

doi:10.1177/002200947801300102.[113] Roberts, Cynthia A (December 1995). "Planning for War: The Red Army and the Catastrophe of 1941". Europe-Asia Studies 47 (8):

1293–26. doi:10.1080/09668139508412322.[114] Wilt, Alan F. (December 1981). "Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941". Military Affairs 45 (4): 187–91. doi:10.2307/1987464.

JSTOR 1987464.[115] Erickson, John (2003). The Road to Stalingrad. Cassell Military. pp. 114–137. ISBN 0304365416.[116][116] Glantz 2001, p. 9[117] Farrell, Brian P (October 1993). "Yes, Prime Minister: Barbarossa, Whipcord, and the Basis of British Grand Strategy, Autumn 1941". The

Journal of Military History 57 (4): 599–625. doi:10.2307/2944096. JSTOR 2944096.[118] Pravda, Alex; Duncan, Peter J. S (1990). Soviet-British Relations Since the 1970s. Cambridge University Press. p. 29. ISBN 0521374944.[119] Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce; Smith, Alastair; Siverson, Randolph M.; Morrow, James D (2005). The Logic of Political Survival. MIT Press.

p. 425. ISBN 0262524406.[120] Louis, William Roger (1998). More Adventures with Britannia: Personalities, Politics and Culture in Britain. University of Texas Press.

p. 223. ISBN 029274708X.[121] Kleinfeld, Gerald R (October 1983). "Hitler's Strike for Tikhvin". Military Affairs 47 (3): 122–128. doi:10.2307/1988082.

JSTOR 1988082.[122] Shukman, Harold (2001). Stalin's Generals. Phoenix Press. p. 113. ISBN 1842125133.[123][123] Glantz 2001, p. 26, "By 1 November [the Wehrmacht] had lost fully 20% of its committed strength (686,000 men), up to 2/3 of its

½-million motor vehicles, and 65 percent of its tanks. The German Army High Command (OKH) rated its 136 divisions as equivalent to 83full-strength divisions."

[124] Reinhardt, Klaus; Keenan, Karl B (1992). Moscow-The Turning Point: The Failure of Hitler's Strategy in the Winter of 1941–42. Berg.p. 227. ISBN 0854966951.

[125] Milward, A.S. (1964). "The End of the Blitzkrieg". The Economic History Review 16 (3): 499–518.doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1964.tb01744.x.

[126] Rotundo, Louis (January 1986). "The Creation of Soviet Reserves and the 1941 Campaign". Military Affairs 50 (1): 21–8.doi:10.2307/1988530. JSTOR 1988530.

[127][127] Glantz 2001, p. 26[128] Garthoff, Raymond L (October 1969). "The Soviet Manchurian Campaign, August 1945". Military Affairs 33 (2): 312.[129] Welch, David (1999). Modern European History, 1871–2000: A Documentary Reader. Routledge. p. 102. ISBN 041521582X.[130] Weinberg, Gerhard L (2005). A World At Arms. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. ISBN 0521618266.[131] Anderson, Irvine H., Jr. (May 1975). "De Facto Embargo on Oil to Japan: A Bureaucratic Reflex". The Pacific Historical Review 44 (2):

201.[132] Peattie, Mark R.; Evans, David C. (1997). Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy. Naval Institute Press.

p. 456. ISBN 0870211927.[133] Lightbody, Bradley (2004). The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis. Routledge. p. 125. ISBN 0415224047.[134] Weinberg, Gerhard L (2005). A World At Arms. Cambridge University Press. p. 310. ISBN 0521618266.[135] Morgan, Patrick M (1983). Strategic Military Surprise: Incentives and Opportunities. Transaction Publishers. p. 51. ISBN 0878559124.[136] Wohlstetter, Roberta (1962). Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision. Stanford University Press. pp. 341–43. ISBN 0804705984.[137] Mingst, Karen A.; Karns, Margaret P (2007). United Nations in the Twenty-First Century. Westview Press. p. 22. ISBN 0813343461.[138] Dunn, Dennis J (1998). Caught Between Roosevelt & Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow. The University Press of Kentucky.

p. 157. ISBN 0813120233.[139] According to Ernest May (May, Ernest (1955). "The United States, the Soviet Union and the Far Eastern War". The Pacific Historical

Review 24 (2): 156.) Churchill stated: "Russian declaration of war on Japan would be greatly to our advantage, provided, but only provided,that Russians are confident that will not impair their Western Front".

[140][140] Rees, Laurence (2009). World War Two Behind Closed Doors, BBC Books, p. 99.[141][141] Rees, Laurence (2009). World War Two Behind Closed Doors, BBC Books, p. 406-7.[142] Klam, Julie (2002). The Rise of Japan and Pearl Harbor. Black Rabbit Books. p. 27. ISBN 1583401881.[143] Lewis, Morton. "XXIX. Japanese Plans and American Defenses" (http:/ / www. history. army. mil/ books/ wwii/ 5-2/ 5-2_29. htm). In

Greenfield, Kent Roberts. The Fall of the Philippines (http:/ / www. history. army. mil/ books/ wwii/ 5-2/ 5-2_Contents. htm). U.S.Government Printing Office. p. 529. Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 53-63678. . (Table 11).

[144] Hill, J. R.; Ranft, Bryan (2002). The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy. Oxford University Press. p. 362. ISBN 0198605277.[145][145] Hsiung 1992, p. 158[146] Perez, Louis G. (1 June 1998) (Google Books). The history of Japan (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ahYF-A3oylkC& pg=PA145).

Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 145. ISBN 0313302960. . Retrieved 12 November 2009.[147] Gooch, John (1990). Decisive Campaigns of the Second World War. Routledge. p. 52. ISBN 0714633690.

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[148][148] Glantz 2001, p. 31[149] Molinari, Andrea (2007). Desert Raiders: Axis and Allied Special Forces 1940–43. Osprey Publishing. p. 91. ISBN 1846030064.[150] Mitcham, Samuel W.; Mitcham, Samuel W. Jr (1982). Rommel's Desert War: The Life and Death of the Afrika Korps. Stein & Day. p. 31.

ISBN 9780811734134.[151] Maddox, Robert James (1992). The United States and World War II. Westview Press. pp. 111–12. ISBN 0813304369.[152] Salecker, Gene Eric (2001). Fortress Against the Sun: The B-17 Flying Fortress in the Pacific. Da Capo Press. p. 186. ISBN 1580970494.[153] Ropp, Theodore (1962). War in the Modern World. Macmillan Publishing Company. p. 368. ISBN 0801864453.[154][154] Weinberg 1995, p. 339[155] Gilbert, Adrian (2003). The Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Earliest Times to the Present Day. Globe Pequot. p. 259. ISBN 1592280277.[156] Swain, Bruce (2001). A Chronology of Australian Armed Forces at War 1939–45. Allen & Unwin. p. 197. ISBN 1865083526.[157] Hane, Mikiso (2001). Modern Japan: A Historical Survey. Westview Press. p. 340. ISBN 0813337569.[158] Marston, Daniel (2005). The Pacific War Companion: From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima. Osprey Publishing. p. 111. ISBN 1841768820.[159] Brayley, Martin J (2002). The British Army, 1939–45: The Far East. Osprey Publishing. p. 9. ISBN 1841762385.[160] Read, Anthony (2004). The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 764. ISBN 0393048004.[161] Davies, Norman (2006). Europe at War 1939–1945: No Simple Victory. Macmillan. p. 100. ISBN 0333692853.[162] Badsey, Stephen (2000). The Hutchinson Atlas of World War II Battle Plans: Before and After. Taylor & Francis. pp. 235–36.

ISBN 1579582656.[163] Black, Jeremy (2003). World War Two: A Military History. Routledge. p. 119. ISBN 0415305349.[164] Gilbert, Sir Martin (2004). The Second World War: A Complete History. Macmillan. pp. 397–400. ISBN 0805076239.[165] Shukman, Harold (2001). Stalin's Generals. Phoenix Press. p. 142. ISBN 1842125133.[166] Gannon, James (2002). Stealing Secrets, Telling Lies: How Spies and Codebreakers Helped Shape the Twentieth Century. Brassey's. p. 76.

ISBN 1574884735.[167] Paxton, Robert O (1972). Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944. Knopf. p. 313. ISBN 0394473604.[168] Rich, Norman (1992). Hitler's War Aims: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion. Norton. p. 178. ISBN 0393008029.[169] Penrose, Jane (2004). The D-Day Companion. Osprey Publishing. p. 129. ISBN 1841767794.[170] Neillands, Robin (2005). The Dieppe Raid: The Story of the Disastrous 1942 Expedition. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253347815.[171] Keegan, John (1997). The Second World War. London: Pimlico. p. 277. ISBN 0712673482.[172] Thomas, David Arthur (1988). A Companion to the Royal Navy. Harrap. p. 265. ISBN 0245545727.[173] Thomas, Nigel; Andrew, Stephen (1998). German Army 1939–1945 (2): North Africa & Balkans. Osprey Publishing. p. 8.

ISBN 185532640X.[174] Ross, Steven T (1997). American War Plans, 1941–1945: The Test of Battle. Frank Cass & Co. p. 38. ISBN 0714646342.[175] Bonner, Kit; Bonner, Carolyn (2001). Warship Boneyards. MBI Publishing Company. p. 24. ISBN 0760308705.[176] Collier, Paul (2003). The Second World War (4): The Mediterranean 1940–1945. Osprey Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 1841765392.[177] Thompson, John Herd; Randall, Stephen J (1994). Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies. University of Georgia Press. p. 164.

ISBN 0820324035.[178] Kennedy, David M (1999). Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945. Oxford University Press.

p. 610. ISBN 0195038347.[179] Rottman, Gordon L (2002). World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-Military Study. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 228.

ISBN 0313313954.[180] Glantz, David M. (September 1986). "Soviet Defensive Tactics at Kursk, July 1943" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080306082607/

http:/ / www-cgsc. army. mil/ carl/ resources/ csi/ glantz2/ glantz2. asp). CSI Report No. 11. (Combined Arms Research Library).OCLC 278029256. Archived from the original (http:/ / www-cgsc. army. mil/ carl/ resources/ csi/ glantz2/ glantz2. asp) on 6 March 2008. .Retrieved 17 February 2010.

[181] Glantz, David M (1989). Soviet military deception in the Second World War. Routledge. pp. 149–59. ISBN 9780714633473.[182] Kershaw, Ian (2001). Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 592. ISBN 0393322521.[183] O'Reilly, Charles T (2001). Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945. Lexington Books. p. 32. ISBN 0739101951.[184] Bellamy, Chris T (2007). Absolute war: Soviet Russia in the Second World War. BAlfred A. Knopf. p. 595. ISBN 0375410864.[185] O'Reilly, Charles T (2001). Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945. Lexington Books. p. 35. ISBN 0739101951.[186] Healy, Mark (1992). Kursk 1943: The tide turns in the East. Osprey Publishing. p. 90. ISBN 1855322110.[187] Glantz 2001, pp. 50–55[188] McGowen, Tom (2002). Assault From The Sea: Amphibious Invasions in the Twentieth Century. Twenty-First Century Books. pp. 43–44.

ISBN 0761318119.[189] Mazower, Mark (2009). Hitler's Empire : Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe. London: Penguin. p. 362. ISBN 9780141011929.[190] Hart, Stephen; Hart, Russell; Hughes, Matthew (2000). The German Soldier in World War II. MBI Publishing Company. p. 151.

ISBN 0760308462.[191] Blinkhorn, Martin (1984). Mussolini and Fascist Italy. Methuen & Co. p. 52. ISBN 0415102316.[192] Read, Anthony; Fisher, David (1992). The Fall of Berlin. Hutchinson. p. 129. ISBN 0091753376.[193] Padfield, Peter (1998). War Beneath the Sea : Submarine Conflict During World War II (paperback. ed.). New York: John Wiley.

pp. 335–336. ISBN 0471249459.

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[194] Iriye, Akira (1981). Power and culture: the Japanese-American war, 1941–1945. Harvard University Press. p. 154. ISBN 0674695828.[195] Polley, Martin (2000). A-Z of modern Europe since 1789. Taylor & Francis. p. 148. ISBN 041518598X.[196] ed. Hsiung, James C. and Steven I. Levine China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan 1937–1945, p.161[197] Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai (1971) History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) 2nd Ed. Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung.

Chung Wu Publishing. pp.412–416, Map 38[198] Weinberg 1995, pp. 660–661[199] Glantz, David M (2001). The siege of Leningrad, 1941–1944: 900 days of terror. Zenith Imprint. pp. 166–69. ISBN 0760309418.[200] Glantz, David M (2002). The Battle for Leningrad: 1941–1944. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700612084.[201] Chubarov, Alexander (2001). Russia's Bitter Path to Modernity: A History of the Soviet and Post-Soviet Eras. Continuum International

Publishing Group. p. 122. ISBN 0826413501.[202] Havighurst, Alfred F (1962). Britain in Transition: The Twentieth Century. The University of Chicago Press. p. 344. ISBN 0226319717.[203] Lightbody, Bradley (2004). The Second World War: Ambitions to Nemesis. Routledge. p. 224. ISBN 0415224047.[204] Zeiler, Thomas W (2004). Unconditional Defeat: Japan, America, and the End of World War II. Scholarly Resources. p. 60.

ISBN 0842029915.[205] Craven, Wesley Frank; Cate, James Lea (1953). The Army Air Forces in World War II, Volume Five—The Pacific, Matterhorn to

Nagasaki. Chicago University Press. p. 207.[206] Hsiung, James Chieh; Levine, Steven I (1992). China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945. M.E. Sharpe. p. 163.

ISBN 156324246X.[207] Coble, Parks M (2003). Chinese Capitalists in Japan's New Order: The Occupied Lower Yangzi, 1937–1945. University of California

Press. p. 85. ISBN 0520232682.[208] Rees, Laurence (2009). World War Two Behind Closed Doors, BBC Books, p. 406-7. "Stalin always believed that Britain and America

were delaying the second front so that the Soviet Union would bear the brunt of the war"[209][209] Weinberg 1995, p. 695[210] Badsey, Stephen (1990). Normandy 1944: Allied Landings and Breakout. Osprey Publishing. p. 91. ISBN 0850459214.[211] Dear, I. C. B.; Foot, M. R. D, eds. (2002). "Market-Garden". Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford University Press. p. 877.

ISBN 0198604467.[212] The operation "was the most calamitous defeat of all the German armed forces in World War II" (Zaloga, Steven J (1996). Bagration 1944:

The destruction of Army Group Centre. Osprey Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 1855324784.)[213] Berend, Ivan T. (1999). Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–1993: Detour from the Periphery to the Periphery. Cambridge University

Press. p. 8. ISBN 0521550661.[214] "Armistice Negotiations and Soviet Occupation" (http:/ / countrystudies. us/ romania/ 23. htm). US Library of Congress. . Retrieved 14

November 2009. "The coup speeded the Red Army's advance, and the Soviet Union later awarded Michael the Order of Victory for hispersonal courage in overthrowing Antonescu and putting an end to Romania's war against the Allies. Western historians uniformly point outthat the Communists played only a supporting role in the coup; postwar Romanian historians, however, ascribe to the Communists the decisiverole in Antonescu's overthrow"

[215] Hastings, Max; Paul Henry, Collier (2004). The Second World War: a world in flames. Osprey Publishing. pp. 223–4. ISBN 1841768308.[216] Wiest, Andrew A; Barbier, M. K (2002). Strategy and Tactics Infantry Warfare. Zenith Imprint. pp. 65–6. ISBN 0760314012.[217] Wiktor, Christian L (1998). Multilateral Treaty Calendar – 1648–1995. Kluwer Law International. p. 426. ISBN 9041105840.[218] Newton, Steven H (1995). Retreat from Leningrad : Army Group North, 1944/1945. Atglen, Philadelphia: Schiffer Books.

ISBN 0887408060.[219] Marston, Daniel (2005). The Pacific War Companion: From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima. Osprey Publishing. p. 120. ISBN 1841768820.[220] Jowett & Andrew 2002, p. 8[221] Howard, Joshua H (2004). Workers at War: Labor in China's Arsenals, 1937–1953. Stanford University Press. p. 140. ISBN 0804748969.[222] Drea, Edward J (2003). In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army. University of Nebraska Press. p. 54.

ISBN 0803266383.[223] Cook, Chris; Bewes, Diccon (1997). What Happened Where: A Guide to Places and Events in Twentieth-Century History. UCL Press.

p. 305. ISBN 1857285328.[224] Parker, Danny S (2004). Battle of the Bulge: Hitler's Ardennes Offensive, 1944–1945. Da Capo Press. pp. xiii–xiv, 6–8, 68–70 & 329–330.

ISBN 0306813912.[225][225] Glantz 2001, p. 85[226] Solsten, Eric (1999). Germany: A Country Study. DIANE Publishing. pp. 76–7. ISBN 0788181793.[227] United States Dept. of State (1967). The China White Paper, August 1949. Stanford University Press. p. 113. ISBN 0804706085.[228] Buchanan, Tom (2006). Europe's troubled peace, 1945–2000. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 21. ISBN 0631221638.[229] Shepardson, Donald E (January 1998). "The Fall of Berlin and the Rise of a Myth". The Journal of Military History 62 (1): 135–154.

doi:10.2307/120398. JSTOR 120398.[230] O'Reilly, Charles T (2001). Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945. Lexington Books. p. 244. ISBN 0739101951.[231][231] Kershaw 2001, p. 823[232] Donnelly, Mark (1999). Britain in the Second World War. Routledge. p. xiv. ISBN 0415174252.[233][233] Pinkus, Oscar . The war aims and strategies of Adolf Hitler, McFarland, 2005, ISBN 0786420545, 9780786420544, p. 501-3

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[234] Glantz, David M. (1995). When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. p. 34.ISBN 0700608990.

[235] Chant, Christopher (1986). The Encyclopedia of Codenames of World War II. Routledge & Kegan Paul. p. 118. ISBN 0710207182.[236] Drea, Edward J (2003). In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army. University of Nebraska Press. p. 57.

ISBN 0803266383.[237] Jowett & Andrew 2002, p. 6[238] Poirier, Michel Thomas (20 October 1999). "Results of the German and American Submarine Campaigns of World War II" (http:/ / www.

navy. mil/ navydata/ cno/ n87/ history/ wwii-campaigns. html). U.S. Navy. . Retrieved 13 April 2008.[239] Williams, Andrew J (2006). Liberalism and War: The Victors and the Vanquished. Routledge. p. 90. ISBN 0415359805.[240] Miscamble, Wilson D (2007). From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War. Cambridge University Press. p. 201.

ISBN 0521862442.[241] Miscamble, Wilson D (2007). From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War. Cambridge University Press.

pp. 203–4. ISBN 0521862442.[242] Glantz, David M (2005). "August Storm: The Soviet Strategic Offensive in Manchuria" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080302130751/

http:/ / www-cgsc. army. mil/ carl/ resources/ csi/ glantz3/ glantz3. asp). Leavenworth Papers (Combined Arms Research Library).OCLC 78918907. Archived from the original (http:/ / www-cgsc. army. mil/ carl/ resources/ csi/ glantz3/ glantz3. asp) on 2 March 2008. .Retrieved 25 January 2010

[243] Pape, Robert A (Autumn 1993). "Why Japan Surrendered". International Security 18 (2): 154–201. doi:10.2307/2539100.JSTOR 2539100.

[244] Norbert Frei. Adenauer's Germany and the Nazi Past: The Politics of Amnesty and Integration. Translated by Joel Golb. New York:Columbia University Press. 2002. ISBN 0231118821, p, 41–66.

[245] Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. Yale University Press. p. 43. ISBN 0300112041.[246] Roberts, Geoffrey (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. Yale University Press. p. 55. ISBN 0300112041.[247] Shirer, William L. (1990). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany. Simon and Schuster. p. 794.

ISBN 0671728687[248] Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline (1995). Stalin's Cold War. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0719042011.[249] Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 20–21. ISBN 0742555429.[250] Senn, Alfred Erich (2007). Lithuania 1940: revolution from above. Rodopi. ISBN 9789042022256.[251] Yoder, Amos (1997). The Evolution of the United Nations System. Taylor & Francis. p. 39. ISBN 1560325461.[252] "History of the UN" (http:/ / www. un. org/ aboutun/ history. htm). United Nations. . Retrieved 25 January 2010.[253] "The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 2" (http:/ / www. un. org/ en/ documents/ udhr/ ). United Nations. . Retrieved 14

November 2009. "* Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such asrace, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, nodistinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs,whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty"

[254] Kantowicz, Edward R (2000). Coming Apart, Coming Together. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 0802844561.[255] Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 96–100. ISBN 0742555429.[256] Trachtenberg, Marc (1999). A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963. Princeton University Press. p. 33.

ISBN 0691002738.[257] Granville, Johanna (2004). The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956. Texas A&M

University Press. ISBN 1585442984.[258] Grenville, John Ashley Soames (2005). A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st century. Routledge. pp. 370–71.

ISBN 0415289548.[259] Cook, Bernard A (2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. p. 17. ISBN 0815340575.[260] Geoffrey Swain. The Cominform: Tito's International? The Historical Journal, Vol. 35, No. 3 (Sep., 1992), pp. 641–663[261] Leffler, Melvyn P.; Painter, David S (1994). Origins of the Cold War: An International History. Routledge. p. 318. ISBN 0415341094.[262] Bellamy, Christopher (2001). "Cold War". In Holmes, Richard. The Oxford Companion to Military History (Oxford Reference Online ed.).

Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198606966.[263] Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). A World At Arms. Cambridge University Press. p. 911[264] Connor, Mary E. (2009). "History" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=j2gYgXGENM0C). In Connor, Mary E.. The Koreas. Asia in Focus.

Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 43–45. ISBN 1598841602. .[265] Lynch, Michael (2010). The Chinese Civil War 1945–49. Botley: Osprey Publishing. pp. 12–13. ISBN 9781841766713.[266] Roberts, J.M. (1996). The Penguin History of Europe. London: Penguin Books. p. 589. ISBN 0140265619.[267] Darwin, John (2007). After Tamerlane: The Rise & Fall of Global Empires 1400–2000. London: Penguin Books. pp. 441–443, 464–468.

ISBN 9780141010229.[268] Harrison, Mark (1998). "The economics of World WarII: an overview". In Harrison, Mark. The Economics of World War II: Six great

powers in international comparison. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 34–35. ISBN 0521620465.[269] Dear, I.C.B and Foot, M.R.D. (editors) (2005). "World trade and world economy". The Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford:

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[270] Nicholas Balabkins, "Germany Under Direct Controls: Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948", Rutgers UniversityPress, 1964 p. 207

[271][271] Vladimir Petrov, Money and conquest; allied occupation currencies in World War II. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press (1967) p. 263[272] Nicholas Balabkins, "Germany Under Direct Controls: Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948", Rutgers University

Press, 1964 p. 208, 209[273][273] Dornbusch, Rüdiger; Nölling, Wilhelm; Layard, P. Richard G (1993). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. P.190, 191, ISBN 0-262-04136-7.[274] Nicholas Balabkins, "Germany Under Direct Controls: Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948", Rutgers University

Press, 1964 p. 212[275][275] Dornbusch, Rüdiger; Nölling, Wilhelm; Layard, P. Richard G (1993). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. p29 -p30, 32, ISBN 0-262-04136-7.[276] Bull, Martin J.; Newell, James (2005). Italian Politics: Adjustment Under Duress. Polity. p. 20. ISBN 0745612997.[277] Bull, Martin J.; Newell, James (2005). Italian Politics: Adjustment Under Duress. Polity. p. 21. ISBN 0745612997.[278] Harrop, Martin (1992). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0521345790.[279] Dornbusch, Rüdiger; Nölling, Wilhelm; Layard, P. Richard G (1993). Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. p. 117. ISBN 0262041367.[280] Emadi-Coffin, Barbara (2002). Rethinking International Organization: Deregulation and Global Governance. Routledge. p. 64.

ISBN 0415195403.[281] Smith, Alan (1993). Russia And the World Economy: Problems of Integration. Routledge. p. 32. ISBN 0415089247.[282] Harrop, Martin (1992). Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies. Cambridge University Press. p. 49. ISBN 0521345790.[283] Genzberger, Christine (1994). China Business: The Portable Encyclopedia for Doing Business with China (http:/ / books. google. com/

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pg=PA204& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". J. W. Smith (1994). p.204. ISBN 0-9624423-2-1[290] Jeffrey Herf. The Nazi Extermination Camps and the Ally to the East. Could the Red Army and Air Force Have Stopped or Slowed the

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[312] North, Jonathan (January 2006). "Soviet Prisoners of War: Forgotten Nazi Victims of World War II" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/5mtUpwcaB). HistoryNet.com. Weider History Group. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. historynet. com/soviet-prisoners-of-war-forgotten-nazi-victims-of-world-war-ii. htm) on 19 January 2010. . Retrieved 19 January 2010.

[313] Overy, Richard (2004). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 568–69. ISBN 0393020304.[314] Zemskov V.N. On repatriation of Soviet citizens. Istoriya SSSR., 1990, No.4, (in Russian). See also (http:/ / scepsis. ru/ library/ id_1234.

html) (online version), and Edwin Bacon. Glasnost' and the Gulag: New Information on Soviet Forced Labour around World War II. SovietStudies, Vol. 44, No. 6 (1992), pp. 1069–1086; Michael Ellman. Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments. Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 54,No. 7 (Nov., 2002), pp. 1151–1172.

[315] "Japanese Atrocities in the Philippines" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5mtVNGYHW). American Experience: the Bataan Rescue. PBSOnline. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ amex/ bataan/ peopleevents/ e_atrocities. html) on 19 January 2010. .Retrieved 18 January 2010.

[316] Tanaka, Yuki (1996). Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II. Westview Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN 0813327180.[317] Bix, Herbert (2001). Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan. HarperCollins. p. 360. ISBN 0060931302.[318] Ju, Zhifen (June 2002). "Japan's atrocities of conscripting and abusing north China draughtees after the outbreak of the Pacific war" (http:/ /

www. fas. harvard. edu/ ~asiactr/ sino-japanese/ session6. htm). Joint Study of the Sino-Japanese War:Minutes of the June 2002 Conference.Harvard University Faculty of Arts and Sciences. . Retrieved 18 February 2010.

[319] "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle For Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45" (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/cgi-bin/ query/ r?frd/ cstdy:@field(DOCID+ id0029)). Library of Congress. 1992. . Retrieved 9 February 2007.

[320] "Manzanar National Historic Site" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ manz/ index. htm). U.S. National Park Service. . Retrieved 21 February 2012.[321] Department of Labour of Canada (24 January 1947). Report on the Re-establishment of Japanese in Canada, 1944–1946. Office of the

Prime Minister. p. 23. ISBN 0405112661.[322] Kennedy, David M. (2001). Freedom From Fear : The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945. New York City: Oxford

University Press. pp. 749–750. ISBN 0195144031.[323][323] Eugene Davidson "The Death and Life of Germany: an Account of the American Occupation" p.121[324] Stark, Tamás. ""Malenki Robot" – Hungarian Forced Labourers in the Soviet Union (1944–1955)" (http:/ / www. epa. hu/ 00400/ 00463/

00007/ pdf/ 155_stark. pdf) (PDF). Minorities Research. . Retrieved 22 January 2010.[325] Harrison, Mark (2000). The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison. Cambridge University Press. p. 3.

ISBN 0521785030.[326] Harrison, Mark (2000). The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison. Cambridge University Press. p. 2.

ISBN 0521785030.[327] Hughes, Matthew; Mann, Chris (2000). Inside Hitler's Germany: Life Under the Third Reich. Potomac Books Inc. p. 148.

ISBN 1574882813.[328] Bernstein, Gail Lee (1991). Recreating Japanese Women, 1600–1945. University of California Press. p. 267. ISBN 9780520070172.[329] Hughes, Matthew; Mann, Chris (2000). Inside Hitler's Germany: Life Under the Third Reich. Potomac Books Inc. p. 151.

ISBN 1574882813.[330] Griffith, Charles (1999). The Quest: Haywood Hansell and American Strategic Bombing in World War II. DIANE Publishing. p. 203.

ISBN 1585660698.[331] Overy, R.J (1995). War and Economy in the Third Reich. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 26. ISBN 0198205996.[332] Lindberg, Michael; Daniel, Todd (2001). Brown-, Green- and Blue-Water Fleets: the Influence of Geography on Naval Warfare, 1861 to

the Present. Praeger. p. 126. ISBN 0275964868.[333] Cox, Sebastian (1998). The Strategic Air War Against Germany, 1939–1945. Frank Cass Publishers. p. 84. ISBN 0714647225.

World War II 32

[334] Unidas, Naciones (2005). World Economic And Social Survey 2004: International Migration. United Nations Pubns. p. 23.ISBN 9211091470.

[335] Liberman, Peter (1998). Does Conquest Pay?: The Exploitation of Occupied Industrial Societies. Princeton University Press. p. 42.ISBN 0691002428.

[336] Milward, Alan S (1979). War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945. University of California Press. p. 138. ISBN 0520039424.[337] Milward, Alan S (1979). War, Economy, and Society, 1939–1945. University of California Press. p. 148. ISBN 0520039424.[338] Perrie, Maureen; Lieven, D. C. B; Suny, Ronald Grigor (2007). The Cambridge History of Russia. Cambridge University Press. p. 232.

ISBN 0521861942.[339] Hill, Alexander (2005). The War Behind The Eastern Front: The Soviet Partisan Movement In North-West Russia 1941–1944. Routledge.

p. 5. ISBN 0714657115.[340] Christofferson, Thomas R; Christofferson, Michael S (2006). France During World War II: From Defeat to Liberation. Fordham

University Press. p. 156. ISBN 9780823225637.[341] Ikeo, Aiko (1997). Economic Development in Twentieth Century East Asia: The International Context. Routledge. p. 107.

ISBN 0415149002.[342] Boog, Horst; Rahn, Werner; Stumpf, Reinhard; Wegner, Bernd (2001). Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt Germany and the Second

World War—Volume VI: The Global War. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 266. ISBN 0198228880.[343] Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla Mary Roberts (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History.

ABC-CLIO. p. 76. ISBN 1576079996.[344] Levine, Alan J. (1992). The Strategic Bombing of Germany, 1940–1945. Greenwood Press. p. 217. ISBN 0275943194.[345] Sauvain, Philip (2005). Key Themes of the Twentieth Century: Teacher's Guide. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 128. ISBN 1405132183.[346] Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla Mary Roberts (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History.

ABC-CLIO. p. 163. ISBN 1576079996.[347] Bishop, Chris; Chant, Chris (2004). Aircraft Carriers: The World's Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft. Silverdale Books. p. 7.

ISBN 1845090799.[348] Chenoweth, H. Avery; Nihart, Brooke (2005). Semper Fi: The Definitive Illustrated History of the U.S. Marines. Main Street. p. 180.

ISBN 1402730993.[349] Sumner, Ian; Baker, Alix (2001). The Royal Navy 1939–45. Osprey Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 1841761958.[350] Hearn, Chester G. (2007). Carriers in Combat: The Air War at Sea. Stackpole Books. p. 14. ISBN 081173398X.[351] Gardiner, Robert; Brown, David K (2004). The Eclipse of the Big Gun: The Warship 1906–1945. Conway. p. 52. ISBN 0851779530.[352] Rydill, Louis (1995). Concepts in Submarine Design. Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN 052155926X.[353] Rydill, Louis (1995). Concepts in Submarine Design. Cambridge University Press. p. 16. ISBN 052155926X.[354] Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla Mary Roberts (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History.

ABC-CLIO. p. 125. ISBN 1576079996.[355] Dupuy, Trevor Nevitt (1982). The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare. Jane's Information Group. p. 231. ISBN 0710601239.[356] Kenneth K. Hatfield (2003). " Heartland heroes: remembering World War II. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=mtxMN5NdmCsC&

pg=& lpg=& dq=& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f)". University of Missouri Press. p.91. ISBN 0826214606[357] Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla Mary Roberts (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History.

ABC-CLIO. p. 108. ISBN 1576079996.[358] Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla Mary Roberts (2004). Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History.

ABC-CLIO. p. 734. ISBN 1576079996.[359] Cowley, Robert; Parker, Geoffrey (2001). The Reader's Companion to Military History. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 221.

ISBN 0618127429.[360] "Infantry Weapons Of World War 2" (http:/ / greyfalcon. us/ Infantry Weapons Of World War 2. htm). Grey Falcon (Black Sun). .

Retrieved 14 November 2009. "These all-purpose guns were developed and used by the German army in the 2nd half of World War 2 as aresult of studies which showed that the ordinary rifle's long range is much longer than needed, since the soldiers almost always fired atenemies closer than half of its effective range. The assault rifle is a balanced compromise between the rifle and the sub-machine gun, havingsufficient range and accuracy to be used as a rifle, combined with the rapid-rate automatic firepower of the sub machine gun. Thanks to thesecombined advantages, assault rifles such as the American M-16 and the Russian AK-47 are the basic weapon of the modern soldier"

[361] Sprague, Oliver; Griffiths, Hugh (2006). "The AK-47: the worlds favourite killing machine" (http:/ / www. amnesty. org/ en/ library/ asset/ACT30/ 011/ 2006/ en/ 11079910-d422-11dd-8743-d305bea2b2c7/ act300112006en. pdf) (PDF). controlarms.org. p. 1. . Retrieved 14November 2009.

[362] Ratcliff, Rebecca Ann (2006). Delusions of Intelligence: Enigma, Ultra and the End of Secure Ciphers. Cambridge University Press. p. 11.ISBN 0521855225.

[363] Schoenherr, Steven (2007). "Code Breaking in World War II" (http:/ / history. sandiego. edu/ gen/ ww2timeline/ espionage. html). HistoryDepartment at the University of San Diego. . Retrieved 15 November 2009.

[364][364] Macintyre, Ben Bravery of thousands of Poles was vital in securing victory The Times (London) 10 December 2010; p. 27[365] Rowe, Neil C.; Rothstein, Hy. "Deception for Defense of Information Systems: Analogies from Conventional Warfare" (http:/ / www. au.

af. mil/ au/ awc/ awcgate/ nps/ mildec. htm). Departments of Computer Science and Defense Analysis U.S. Naval Postgraduate School. AirUniversity. . Retrieved 15 November 2009.

World War II 33

[366] "Konrad Zuse (1910–1995)" (http:/ / www. idsia. ch/ ~juergen/ zuse. html). Istituto Dalle Molle di Studi sull'Intelligenza Artificiale. .Retrieved 14 November 2009. "Konrad Zuse builds Z1, world's first programme-controlled computer. Despite mechanical engineeringproblems it had all the basic ingredients of modern machines, using the binary system and today's standard separation of storage and control.Zuse's 1936 patent application (Z23139/GMD Nr. 005/021) also suggests a von Neumann architecture (re-invented in 1945) with programmeand data modifiable in storage"

Citations

References• Adamthwaite, Anthony P (1992). The Making of the Second World War. New York: Routledge.

ISBN 0415907160.• Brody, J Kenneth (1999). The Avoidable War: Pierre Laval and the Politics of Reality, 1935–1936. Transaction

Publishers. p. 4. ISBN 0765806223.• Bullock, A. (1962). Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. Penguin Books. ISBN 0140135642• Busky, Donald F (2002). Communism in History and Theory: Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Praeger Publishers.

ISBN 0275977331.• Davies, Norman (2008). No Simple Victory: World War II in Europe, 1939–1945. Penguin Group.

ISBN 0143114093• Glantz, David M. (2001). "The Soviet‐German War 1941–45 Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay" (http:/ /

www. strom. clemson. edu/ publications/ sg-war41-45. pdf)• Graham, Helen (2005). The Spanish Civil War: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, USA.

ISBN 0192803778.• Hsiung, James Chieh (1992). China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945. M.E. Sharpe.

ISBN 156324246X• Jowett, Philip S.; Andrew, Stephen (2002). The Japanese Army, 1931–45. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1841763535• Kantowicz, Edward R (1999). The rage of nations. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0802844553.• Kershaw, Ian (2001). Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393322521• Kitson, Alison (2001). Germany 1858–1990: Hope, Terror, and Revival. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

ISBN 9780199134175.• Mandelbaum, Michael (1988). The Fate of Nations: The Search for National Security in the Nineteenth and

Twentieth Centuries. Cambridge University Press. p. 96. ISBN 052135790X.• Murray, Williamson; Millett, Allan Reed (2001). A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War. Harvard

University Press. ISBN 0674006801.• Myers, Ramon; Peattie, Mark (1987). The Japanese Colonial Empire, 1895–1945. Princeton University Press.

ISBN 0691102228.• Preston, Peter (1998). 'Pacific Asia in the global system: an introduction, Wiley-Blackwell. Oxford: Blackwell.

p. 104. ISBN 0631202382.• Record, Jeffery (2005) (PDF). Appeasement Reconsidered: Investigating the Mythology of the 1930s (http:/ /

www. strategicstudiesinstitute. army. mil/ pdffiles/ PUB622. pdf). DIANE Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 1584872160.Retrieved 15 November 2009.

• Shaw, Anthony (2000). World War II Day by Day. MBI Publishing Company. ISBN 0760309396.• Smith, Winston; Steadman, Ralph (2004). All Riot on the Western Front, Volume 3. Last Gasp.

ISBN 0867196165.• Weinberg, Gerhard L. (1995). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. Cambridge University Press.

ISBN 0521558794.• Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (Second ed.). Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521853168.• Zalampas, Michael (1989). Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich in American magazines, 1923–1939. Bowling Green

University Popular Press. ISBN 0879724625.

World War II 34

External links• West Point Maps of the European War (http:/ / www. dean. usma. edu/ history/ Atlases/ WorldWarTwoEurope/

WWII_Europe. html)• West Point Maps of the Asian-Pacific War (http:/ / www. dean. usma. edu/ history/ Atlases/ WorldWarTwoAsia/

WorldWarTwoAsia. html)• Radio News From 1938 to 1945 (http:/ / www. otr. net/ ?p=news)• World War II Propaganda Leaflet Archive (http:/ / www. psywar. org/ leaflets. php)• The Art of War Online Exhibition at the UK National Archive (http:/ / www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/

theartofwar/ )• Deutsche Welle special section on World War II (http:/ / www. dw-world. de/ dw/ 0,,8150,00. html) created by a

German public broadcaster on both the war and the world 60 years after.

Bangladesh Liberation WarThe Bangladesh Liberation War(i) (Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ Muktijuddho) was an armed conflict pitting East Pakistanand India against West Pakistan. The war resulted in the secession of East Pakistan, which became the independentnation of Bangladesh.The war broke out on 26 March 1971 as army units directed by West Pakistan launched a military operation in EastPakistan against Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia, and armed personnel who were demanding separation ofthe East from West Pakistan. Bengali military, paramilitary, and civilians formed the Mukti Bahini (Bengali: মুক্তিবাহিনী "Liberation Army") and used guerrilla warfare tactics to fight against the West Pakistan army. India providedeconomic, military and diplomatic support to the Mukti Bahini rebels, leading West Pakistan to launch OperationChengiz Khan, a pre-emptive attack on the western border of India which started the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.On 16 December 1971, the allied forces of the Indian army and the Mukti Bahini defeated the West Pakistani forcesdeployed in the East. The resulting surrender was the largest in number of prisoners of war since World War II.

BackgroundIn August 1947, the Partition of British India gave birth to two new states;[1] a secular state named India and anIslamic state named Pakistan. Pakistan comprised two geographically and culturally separate areas to the east and thewest of India.[2] The western zone was popularly (and for a period of time, also officially) termed West Pakistan andthe eastern zone (modern-day Bangladesh) was initially termed East Bengal and later, East Pakistan. Although thepopulation of the two zones was close to equal, political power was concentrated in West Pakistan and it was widelyperceived that East Pakistan was being exploited economically, leading to many grievances. Administration of twodiscontinuous territories was also seen as a challenge.[3]

On 25 March 1971, rising political discontent and cultural nationalism in East Pakistan was met by brutal[4]

suppressive force from the ruling elite of the West Pakistan establishment[5] in what came to be termed OperationSearchlight.[6]

The violent crackdown by West Pakistan forces[7] led to Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman declaringEast Pakistan's independence as the state of Bangladesh on 26 March 1971.[8] Pakistani President Agha MohammedYahya ordered the Pakistani military to restore the Pakistani government's authority, beginning the civil war.[8] Thewar led to a sea of refugees (estimated at the time to be about 10 million)[9][10] flooding into the eastern provinces ofIndia.[9] Facing a mounting humanitarian and economic crisis, India started actively aiding and organising theBangladeshi resistance army known as the Mukti Bahini.

Bangladesh Liberation War 35

Language controversyIn 1948, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Pakistan's first Governor-General, declared in Dhaka (then usually spelled Dacca inEnglish) that "Urdu, and only Urdu" would be the common language for all of Pakistan.[11] This proved highlycontroversial, since Urdu was a language that was only spoken in the West by Muhajirs and in the East by Biharis,although the Urdu language had been promoted as the lingua franca of Indian Muslims by political and religiousleaders such as Sir Khwaja Salimullah, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk and Maulvi Abdul Haq. Thelanguage was considered a vital element of the Islamic culture for Indian Muslims; Hindi and the Devanagari scriptwere seen as fundamentals of Hindu culture. The majority groups in West Pakistan spoke Punjabi, while the Bengalilanguage was spoken by the vast majority of East Pakistanis.[12] The language controversy eventually reached apoint where East Pakistan revolted while the other part of Pakistan remained calm even though Punjabi was spokenby the majority groups of West Pakistan. Several students and civilians lost their lives in a police crackdown on 21February 1952.[12] The day is revered in Bangladesh and in West Bengal as the Language Martyrs' Day. Later, inmemory of the 1952 killings, UNESCO declared 21 February as the International Mother Language Day in 1999.[13]

In West Pakistan, the movement was seen as a sectional uprising against Pakistani national interests[14] and thefounding ideology of Pakistan, the Two-Nation Theory.[15] West Pakistani politicians considered Urdu a product ofIndian Islamic culture,[16] as Ayub Khan said, as late as 1967, "East Bengalis... still are under considerable Hinduculture and influence."[16] But, the deaths led to bitter feelings among East Pakistanis, and they were a major factorin the push for independence.[15][16]

DisparitiesAlthough East Pakistan had a larger population, West Pakistan dominated the divided country politically andreceived more money from the common budget.

Year Spending on West Pakistan (in millions ofPakistani rupees)

Spending on East Pakistan (in millions ofPakistani rupees)

Amount spent on East aspercentage of West

1950–55 11,290 5,240 46.4

1955–60 16,550 5,240 31.7

1960–65 33,550 14,040 41.8

1965–70 51,950 21,410 41.2

Total 113,340 45,930 40.5

Source: Reports of the Advisory Panels for the Fourth Five Year Plan 1970–75, Vol. I, published by the planning commission of Pakistan.

Bengalis were underrepresented in the Pakistan military. Officers of Bengali origin in the different wings of thearmed forces made up just 5% of overall force by 1965; of these, only a few were in command positions, with themajority in technical or administrative posts.[17] West Pakistanis believed that Bengalis were not "martially inclined"unlike Pashtuns and Punjabis; the "martial races" notion was dismissed as ridiculous and humiliating by Bengalis.[17]

Moreover, despite huge defence spending, East Pakistan received none of the benefits, such as contracts, purchasingand military support jobs. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 over Kashmir also highlighted the sense of militaryinsecurity among Bengalis as only an under-strength infantry division and 15 combat aircraft without tank supportwere in East Pakistan to thwart any Indian retaliations during the conflict.[18][19]

Bangladesh Liberation War 36

Political differencesAlthough East Pakistan accounted for a slight majority of the country's population,[20] political power remainedfirmly in the hands of West Pakistanis. Since a straightforward system of representation based on population wouldhave concentrated political power in East Pakistan, the West Pakistani establishment came up with the "One Unit"scheme, where all of West Pakistan was considered one province. This was solely to counterbalance the East wing'svotes.After the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan's first prime minister, in 1951, political power began to bedevolved to the President of Pakistan, and eventually, the military. The nominal elected chief executive, the PrimeMinister, was frequently sacked by the establishment, acting through the President.East Pakistanis noticed that whenever one of them, such as Khawaja Nazimuddin, Muhammad Ali Bogra, or HuseynShaheed Suhrawardy was elected Prime Minister of Pakistan, he were swiftly deposed by the largely West Pakistaniestablishment. The military dictatorships of Ayub Khan (27 October 1958 – 25 March 1969) and Yahya Khan (25March 1969 – 20 December 1971), both West Pakistanis, only heightened such feelings.The situation reached a climax when in 1970 the Awami League, the largest East Pakistani political party, led bySheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a landslide victory in the national elections. The party won 167 of the 169 seatsallotted to East Pakistan, and thus a majority of the 313 seats in the National Assembly. This gave the AwamiLeague the constitutional right to form a government. However, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (a Sindhi and former professor),the leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party, refused to allow Rahman to become the Prime Minister of Pakistan.[21]

Instead, he proposed the idea of having two Prime Ministers, one for each wing. The proposal elicited outrage in theeast wing, already chafing under the other constitutional innovation, the "one unit scheme". Bhutto also refused toaccept Rahman's Six Points. On 3 March 1971, the two leaders of the two wings along with the President GeneralYahya Khan met in Dhaka to decide the fate of the country. Talks failed and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for anationwide strike. Bhutto feared a civil war, therefore, he sent his most trusted companion, dr. Mubashir Hassan.[21]

A message was convened and Mujib decided to meet Bhutto.[21] Upon his arrival, Mujib met with Bhutto and bothagreed to form a coalition government with Mujib as Premier and Bhutto as President.[21] However, thesedevelopments were unaware to military, and Bhutto increased his pressure on Mujib to reached a decision.[21]

On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (soon to be the prime minister) delivered a speech at the RacecourseGround (now called the Suhrawardy Udyan). In this speech he mentioned a further four-point condition to considerthe National Assembly Meeting on 25 March:1. The immediate lifting of martial law.2.2. Immediate withdrawal of all military personnel to their barracks.3.3. An inquiry into the loss of life.4.4. Immediate transfer of power to the elected representative of the people before the assembly meeting 25 March.He urged "his people" to turn every house into a fort of resistance. He closed his speech saying, "Our struggle is forour freedom. Our struggle is for our independence." This speech is considered the main event that inspired thenation to fight for its independence. General Tikka Khan was flown in to Dhaka to become Governor of East Bengal.East-Pakistani judges, including Justice Siddique, refused to swear him in.Between 10 and 13 March, Pakistan International Airlines cancelled all their international routes to urgently fly"Government Passengers" to Dhaka. These "Government Passengers" were almost all Pakistani soldiers in civiliandress. MV Swat, a ship of the Pakistan Navy, carrying ammunition and soldiers, was harboured in Chittagong Portand the Bengali workers and sailors at the port refused to unload the ship. A unit of East Pakistan Rifles refused toobey commands to fire on Bengali demonstrators, beginning a mutiny of Bengali soldiers.

Bangladesh Liberation War 37

Response to the 1970 cycloneThe 1970 Bhola cyclone made landfall on the East Pakistan coastline during the evening of 12 November, around thesame time as a local high tide,[22] killing an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people. Though the exact death toll is notknown, it is considered the deadliest tropical cyclone on record.[23] A week after the landfall, President Khanconceded that his government had made "slips" and "mistakes" in its handling of the relief efforts due to a lack ofunderstanding of the magnitude of the disaster.[24]

A statement released by eleven political leaders in East Pakistan ten days after the cyclone hit charged thegovernment with "gross neglect, callous and utter indifference". They also accused the president of playing down themagnitude of the problem in news coverage.[25] On 19 November, students held a march in Dhaka protesting theslowness of the government response.[26] Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani addressed a rally of 50,000 peopleon 24 November, where he accused the president of inefficiency and demanded his resignation.As the conflict between East and West Pakistan developed in March, the Dhaka offices of the two governmentorganisations directly involved in relief efforts were closed for at least two weeks, first by a general strike and thenby a ban on government work in East Pakistan by the Awami League. With this increase in tension, foreignpersonnel were evacuated over fears of violence. Relief work continued in the field, but long-term planning wascurtailed.[27] This conflict widened into the Bangladesh Liberation War in December and concluded with thecreation of Bangladesh. This is one of the first times that a natural event helped to trigger a civil war.[28]

Operation SearchlightA planned military pacification carried out by the Pakistan Army – codenamed Operation Searchlight – started on25 March to curb the Bengali nationalist movement[29] by taking control of the major cities on 26 March, and theneliminating all opposition, political or military,[30] within one month. Before the beginning of the operation, allforeign journalists were systematically deported from East Pakistan.[31]

The main phase of Operation Searchlight ended with the fall of the last major town in Bengali hands in mid-May.The operation also began the 1971 Bangladesh atrocities. These systematic killings served only to enrage theBengalis, which ultimately resulted in the secession of East Pakistan later in the same year. The international mediaand reference books in English have published casualty figures which vary greatly, from 5,000–35,000 in Dhaka,and 200,000–3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole,[32] and the atrocities have been referred to as acts ofgenocide.[33][34]

According to the Asia Times,[35]

At a meeting of the military top brass, Yahya Khan declared: "Kill 3 million of them and the rest will eatout of our hands." Accordingly, on the night of 25 March, the Pakistani Army launched OperationSearchlight to "crush" Bengali resistance in which Bengali members of military services were disarmedand killed, students and the intelligentsia systematically liquidated and able-bodied Bengali males justpicked up and gunned down.

Although the violence focused on the provincial capital, Dhaka, it also affected all parts of East Pakistan. Residentialhalls of the University of Dhaka were particularly targeted. The only Hindu residential hall – the Jagannath Hall –was destroyed by the Pakistani armed forces, and an estimated 600 to 700 of its residents were murdered. ThePakistani army denies any cold blooded killings at the university, though the Hamood-ur-Rehman commission inPakistan concluded that overwhelming force was used at the university. This fact and the massacre at Jagannath Halland nearby student dormitories of Dhaka University are corroborated by a videotape secretly filmed by Prof. NurulUllah of the East Pakistan Engineering University, whose residence was directly opposite the student dormitories.[36]

The scale of the atrocities was first made clear in the West when Anthony Mascarenhas, a Pakistani journalist who had been sent to the province by the military authorities to write a story favourable to Pakistan's actions, instead fled to the United Kingdom and, on 13 June 1971, published an article in the Sunday Times describing the systematic

Bangladesh Liberation War 38

killings by the military. The BBC writes: "There is little doubt that Mascarenhas' reportage played its part in endingthe war. It helped turn world opinion against Pakistan and encouraged India to play a decisive role", with IndianPrime Minister Indira Gandhi herself stating that Mascarenhas' article has led her "to prepare the ground for India'sarmed intervention".[37]

Hindu areas suffered particularly heavy blows. By midnight, Dhaka was burning, especially the Hindu dominatedeastern part of the city. Time magazine reported on 2 August 1971, "The Hindus, who account for three-fourths ofthe refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Pakistani military hatred."Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested by the Pakistani Army. Yahya Khan appointed Brigadier (later General)Rahimuddin Khan to preside over a special tribunal prosecuting Mujib with multiple charges. The tribunal's sentencewas never made public, but Yahya caused the verdict to be held in abeyance in any case. Other Awami Leagueleaders were arrested as well, while a few fled Dhaka to avoid arrest. The Awami League was banned by GeneralYahya Khan.[38]

Declaration of independenceThe violence unleashed by the Pakistani forces on 25 March 1971, proved the last straw to the efforts to negotiate asettlement. Following these outrages, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed an official declaration that read:

Today Bangladesh is a sovereign and independent country. On Thursday night, West Pakistani armedforces suddenly attacked the police barracks at Razarbagh and the EPR headquarters at Pilkhana inDhaka. Many innocent and unarmed have been killed in Dhaka city and other places of Bangladesh.Violent clashes between E.P.R. and Police on the one hand and the armed forces of Pakistan on theother, are going on. The Bengalis are fighting the enemy with great courage for an independentBangladesh. May Allah aid us in our fight for freedom. Joy Bangla.[39][40]

Sheikh Mujib also called upon the people to resist the occupation forces through a radio message.[41] Mujib wasarrested on the night of 25–26 March 1971 at about 1:30 am (as per Radio Pakistan's news on 29 March 1971).A telegram containing the text of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's declaration reached some students in Chittagong. Themessage was translated to Bengali by Dr. Manjula Anwar. The students failed to secure permission from higherauthorities to broadcast the message from the nearby Agrabad Station of Radio Pakistan. They crossed KalurghatBridge into an area controlled by an East Bengal Regiment under Major Ziaur Rahman. Bengali soldiers guarded thestation as engineers prepared for transmission. At 19:45 hrs on 27 March 1971, Major Ziaur Rahman broadcast theannouncement of the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur. On 28 March Major Ziaur Rahmanmade another announcement, which was as follows:

This is Shadhin Bangla Betar Kendro. I, Major Ziaur Rahman, at the direction of Bangobondhu SheikhMujibur Rahman, hereby declare that the independent People's Republic of Bangladesh has beenestablished. At his direction, I have taken command as the temporary Head of the Republic. In the nameof Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalis to rise against the attack by the West PakistaniArmy. We shall fight to the last to free our Motherland. By the grace of Allah, victory is ours. JoyBangla. Audio of Zia's announcement (interview – Belal Mohammed) [42]

The Kalurghat Radio Station's transmission capability was limited. The message was picked up by a Japanese ship inBay of Bengal. It was then re-transmitted by Radio Australia and later by the British Broadcasting Corporation.M A Hannan, an Awami League leader from Chittagong, is said to have made the first announcement of the declaration of independence over the radio on 26 March 1971.[43] There is controversy now as to when Major Zia gave his speech. BNP sources maintain that it was 26 March, and there was no message regarding declaration of independence from Mujibur Rahman. Pakistani sources, like Siddiq Salik in Witness to Surrender had written that he heard about Mujibor Rahman's message on the Radio while Operation Searchlight was going on, and Maj. Gen. Hakeem A. Qureshi in his book The 1971 Indo-Pak War: A Soldier's Narrative, gives the date of Zia's speech as 27

Bangladesh Liberation War 39

March 1971.[44]

26 March 1971 is considered the official Independence Day of Bangladesh, and the name Bangladesh was in effecthenceforth. In July 1971, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi openly referred to the former East Pakistan asBangladesh.[45] Some Pakistani and Indian officials continued to use the name "East Pakistan" until 16 December1971.

Liberation war

March to June

Leaflets and pamphlets played an important rolein driving public opinion during the war.

At first resistance was spontaneous and disorganised, and was notexpected to be prolonged.[46] But when the Pakistani Army crackeddown upon the population, resistance grew. The Mukti Bahini becameincreasingly active. The Pakistani military sought to quell them, butincreasing numbers of Bengali soldiers defected to the underground"Bangladesh army". These Bengali units slowly merged into the MuktiBahini and bolstered their weaponry with supplies from India. Pakistanresponded by airlifting in two infantry divisions and reorganising theirforces. They also raised paramilitary forces of Razakars, Al-Badrs andAl-Shams (who were mostly members of the Muslim League, the thengovernment party and other Islamist groups), as well as other Bengaliswho opposed independence, and Bihari Muslims who had settledduring the time of partition.

On 17 April 1971, a provisional government was formed in Meherpur district in western Bangladesh bordering Indiawith Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in prison in Pakistan, as President, Syed Nazrul Islam as Acting President,Tajuddin Ahmed as Prime Minister, and General Muhammad Ataul Ghani Osmani as Commander-in-Chief,Bangladesh Forces. As fighting grew between the occupation army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini an estimated 10million Bengalis, sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal.[47]

Bangladesh Liberation War 40

June – September

The eleven sectors

Bangladesh forces command was set up on 11 July, with Col. M. A. G.Osmani as commander-in-chief (C-in-C) with the status of CabinetMinister, Lt. Col. Abdur Rabb as chief of Staff (COS), Group CaptainA K Khandker as Deputy Chief of Staff (DCOS) and Major A RChowdhury as Assistant Chief of Staff (ACOS).

General Osmani had differences of opinion with the Indian leadershipregarding the role of the Mukti Bahini in the conflict. Indian leadershipinitially envisioned Bengali forces to be trained into a small eliteguerrilla force of 8,000 members led by the surviving East BengalRegiment soldiers operating in small cells around Bangladesh tofacilitate the eventual Indian intervention,[48] but the BangladeshGovernment in exile and General Osmani favored the followingstrategy:[49][50]

1. Bengali conventional force would occupy lodgment areas insideBangladesh and then Bangladesh government would requestinternational diplomatic recognition and intervention. InitiallyMymensingh was picked for this operation, but Gen. Osmani latersettled on Sylhet.

2. Sending the maximum number to guerrillas inside Bangladesh as soon as possible with the followingobjectives:[51][52]

•• Increasing Pakistani casualties through raids and ambush•• Cripple economic activity by hitting power stations, railway lines, storage depots and communication networks.•• Destroy Pakistan army mobility by blowing up bridges/culverts, fuel depots, trains and river crafts.•• The strategic objective is to make the Pakistanis to spread their forces inside the province, so attacks can be made

on isolated Pakistani detachments.Bangladesh was divided into Eleven sectors in July[53] each with a commander chosen from defected officers of thePakistani army who joined the Mukti Bahini to conduct guerrilla operations and train fighters. Most of their trainingcamps were situated near the border area and were operated with assistance from India. The 10th Sector was directlyplaced under the Commander in Chief (C-in-C) General M. A. G. Osmani and included the Naval Commandos andC-in-C's special force.[54] Three brigades (11 Battalions) were raised for conventional warfare; a large guerrilla force(estimated at 100,000) was trained.[55]

Three brigades (8 infantry battalions and 3 artillery batteries) were put into action between July - September.[56]

During June –July, Mukti Bahini had regrouped across the border with Indian aid through Operation Jackpot andbegan sending 2000 – 5000 guerrillas across the border,[57] the so called Moonsoon Offensive, which for variousreasons (lack of proper training, supply shortage, lack of a proper support network inside Bangladesh etc.) failed toachieve its objectives.[58][59][60] Bengali regular forces also attacked BOPs in Mymensingh, Comilla and Sylhet, butthe results were mixed. Pakistani authorities concluded that they had successfully contained the Monsoon Offensive,and they were not far from the truth.[61][62]

Guerrilla operations, which slackened during the training phase, picked up after August. Economic and militarytargets in Dhaka were attacked. The major success story was Operation Jackpot, in which naval commandos minedand blew up berthed ships in Chittagong on 16 August 1971. Pakistani reprisals claimed lives of thousands ofcivilians. The Indian army took over supplying the Mukti Bahini from the BSF. They organised six sectors forsupplying the Bangladesh forces.

Bangladesh Liberation War 41

October – DecemberBangladesh conventional forces attacked border outposts. Kamalpur, Belonia and Battle of Boyra are a fewexamples. 90 out of 370 BOPs fell to Bengali forces. Guerrilla attacks intensified, as did Pakistani and Razakarreprisals on civilian populations. Pakistani forces were reinforced by eight battalions from West Pakistan. TheBangladeshi independence fighters even managed to temporarily capture airstrips at Lalmonirhat and Shalutikar.[63]

Both of these were used for flying in supplies and arms from India. Pakistan sent another 5 battalions from WestPakistan as reinforcements.

Indian involvement

Illustration showing military units and troopmovements during the war.

Major battles•• Battle of Boyra•• Battle of Garibpur•• Battle of Dhalai•• Battle of Hilli•• Battle of Kushtia

Wary of the growing involvement of India, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched a pre-emptive strike on Indian AirForce bases on 3 December 1971. The attack was modelled on the Israeli Air Force's Operation Focus during theSix-Day War, and intended to neutralize the Indian Air Force planes on the ground. However, the plan failed toachieve the desired success since India had anticipated such an action. The strike was however seen by India as anopen act of unprovoked aggression. This marked the official start of the Indo-Pakistani War.As a response to the attack, both India and Pakistan formally acknowledged the existence of a state of war betweenthe two countries, even though neither government had formally issued a Declaration of War.[64]

Three Indian corps were involved in the invasion of East Pakistan. They were supported by nearly three brigades ofMukti Bahini fighting alongside them, and many more fighting irregularly. This was far superior to the Pakistaniarmy of three divisions.[65] The Indians quickly overran the country, selectively engaging or bypassing heavilydefended strongholds. Pakistani forces were unable to effectively counter the Indian attack, as they had beendeployed in small units around the border to counter guerrilla attacks by the Mukti Bahini.[66] Unable to defendDhaka, the Pakistanis surrendered on 16 December 1971.

Bangladesh Liberation War 42

The speed of the Indian strategy can be gauged by the fact that one of the regiments of Indian army (7 Punjab now 8Mechanised Inf Regiment) fought the liberation war along the Jessore and Khulna axis. They were newly convertedto a mechanised regiment and it took them just 1 week to reach Khulna after capturing Jessore. Their losses werelimited to just 2 newly acquired APCs (SKOT) from the Russians.India's external intelligence agency, the RAW, played a crucial role in providing logistic support to the Mukti Bahiniduring the initial stages of the war. RAW's operations, in then East Pakistan, was the largest covert operation in thehistory of South Asia.

Pakistani responsePakistan launched a number of armoured thrusts along India's western front in attempts to force Indian troops awayfrom East Pakistan. Pakistan tried to fight back and boost the sagging morale by incorporating the Special ServicesGroup commandos in sabotage and rescue missions.

The air and naval warThe Indian Air Force carried out several sorties against Pakistan, and within a week, IAF aircraft dominated the skiesof East Pakistan. It achieved near-total air supremacy by the end of the first week as the entire Pakistani aircontingent in the east, PAF No.14 Squadron, was grounded because of Indian airstrikes at Tejgaon, Kurmitolla, LalMunir Hat and Shamsher Nagar. Sea Hawks from INS Vikrant also struck Chittagong, Barisal and Cox's Bazar,destroying the eastern wing of the Pakistan Navy and effectively blockading the East Pakistan ports, thereby cuttingoff any escape routes for the stranded Pakistani soldiers. The nascent Bangladesh Navy (comprising officers andsailors who defected from the Pakistani Navy) aided the Indians in the marine warfare, carrying out attacks, mostnotably Operation Jackpot.

Surrender and aftermathOn 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen A. A. K. Niazi, CO of Pakistan Army forces located in East Pakistan signed theInstrument of Surrender. At the time of surrender only a few countries had provided diplomatic recognition to thenew nation. Over 90,000 Pakistani troops surrendered to the Indian forces making it the largest surrender sinceWorld War II.[][67] Bangladesh sought admission in the UN with most voting in its favour, but China vetoed this asPakistan was its key ally.[68] The United States, also a key ally of Pakistan, was one of the last nations to accordBangladesh recognition.[69] To ensure a smooth transition, in 1972 the Simla Agreement was signed between Indiaand Pakistan. The treaty ensured that Pakistan recognised the independence of Bangladesh in exchange for the returnof the Pakistani PoWs. India treated all the PoWs in strict accordance with the Geneva Convention, rule 1925.[70] Itreleased more than 93,000 Pakistani PoWs in five months.[]

Further, as a gesture of goodwill, nearly 200 soldiers who were sought for war crimes by Bengalis were alsopardoned by India. The accord also gave back more than 13000 km2 (unknown operator: u'strong' sq mi) of landthat Indian troops had seized in West Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas;[71] mostnotably Kargil (which would in turn again be the focal point for a war between the two nations in 1999). This wasdone as a measure of promoting "lasting peace" and was acknowledged by many observers as a sign of maturity byIndia. But some in India felt that the treaty had been too lenient to Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency, arguingthat the fragile democracy in Pakistan would crumble if the accord was perceived as being overly harsh byPakistanis.

Bangladesh Liberation War 43

Reaction in West Pakistan to the warReaction to the defeat and dismemberment of half the nation was a shocking loss to top military and civilians alike.No one had expected that they would lose the formal war in under a fortnight and there was also anger at what wasperceived as a meek surrender of the army in East Pakistan. Yahya Khan's dictatorship collapsed and gave way toBhutto who took the opportunity to rise to power. General Niazi, who surrendered along with 93,000 troops, wasviewed with suspicion and hatred upon his return to Pakistan. He was shunned and branded a traitor. The war alsoexposed the shortcomings of Pakistan's declared strategic doctrine that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in WestPakistan".[72] Pakistan also failed to gather international support, and found itself fighting a lone battle with only theUSA providing any external help. This further embittered the Pakistanis who had faced the worst military defeat ofan army in decades.The debacle immediately prompted an enquiry headed by Justice Hamoodur Rahman. Called the Hamoodur RahmanCommission, it was initially suppressed by Bhutto as it put the military in a poor light. When it was declassified, itshowed many failings from the strategic to the tactical levels. It also condemned the atrocities and the war crimescommitted by the armed forces. It confirmed the looting, rapes and the killings by the Pakistan Army and their localagents although the figures are far lower than the ones quoted by Bangladesh. According to Bangladeshi sources,200,000 women were raped and over 3 million people were killed, while the Rahman Commission report in Pakistanclaimed 26,000 died and the rapes were in the hundreds. However, the army's role in splintering Pakistan after itsgreatest military debacle was largely ignored by successive Pakistani governments.

AtrocitiesDuring the war there were widespread killings and other atrocities – including the displacement of civilians inBangladesh (East Pakistan at the time) and widespread violations of human rights – carried out by the PakistanArmy with support from political and religious militias, beginning with the start of Operation Searchlight on 25March 1971. Bangladeshi authorities claim that three million people were killed,[32] while the Hamoodur RahmanCommission, an official Pakistan Government investigation, put the figure at 26,000 civilian casualties.[73] Theinternational media and reference books in English by authors and genocide scholars such as Samuel Totten havealso published figures of up to 3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole.[74] A further eight to ten million people fled thecountry to seek safety in India.[75]

A large section of the intellectual community of Bangladesh were murdered, mostly by the Al-Shams and Al-Badrforces,[76] at the instruction of the Pakistani Army.[77] Just 2 days before the surrender, on 14 December 1971,Pakistan Army and Razakar militia (local collaborators) picked up at least 100 physicians, professors, writers andengineers in Dhaka, and murdered them, leaving the dead bodies in a mass grave.[78] There are many mass graves inBangladesh, and as years pass, more are being discovered (such as one in an old well near a mosque in Dhaka,located in the non-Bengali region of the city, which was discovered in August 1999).[79] The first night of war onBengalis, which is documented in telegrams from the American Consulate in Dhaka to the United States StateDepartment, saw indiscriminate killings of students of Dhaka University and other civilians.[80] Numerous womenwere tortured, raped and killed during the war; the exact numbers are not known and are a subject of debate.Bangladeshi sources cite a figure of 200,000 women raped, giving birth to thousands of war babies.[81][82][83] ThePakistan Army also kept numerous Bengali women as sex-slaves inside the Dhaka Cantonment. Most of the girlswere captured from Dhaka University and private homes.[84] There was significant sectarian violence not onlyperpetrated and encouraged by the Pakistani army,[85] but also by Bengali nationalists against non-Bengaliminorities, especially Biharis.[86]

On 16 December 2002, the George Washington University's National Security Archive published a collection of declassified documents, consisting mostly of communications between US embassy officials and United States Information Service centres in Dhaka and India, and officials in Washington DC.[87] These documents show that US officials working in diplomatic institutions within Bangladesh used the terms selective genocide[88] and genocide

Bangladesh Liberation War 44

(see The Blood Telegram) to describe events they had knowledge of at the time. Genocide is the term that is stillused to describe the event in almost every major publication and newspaper in Bangladesh,[89][90] althoughelsewhere, particularly in Pakistan, the actual death toll, motives, extent, and destructive impact of the actions of thePakistani forces are disputed.

Foreign reaction

United NationsThough the United Nations condemned the human rights violations during and following Operation Searchlight, itfailed to defuse the situation politically before the start of the war.Following Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's declaration of independence in March 1971, India undertook a world-widecampaign to drum up political, democratic and humanitarian support for the people of Bangladesh for their liberationstruggle. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi made a whirlwind tour of a large number of countries in a bid to createawareness of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis. This effort was to prove vital later during the war, in framingthe world's context of the war and to justify military action by India.[91] Also, following Pakistan's defeat, it ensuredprompt recognition of the newly independent state of Bangladesh.Following India's entry into the war, Pakistan fearing certain defeat, made urgent appeals to the United Nations tointervene and force India to agree to a cease fire. The UN Security Council assembled on 4 December 1971 todiscuss the hostilities in South Asia. After lengthy discussions on 7 December, the United States made a resolutionfor "immediate cease-fire and withdrawal of troops." While supported by the majority, the USSR vetoed theresolution twice. In light of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis, the United Kingdom and France abstained onthe resolution.[64][92]

On 12 December, with Pakistan facing imminent defeat, the United States requested that the Security Council bereconvened. Pakistan's Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was rushed to New YorkCity to make the case for a resolution on the cease fire. The council continued deliberations for four days. By thetime proposals were finalised, Pakistan's forces in the East had surrendered and the war had ended, making themeasures merely academic. Bhutto, frustrated by the failure of the resolution and the inaction of the United Nations,ripped up his speech and left the council.[92]

Most UN member nations were quick to recognize Bangladesh within months of its liberation.[91]

USA and USSRThe United States supported Pakistan[93] both politically and materially. U.S. President Richard Nixon denied gettinginvolved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan. But when Pakistan's defeat seemed certain,Nixon sent the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal,[94] a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclearthreat. Enterprise arrived on station on 11 December 1971. On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched twogroups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed U.S. Task Force 74 in the Indian Oceanfrom 18 December until 7 January 1972.

Bangladesh Liberation War 45

The Nixon administration provided support toPakistan President Yahya Khan during the

turmoil.

Nixon and Henry Kissinger feared Soviet expansion into South andSoutheast Asia. Pakistan was a close ally of the People's Republic ofChina, with whom Nixon had been negotiating a rapprochement andwhich he intended to visit in February 1972. Nixon feared that anIndian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet dominationof the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global positionof the United States and the regional position of America's new tacitally, China. In order to demonstrate to China the bona fides of theUnited States as an ally, and in direct violation of the USCongress-imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military suppliesto Pakistan and routed them through Jordan and Iran,[95] while alsoencouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan.

The Nixon administration also ignored reports it received of the genocidal activities of the Pakistani Army in EastPakistan, most notably the Blood telegram.The Soviet Union supported Bangladesh and Indian armies, as well as the Mukti Bahini during the war, recognisingthat the independence of Bangladesh would weaken the position of its rivals – the United States and China. It gaveassurances to India that if a confrontation with the United States or China developed, the USSR would takecountermeasures. This was enshrined in the Indo-Soviet friendship treaty signed in August 1971. The Soviets alsosent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.At the end of the war, the Warsaw Pact countries were among the first to recognize Bangladesh. The Soviet Unionaccorded recognition to Bangladesh on 25 January 1972.[96] The United States delayed recognition for some months,before according it on 8 April 1972.[97]

ChinaAs a long-standing ally of Pakistan, the People's Republic of China reacted with alarm to the evolving situation inEast Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West Pakistan and Pakistani-controlled Kashmir. Believing that justsuch an Indian attack was imminent, Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border withIndia to discourage it. The Chinese did not, however, respond to this encouragement, because unlike the 1962Sino-Indian War when India was caught entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployedeight mountain divisions to the Sino-Indian border to guard against such an eventuality.[64] China instead threw itsweight behind demands for an immediate ceasefire.When Bangladesh applied for membership to the United Nations in 1972, China vetoed their application[98] becausetwo United Nations resolutions regarding the repatriation of Pakistani prisoners of war and civilians had not yet beenimplemented.[99] China was also among the last countries to recognize independent Bangladesh, refusing to do sountil 31 August 1975.[91][98]

Bangladesh Liberation War 46

Footnotes[1] "Britain Proposes Indian Partition" (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?id=78xTAAAAIBAJ& sjid=6DgNAAAAIBAJ&

pg=1738,3655& dq=india+ partition& hl=en). BUP. Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada: The Leader-Post. 2 June 1947. .[2] Grover, Preston (8 June 1947). "India Partition Will Present Many Problems" (http:/ / news. google. com/

newspapers?id=VbYqAAAAIBAJ& sjid=mGQEAAAAIBAJ& pg=1342,6305096& dq=india+ partition& hl=en). Associated Press. Sarasota,Florida, USA: Herald-Tribune, via Google News. .

[3] "Problems of Partition" (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?id=WPdUAAAAIBAJ& sjid=GZMDAAAAIBAJ& pg=7167,1795176&dq=india+ partition& hl=en). Sydney, Australia: The Sydney Morning Herald. 14 June 1947. .

[4] "''Genocide in Bangladesh, 1971.'' Gendercide Watch" (http:/ / www. gendercide. org/ case_bangladesh. html). Gendercide.org. . Retrieved 23June 2011.

[5] "''Emerging Discontent, 1966–70.'' Country Studies Bangladesh" (http:/ / countrystudies. us/ bangladesh/ 21. htm). Countrystudies.us. .Retrieved 23 June 2011.

[6] Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971: Military Action: Operation Searchlight Bose S Economic and PoliticalWeekly Special Articles, 8 October 2005 (http:/ / www. epw. org. in/ showArticles. php?root=2005& leaf=10& filename=9223&filetype=html)

[7] The Pakistani Slaughter That Nixon Ignored , Syndicated Column by Sydney Schanberg, New York Times, 3 May 1994[8] "Civil War Rocks East Pakistan" (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?id=Rk4fAAAAIBAJ& sjid=jtEEAAAAIBAJ&

pg=2676,6420028& dq=east+ pakistan+ independence& hl=en). Associated Press. Daytona Beach, Florida, USA: Daytona Beach MorningJournal, via Google News. 27 March 1971. .

[9] Crisis in South Asia – A report by Senator Edward Kennedy to the Subcommittee investigating the Problem of Refugees and TheirSettlement, Submitted to U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, 1 November 1971, U.S. Govt. Press.pp6-7

[10] "''India and Pakistan: Over the Edge.'' TIME 13 December 1971 Vol. 98 No. 24" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/0,9171,910155-2,00. html). TIME. 13 December 1971. . Retrieved 23 June 2011.

[11] Al Helal, Bashir, Language Movement (http:/ / banglapedia. search. com. bd/ HT/ L_0063. htm), Banglapedia[12] "Language Movement" (http:/ / banglapedia. net/ HT/ L_0063. HTM) (PHP). Banglapedia – The National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh.

Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. . Retrieved 6 February 2007.[13] "International Mother Language Day – Background and Adoption of the Resolution" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070520205804/

http:/ / www. pmo. gov. bd/ 21february/ imld_back. htm). Government of Bangladesh. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. pmo. gov.bd/ 21february/ imld_back. htm) on 20 May 2007. . Retrieved 21 June 2007.

[14] Rahman, Tariq (September 1997). "Language and Ethnicity in Pakistan". Asian Survey 37 (9): 833–839.doi:10.1525/as.1997.37.9.01p02786. ISSN 0004-4687. JSTOR 2645700.

[15] Rahman, Tariq (1997). "The Medium of Instruction Controversy in Pakistan" (http:/ / www. multilingual-matters. net/ jmmd/ 018/ 0145/jmmd0180145. pdf) (PDF). Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 18 (2): 145–154. doi:10.1080/01434639708666310.ISSN 0143-4632. . Retrieved 21 June 2007.

[16] Oldenburg, Philip (August 1985). ""A Place Insufficiently Imagined": Language, Belief, and the Pakistan Crisis of 1971". The Journal ofAsian Studies 44 (4): 711–733. doi:10.2307/2056443. ISSN 0021-9118. JSTOR 2056443.

[17] "Library of Congress studies" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?frd/ cstdy:@field(DOCID+ bd0139)). Memory.loc.gov. 1 July1947. . Retrieved 23 June 2011.

[18] "Demons of December – Road from East Pakistan to Bangladesh" (http:/ / www. defencejournal. com/ 2002/ dec/ demons. htm).Defencejournal.com. . Retrieved 23 June 2011.

[19] Rounaq Jahan (1972). Pakistan: Failure in National Integration. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03625-6. Pg 166–167[20] Sayeed, Khalid B. (1967). The Political System of Pakistan. Houghton Mifflin. p. 61.[21] Hassan, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Dr. Professor Mubashir (May 2000) [2000], "§Zulfikar Ali Bhutto: All Power to People! Democracy

and Socialism to People!" (in English), The Mirage of Power, Oxford University, United Kingdom: Dr. Professor Mubashir Hassan, professorof Civil Engineering at the University of Engineering and Technology and the Oxford University Press, p. 393, ISBN 0-19-579300-5

[22] India Meteorological Department (1970). "Annual Summary – Storms & Depressions" (http:/ / docs. lib. noaa. gov/ rescue/ cd024_pdf/005ED281. pdf#page=10) (PDF). India Weather Review 1970. pp. 10–11. . Retrieved 15 April 2007.

[23] Kabir, M. M.; Saha B. C.; Hye, J. M. A.. "Cyclonic Storm Surge Modelling for Design of Coastal Polder" (http:/ / www. iwmbd. org/ html/PUBS/ publications/ P024. PDF) (PDF). Institute of Water Modelling. . Retrieved 15 April 2007.

[24] Schanberg, Sydney (22 November 1970). "Yahya Condedes 'Slips' In Relief". New York Times.[25] Staff writer (23 November 1970). "East Pakistani Leaders Assail Yahya on Cyclone Relief". New York Times. Reuters.[26] Staff writer (18 November 1970). "Copter Shortage Balks Cyclone Aid". New York Times.[27] Durdin, Tillman (11 March 1971). "Pakistanis Crisis Virtually Halts Rehabilitation Work In Cyclone Region". New York Times.[28] Olson, Richard (21 February 2005). "A Critical Juncture Analysis, 1964–2003" (http:/ / www. usaid. gov/ our_work/

humanitarian_assistance/ disaster_assistance/ publications/ ofda_cjanalysis_02_21-2005. pdf) (PDF). USAID. . Retrieved 15 April 2007.[29] Sarmila Bose Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971: Military Action: Operation Searchlight (http:/ / www.

epw. org. in/ showArticles. php?root=2005& leaf=10& filename=9223& filetype=html) Economic and Political Weekly Special Articles, 8October 2005

Bangladesh Liberation War 47

[30][30] Salik, Siddiq, Witness To Surrender, p63, p228-9 id = ISBN 984-05-1373-7[31] From Deterrence and Coercive Diplomacy to War – The 1971 Crisis in South Asia. Asif Siddiqui, Journal of International and Area Studies

Vol.4 No.1, 1997. 12. pp 73–92.[32] White, Matthew, Death Tolls for the Major Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century (http:/ / users. erols. com/ mwhite28/ warstat2.

htm#Bangladesh)[33] Zunaid Kazi. "History : The Bangali Genocide, 1971" (http:/ / www. virtualbangladesh. com/ history/ holocaust. html). Virtual Bangladesh. .

Retrieved 23 June 2011.[34] Rummel, Rudolph. "Chapter 8: Statistics Of Pakistan's Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources". Statistics of Democide: Genocide

and Mass Murder since 1900. pp. 544. ISBN 978-3825840105. ""...They also planned to indiscriminately murder hundreds of thousands of itsHindus and drive the rest into India. ... This despicable and cutthroat plan was outright genocide'."

[35] Debasish Roy Chowdhury (23 June 2005). "'Indians are bastards anyway'" (http:/ / www. atimes. com/ atimes/ South_Asia/ GF23Df04.html). Asia Times. .

[36] Malik, Amita (1972). The Year of the Vulture. New Delhi: Orient Longmans. pp. 79–83. ISBN 0804688176.[37] "Bangladesh war: The article that changed history" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-asia-16207201), BBC, 16 December 2011[38] "Encyclopædia Britannica – Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 651231/

Agha-Mohammad-Yahya-Khan). Britannica.com. . Retrieved 23 June 2011.[39] "Joy" is the Bengali word that means victory, so Joy Bangla would translate to Victorious Bengal or Victory to Bengal[40] J. S. Gupta The History of the Liberation Movement in Bangladesh Page ??[41] The Daily Star, 26 March 2005 (http:/ / www. thedailystar. net/ 2005/ 03/ 26/ index. htm) Article not specified[42] http:/ / www. library. shuchinta. com/ germanRadio. mp3[43] "Virtual Bangladesh" (http:/ / www. virtualbangladesh. com/ history/ declaration. html). Virtual Bangladesh. 26 March 1971. . Retrieved 23

June 2011.[44][44] Annex M (Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-19-579778-7)[45] India, Pakistan, and the United States: Breaking with the Past By Shirin R. Tahir-Kheli (http:/ / books. google. com/

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[71] "The Simla Agreement 1972 – Story of Pakistan" (http:/ / www. storyofpakistan. com/ articletext. asp?artid=A109& Pg=6).Storyofpakistan.com. 1 June 2003. . Retrieved 23 June 2011.

[72] Defencejournal (http:/ / www. defencejournal. com/ 2000/ oct/ yaqub. htm), Redefining security imperatives by M Sharif (http:/ / www.jang. com. pk/ thenews/ aug2004-weekly/ nos-15-08-2004/ pol1. htm#1) – Article in Jang newspaper, General Niazi's Failure in HighCommand (http:/ / www. ghazali. net/ book8/ Chapter_5/ body_chapter_5. html)

[73] Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report (http:/ / www. bangla2000. com/ Bangladesh/ Independence-War/ Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/default. shtm), chapter 2 (http:/ / www. bangla2000. com/ Bangladesh/ Independence-War/ Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/ chapter2. shtm),paragraph 33

[74] Totten, Samuel; Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs. Dictionary of Genocide: A-L. Volume 1: Greenwood. p. 34.ISBN 978-0-313-32967-8.

[75] Rummel, Rudolph J., "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900" (http:/ / www. Hawaii. edu/ powerkills/ SOD.CHAP8. HTM), ISBN 3-8258-4010-7, Chapter 8, Table 8.2 Pakistan Genocide in Bangladesh Estimates, Sources, and Calcualtions (http:/ /www. hawaii. edu/ powerkills/ SOD. TAB8. 2. GIF): lowest estimate two million claimed by Pakistan (reported by Aziz, Qutubuddin. Bloodand tears Karachi: United Press of Pakistan, 1974. pp. 74,226), all the other sources used by Rummel suggest a figure of between 8 and 10million with one (Johnson, B. L. C. Bangladesh. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1975. pp. 73,75) that "could have been" 12 million.

[76][76] Many of the eyewitness accounts of relations that were picked up by "Al Badr" forces describe them as Bengali men. The only survivor ofthe Rayerbazar killings describes the captors and killers of Bengali professionals as fellow Bengalis. See 37 Dilawar Hossain, accountreproduced in 'Ekattorer Ghatok-dalalera ke Kothay' (Muktijuddha Chetona Bikash Kendro, Dhaka, 1989)

[77] Asadullah Khan The loss continues to haunt us (http:/ / www. thedailystar. net/ 2005/ 12/ 14/ d512141501115. htm) in The Daily Star 14December 2005

[78] "125 Slain in Dacca Area, Believed Elite of Bengal" (http:/ / select. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract.html?res=F50C13F83C5E127A93CBA81789D95F458785F9). New York Times (New York, NY, USA): p. 1. 19 December 1971. . Retrieved4 January 2008. "At least 125 persons, believed to be physicians, professors, writers and teachers were found murdered today in a field outsideDacca. All the victims' hands were tied behind their backs and they had been bayoneted, garroted or shot. They were among an estimated 300Bengali intellectuals who had been seized by West Pakistani soldiers and locally recruited supporters."

[79] DPA report Mass grave found in Bangladesh (http:/ / www. tribuneindia. com/ 1999/ 99aug08/ world. htm#7) in The Chandigarh Tribune 8August 1999

[80] Sajit Gandhi The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971 National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79 (http:/ / www.gwu. edu/ ~nsarchiv/ NSAEBB/ NSAEBB79/ ) 16 December 2002

[81] "Bengali Wives Raped in War Are Said to Face Ostracism" (http:/ / www. docstrangelove. com/ uploads/ 1971/ foreign/19720118_nyt_bengali_wives_raped_in_war_are_said_to_face_ostracism. pdf). The New York Times. 1972-01-08. . Retrieved 2011-11-10.

[82] Menen, Aubrey (1972-07-23). "The Rapes of Bangladesh" (http:/ / www. docstrangelove. com/ uploads/ 1971/ foreign/19720723_nyt_the_rapes_of_bangladesh. pdf). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2011-11-10.

[83] Astrachan, Anthony (1972-03-22). "U.N. Asked to Aid Bengali Abortions" (http:/ / www. docstrangelove. com/ uploads/ 1971/ foreign/19720322_wp_un_asked_to_aid_bengali_abortions. pdf). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 2011-11-10.

[84] East Pakistan: Even the Skies Weep (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,877316,00. html), Time Magazine, 25 October1971.

[85] U.S. Consulate (Dacca) Cable, Sitrep: Army Terror Campaign Continues in Dacca; Evidence Military Faces Some Difficulties Elsewhere(http:/ / www. gwu. edu/ ~nsarchiv/ NSAEBB/ NSAEBB79/ BEBB6. pdf), 31 March 1971, Confidential, 3 pp

[86] Sen, Sumit (1999). "Stateless Refugees and the Right to Return: the Bihari Refugees of South Asia, Part 1" (http:/ / ijrl. oxfordjournals. org/cgi/ reprint/ 11/ 4/ 625. pdf) (PDF). International Journal of Refugee Law 11 (4): 625–645. doi:10.1093/ijrl/11.4.625. . Retrieved 20 October2006.

[87] Gandhi, Sajit, ed. (16 December 2002), The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971 (http:/ / www. gwu. edu/ ~nsarchiv/ NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/ ): National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79

[88] U.S. Consulate in Dacca (27 March 1971), Selective genocide (http:/ / www. gwu. edu/ ~nsarchiv/ NSAEBB/ NSAEBB79/ BEBB1. pdf),Cable (PDF)

[89] Editorial " The Jamaat Talks Back (http:/ / www. bangladeshobserveronline. com/ new/ 2005/ 12/ 30/ editorial. htm)" in The BangladeshObserver 30 December 2005

[90] Dr. N. Rabbee " Remembering a Martyr (http:/ / www. thedailystar. net/ magazine/ 2005/ 12/ 03/ remembrance. htm)" Star weekendMagazine, The Daily Star 16 December 2005

[91] "The Recognition Story" (http:/ / www. bdsdf. org/ forum/ index. php?showtopic=3072). Bangladesh Strategic and Development Forum. .Retrieved 2011-08-17.

[92] "Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's farewell speech to the United Nations Security Council - Wikisource" (http:/ / en. wikisource. org/ wiki/Zulfiqar_Ali_Bhutto's_farewell_speech_to_the_United_Nations_Security_Council). En.wikisource.org. . Retrieved 2011-10-26.

[93] "Nixon and Pakistan: An Unpopular Alliance" (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?id=1LslAAAAIBAJ& sjid=R_MFAAAAIBAJ&pg=3565,2560587& dq=nixon+ pakistan& hl=en). Reuters. Miami, Florida, USA: The Miami News, via Google News. 17 December 1971. .

[94] Scott, Paul (21 December 1971). "Naval 'Show of Force' By Nixon Meant As Blunt Warning to India" (http:/ / news. google. com/newspapers?id=HUU0AAAAIBAJ& sjid=IeEIAAAAIBAJ& pg=5099,2016461& dq=nixon+ pakistan+ military& hl=en). Bangor, Maine,USA: Bangor Daily News, via Google News. .

Bangladesh Liberation War 49

[95] Shalom, Stephen R., The Men Behind Yahya in the Indo-Pak War of 1971 (http:/ / coat. ncf. ca/ our_magazine/ links/ issue47/ articles/ a07.htm)

[96] "USSR, Czechoslovakia Recognize Bangladesh" (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?id=0dIoAAAAIBAJ& sjid=gQYGAAAAIBAJ&pg=2219,2272476& dq=bangladesh+ ussr+ recognize& hl=en). Associated Press. Sumter, South Carolina, USA: The Sumter Daily Item, viaGoogle News. January 25, 1972. .

[97] "Nixon Hopes for Subcontinent Peace" (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?id=5TMsAAAAIBAJ& sjid=5ssEAAAAIBAJ&pg=3505,1398456& dq=usa+ recognize+ bangladesh& hl=en). Associated Press. Spartanburg, South Carolina, USA: Herald-Journal, viaGoogle News. 9 April 1972. .

[98] "China Recognizes Bangladesh" (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?id=rnVKAAAAIBAJ& sjid=RSINAAAAIBAJ&pg=4237,20391& dq=china+ recognize+ bangladesh& hl=en). Associated Press. Oxnard, California, USA: The Press Courier, via GoogleNews. 1 September 1975. .

[99] "China Veto Downs Bangladesh UN Entry" (http:/ / news. google. com/ newspapers?id=GQsyAAAAIBAJ& sjid=w6EFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4712,6055847& dq=bangladesh+ united-nations+ china& hl=en). United Press International. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: The MontrealGazette, via Google News. August 26, 1972. .

References• Pierre Stephen and Robert Payne: Massacre, Macmillan, New York, (1973). ISBN 0-02-595240-4•• Christopher Hitchens "The Trials of Henry Kissinger", Verso (2001). ISBN 1-85984-631-9•• Library of Congress Country Studies

Further reading• Ayoob, Mohammed and Subrahmanyam, K., The Liberation War, S. Chand and Co. pvt Ltd. New Delhi, 1972.• Bhargava, G.S., Crush India or Pakistan's Death Wish, ISSD, New Delhi, 1972.• Bhattacharyya, S. K., Genocide in East Pakistan/Bangladesh: A Horror Story, A. Ghosh Publishers, 1988.• Brownmiller, Susan: Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape, Ballantine Books, 1993.• Choudhury, G.W., "Bangladesh: Why It Happened." International Affairs. (1973). 48(2): 242–249.• Choudhury, G.W., The Last Days of United Pakistan, Oxford University Press, 1994.• Govt. of Bangladesh, Documents of the war of Independence, Vol 01-16, Ministry of Information.• Kanjilal, Kalidas, The Perishing Humanity, Sahitya Loke, Calcutta, 1976•• Johnson, Rob, 'A Region in Turmoil' (New York and London, 2005)• Malik, Amita, The Year of the Vulture, Orient Longmans, New Delhi, 1972.• Mascarenhas, Anthony, The Rape of Bangla Desh, Vikas Publications, 1972.• Matinuddin, General Kamal, Tragedy of Errors: East Pakistan Crisis, 1968–1971, Wajidalis, Lahore, Pakistan,

1994.• Mookherjee, Nayanika, A Lot of History: Sexual Violence, Public Memories and the Bangladesh Liberation War

of 1971, D. Phil thesis in Social Anthropology, SOAS, University of London, 2002.• National Security Archive, The Tilt: the U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971 (http:/ / www. gwu. edu/

~nsarchiv/ NSAEBB/ NSAEBB79)• Quereshi, Major General Hakeem Arshad, The 1971 Indo-Pak War, A Soldiers Narrative, Oxford University

Press, 2002.• Rummel, R.J., Death By Government, Transaction Publishers, 1997.• Salik, Siddiq, Witness to Surrender, Oxford University Press, Karachi, Pakistan, 1977.• Sisson, Richard & Rose, Leo, War and secession: Pakistan, India, and the creation of Bangladesh, University of

California Press (Berkeley), 1990.• Totten, Samuel et al., eds., Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views, Garland Reference

Library, 1997• US Department of State Office of the Historian, Foreign Relations of the United States: Nixon-Ford

Administrations, vol. E-7, Documents on South Asia 1969–1972 (http:/ / www. state. gov/ r/ pa/ ho/ frus/ nixon/xi)

Bangladesh Liberation War 50

• Zaheer, Hasan: The separation of East Pakistan: The rise and realization of Bengali Muslim nationalism, OxfordUniversity Press, 1994.

• Raja, Dewan Mohammad Tasawwar (2010). O GENERAL MY GENERAL (Life and Works of General M. A. G.Osmani). The Osmani Memorial Trust, Dhaka, Bangladesh. ISBN 978-984-8866-18-4.

External links• Banglapedia article on the Liberation war of Bangladesh (http:/ / banglapedia. search. com. bd/ HT/ W_0020.

htm)• 1971 Bangladesh Genocide Archive (http:/ / www. genocidebangladesh. org/ )• Video Streaming of 5 Liberation war documentaries (http:/ / www. banglagallery. net/ vdo/ index. php)• Video, audio footage, news reports, pictures and resources from Mukto-mona (http:/ / www. mukto-mona. com/

1971/ English/ archive. htm)• Picture Gallery of the Language Movement 1952 & the Independence War 1971 of Bangladesh (http:/ / ethikana.

com/ gallery/ war. htm)• Bangladesh Liberation War. Mujibnagar. Government Documents 1971 (http:/ / www. newagebd. com/ 2005/

feb/ 18/ feb18/ xtra_also3. html)• Torture in Bangladesh 1971–2004 (PDF) (http:/ / www. redress. org/ publications/ Bangladesh. pdf)• Eyewitness Accounts: Genocide in Bangladesh (http:/ / www. globalwebpost. com/ genocide1971/ witness/

rounaq. htm)• Genocide 1971 (http:/ / www. engr. uconn. edu/ ~faisal/ Genocide. html)• The women of 1971. Tales of abuse and rape by the Pakistan Army. (http:/ / drishtipat. org/ 1971/ war. htm)• Mathematics of a Massacre, Abul Kashem (http:/ / www. mukto-mona. com/ new_site/ mukto-mona/ Articles/

kasem/ mathematics_genocide. htm)• The complete Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report (http:/ / www. bangla2000. com/ Bangladesh/

Independence-War/ Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/ default. shtm)• 1971 Massacre in Bangladesh and the Fallacy in the Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report, Dr. M.A. Hasan

(http:/ / www. bangladeshmariners. com/ HmdrRprt/ 71mass. html)• Women of Pakistan Apologize for War Crimes, 1996 (http:/ / www. adhunika. com/ issues/ wpawc71. html)• Pakistan Army not involved (http:/ / www. dailytimes. com. pk/ default. asp?page=story_30-6-2005_pg1_2)• Sheikh Mujib wanted a confederation: US papers, by Anwar Iqbal, Dawn, 7 July 2005 (http:/ / www. dawn. com/

2005/ 07/ 07/ nat3. htm)• Page containing copies of the surrender documents (http:/ / www. muktadhara. net/ page11. html)• A website dedicated to Liberation war of Bangladesh (http:/ / www. jonmojuddho. org/ )• Video clip of the surrender by Pakistan (http:/ / indianarmy. nic. in/ arimage/ Pak_surrender. WMV)• Bangladesh Liberation War Picture Gallery (http:/ / www. banglagallery. com/ gallery/ categories. php?cat_id=5)

Graphic images, viewer discretion advised

Article Sources and Contributors 51

Article Sources and ContributorsWorld War II  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=482746278  Contributors: $1LENCE D00600D, *TPC* Clan, -Ilhador-, -Majestic-, -Marcus-, -OOPSIE-, 07ed01, 100110100, 119, 12 Centuries, 123456abcd, 12mollydog, 13seb, 172, 18Fox, 200.191.188.xxx, 203.2.218.xxx, 23prootie, 23skidoo, 2812, 2k6168, 3D Design, 5618, 578, 5p33dy, 64.12.106.xxx, 68Kustom, 89funtime, 96T, 9tdr, A Nobody, A Softer Answer, A Sunshade Lust, A Werewolf, A mundinger, A.K.A.47, A0928527112, A23259789, ABCD, ACSE, AHM, AI, ALE!, ALX TATER, ALargeElk, AP1787, ASDFGYUIOP, AThing, Aakashraj1990kash, Aar, Aaron Bowen, Aaron Brenneman, Aaron Schulz, AaronY, Aaronp808, Abby 92, Abcdefghayden, Abednigo, Abootmoose, Abune, Ace ETP, Ace Mendiola, AceMagic5, Acetic Acid, Adam Carr, Adam sk, AdamRaizen, Adamc007, Adamrush, Adashiel, Addshore, Adityakistampally, AdmiralKolchak, Admrboltz, Ados, Adrian M. 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Bangladesh Liberation War  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=482472698  Contributors: AA, Aalaan, Aaron Pris, Aditya Kabir, Afil, Ahoerstemeier, Ahsaninam, Ahuitzotl,Aivazovsky, Akhil Bakshi, Akosh33, Alexdeangelis86, Alexeifjodor, Alexfrance250291, Alvi94, Alyoshenka, Amakuru, Amibidhrohi, Andreac, Andrwsc, Angusmclellan, Anthony Appleyard,Antorjal, Appraiser, Aridd, ArielGold, Arjun024, Armanaziz, Arnob1, Arvind Iyengar, AshLin, Atulsnischal, Auntof6, Avecaccent, Aveekbh, Awais141, Ayonbd2000, B. Mandal,BangladeshPride, Barkeep49, Bazaan, Bbpen, Bejiriaaaa, Bhadani, Bharatveer, Black Falcon, Bloodshedder, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bogdan, Bondegezou, Borisblue, Brozozo, Bry9000,Bsadowski1, Bukubku, BusterD, CJK, CWii, CanisRufus, Careless hx, Carnildo, Caughtinthecrossfire, Cdernings, Chanakyathegreat, ChaudhryAzan, Christopher Parham, Clarityfiend,Closedmouth, Cmdrjameson, Cncs wikipedia, Cobra libre, Cometstyles, Cripipper, DBigXray, DICKipedia, Darkness Shines, Darktestator, DaveDaytona, Davejenk1ns, David Newton,Dbenbenn, Dearnetwork, Deeptrivia, Dejo, Delirium, Delta 51, Demiurge1000, Dentren, DerHexer, Dewan357, Dhoom, Diannaa, Digitalsurgeon, Discospinster, Doprendek, Dpv,DragonflySixtyseven, Drmies, Druworos, Dsayeed, Dudewheresmywallet, Dwaipayanc, ERcheck, ESkog, Edward, El C, Eliezg, Emilio floris, Enchanter, Erode, Euchiasmus, Euryalus,Everyking, Evlekis, Fdgdfggdf, Fida29, Fizyxnrd, FutureNJGov, Fvw, Gaius Cornelius, Gary King, Gatoclass, GeorgeLouis, Giggy, Gimboid13, Gob Lofa, Gomm, Good Olfactory,GrandStarksX, Green Giant, Gromell, Ground Zero, Guptadeepak, Gurch, Gzkn, Hajor, HalfShadow, Harsimaja, Haymaker, Hazardasd, Hekerui, Henry Flower, Hermitage13, Hermitage17,Hillel, Hitesh4one, Hmains, Holme053, Hossainsmz, Hvn0413, Ian Pitchford, Idleguy, Ifarkas, Imasleepviking, Impaciente, ImpuMozhi, Imtiaz82, Ingolfson, Invisifan, IrishPete, Ironboy11, Itai,J.delanoy, JCAla, JEdgarFreeman, Jagged 85, Janko, Jason Recliner, Esq., Jatak, Jawandapuck, Jdorje, Jean-Jacques Georges, JoDonHo, Joe240792, John, John Vandenberg, Jokes Free4Me,Jonathan.s.kt, Joshua Issac, Jpgordon, Jrjordan23, Juansidious, Juicifer, Jusdafax, KBi, Kanatonian, KarlHallowell, Kayau, Kefalonia, Kelisi, KevinOB, Killerman2, Kingpin13, Kitch,KnowledgeHegemony, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kwamikagami, LATEEFSAZU, LaMenta3, Lacrimosus, Lapsed Pacifist, Leandrod, Lightmouse, Ligulem, Lomis, LordGulliverofGalben, Lowe4091,MONGO, MSGJ, MadMax, Maglorbd, Makahar, Md.Azizul Haque Himel, Mdkhassan, Mdmday, Mercenary2k, Merlinme, Micah Samuel, Michael Devore, Mike Cline, Mike Young, Miljoshi,Million Little Gods, Mimihitam, MinnesotanConfederacy, Mohsanmehdi, Mr A, Ms2ger, Muraad kahn, Muwaffaq, Muzzammilbhuri, Mystt, N2271, NAHID, NKSCF, Nabeel.ahmed, Nalyst,NasrinatWiki, NawlinWiki, Niceguyedc, Nick123, Nilredoy, Nishkid64, Nv8200p, Nyttend, Ohaider, Ohconfucius, Omar sabih, Orangemarlin, Oreo Priest, Osprey39, OwenBlacker, PFHLai,Pahari Sahib, Pakistanfanforeva, Pan Wikipedia, Paul August, Pax:Vobiscum, Pejorative.majeure, Perceval, Peripatetic, Pfonilonitappa, PhilKnight, Philip Baird Shearer, Philip Taron, Picaroon,Piledhigheranddeeper, Piperdown, Pirus, Pklose, Plasticup, Pmbma, Pmonon, Publicus, Purbita, Purpleturple, Quackslikeaduck, R'n'B, Ragib, Rama's Arrow, Rana asif2004, Ranam, Reahad,Reaper7, Recurring dreams, RedBLACKandBURN, Remember the dot, Reptilian, Rettetast, Reyad buet, Rezwan, Rib Ripon, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Keatinge, Richard75, Rjwilmsi,RobJWarwick, Rohlg, Rollo44, Rossi101, Rotovia, Rrburke, Rudib, Rueben lys, S.faris, SFGiants, SMC, Saif tinku, SameerKhan, Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Seblini, Seleucus, Sentinel R, Seric2,Shadowjams, Shawnc, Sheehan, Shmitra, Shovon76, Shreshth91, Shyamsunder, Siddiqui, Signalian, SilverStar, Silvonen, SimonP, Skcpublic, Skoosh, Sligocki, Slleong, Smmmaniruzzaman,Smsarmad, Snappy, Softec, Solipsist, Soman, Somizulfi, Sorna Doon, Sowrov, SpArC, Spartian, Spasage, Speedboy Salesman, Spin666, Spitfire19, Stallions2010, Steed Asprey - 171, Steve Hart,Storkk, Strider11, Supten, Surv1v4l1st, TJ Spyke, Ta bu shi da yu, Tabletop, Tango Alpha Foxtrot, Tanvir Ahmmed, Tapsboy, Tarif Ezaz, Tarikhasan, Tasawwar raja, Tctwood, Teleomatic,Thaimoss, The idiot, Thecheesykid, Theda, Thinking of England, Thiseye, Thisthat2011, Thoreaulylazy, Tierce, TigerShark, Tim1357, TimR, Timeshifter, Timzdaman1, Tkma, ToddFincannon,Toddst1, Toddy1, Tony360X, TopGun, Tpbradbury, Trey Stone, Tri400, Truthanado, Turkey neck Jenkins, Ultramarine, Umran Chowdhury, Underpants, UplinkAnsh, Urnonav, Utcursch,Uzdzislaw, VasilievVV, Vipinhari, Vis-a-visconti, Vishnava, Vontrotta, Waleyo, Warrenpe, Who ever I am2, Whoever I am, WikHead, Wiki Wikardo, Wikitanvir, Will231982, William Avery,Wisekwai, Wizardman, Wmahan, Woohookitty, XavierGreen, Xezbeth, YellowMonkey, YnnusOiramo, Yousuf5, Zanoni, Zbd, Zibran 2, Zzuuzz, 687 ,ماني anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 54

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Hitlermusso2 edit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hitlermusso2_edit.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: CillanXC, Excirial, F l a n k e r, Howcheng,JGHowes, MER-C, Mindmatrix, Monty845, Zzyzx11, 7 anonymous editsFile:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H25224, Guernica, Ruinen.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25224,_Guernica,_Ruinen.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Germany  Contributors: ALE!, Andy1982, HBR, Hystrix, Manxruler, Poxnar, Zarateman, 2 anonymous editsFile:Shanghai1937KMT machine gun nest.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shanghai1937KMT_machine_gun_nest.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Arilang1234, Avron, Baycrest, Blueshirts, HongQiGongFile:Khalkhin Gol Soviet offensive 1939.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Khalkhin_Gol_Soviet_offensive_1939.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ВикторАнтонович ТёминFile:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R69173, Münchener Abkommen, Staatschefs.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R69173,_Münchener_Abkommen,_Staatschefs.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Germany Contributors: A1B2C3D4, Althiphika, G.dallorto, Martin H., Mtsmallwood, UstinadlabemELBE, Vizu, YMS, 4 anonymous editsFile:Armia Czerwona,Wehrmacht 23.09.1939 wspólna parada.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Armia_Czerwona,Wehrmacht_23.09.1939_wspólna_parada.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany  Contributors: GutjahrFile:Nazi-parading-in-elysian-fields-paris-desert-1940.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nazi-parading-in-elysian-fields-paris-desert-1940.png  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Frank Capra (director), U.S. War DepartmentFile:Supermarinespitfire.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Supermarinespitfire.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: RAF official photographerFile:German paratroopers jumping From Ju 52s over Crete.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:German_paratroopers_jumping_From_Ju_52s_over_Crete.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: New Zealand OfficialFile:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-L20582, Charkow, Strassenkämpfe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-L20582,_Charkow,_Strassenkämpfe.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Germany  Contributors: SchmidtFile:Soviet Offensive Moscow December 1941.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Soviet_Offensive_Moscow_December_1941.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: user:IrpenFile:Second world war europe 1941-1942 map en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Second_world_war_europe_1941-1942_map_en.svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Ilgaz ER, Takabeg, 2 anonymous editsFile:Bosbritsurrendergroup.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bosbritsurrendergroup.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Wolcott aten.wikipediaFile:SBDs and Mikuma.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SBDs_and_Mikuma.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Navy; Original uploader was Palmdogg at en.wikipedia, 2006-01-30 (first version); 2006-02-14 (last version)File:RIAN archive 44732 Soviet soldiers attack house.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg  License: unknown Contributors: Zelma / Георгий ЗельмаFile:IWM-E-6724-Crusader-19411126.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IWM-E-6724-Crusader-19411126.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Clements(Lieut), No 1 Army Film & Photographic UnitFile:RIAN archive 225 IL-2 attacking.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RIAN_archive_225_IL-2_attacking.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: F. Levshin / Ф.ЛевшинFile:IND 004723.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IND_004723.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: No 9 Army Film & Photographic UnitFile:Approaching Omaha.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Approaching_Omaha.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Taak aten.wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Raul654, Nauticashades at en.wikipedia.File:RIAN archive 633180 Stream crossing.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RIAN_archive_633180_Stream_crossing.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Alpert /Макс АльпертFile:Warsaw Uprising by Deczkowki - Kolegium A -15861.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Warsaw_Uprising_by_Deczkowki_-_Kolegium_A_-15861.jpg  License:Public Domain  Contributors: JarektFile:AmericanAndSovietAtElbe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AmericanAndSovietAtElbe.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Avron, Bukvoed,LutzBruno, Oberiko, S. F. B. Morse, ZaccariasFile:Destruction in a Berlin street.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Destruction_in_a_Berlin_street.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: No 5 Army Film &Photographic Unit, Wilkes A (Sergeant) Post-Work: User:W.wolnyFile:Nagasakibomb.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nagasakibomb.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: The picture was taken from one of the B-29Superfortresses used in the attack.File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-14059-0018, Berlin, Oberbefehlshaber der vier Verbündeten.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-14059-0018,_Berlin,_Oberbefehlshaber_der_vier_Verbündeten.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike3.0 Germany  Contributors: Butko, Docu, Martin H., PDD, Palamède, Srittau, 3 anonymous editsFile:Churchill waves to crowds.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Churchill_waves_to_crowds.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:W.wolnyFile:Colonization 1945.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colonization_1945.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: 23prootie,Albam, AnonMoos, CommonsDelinker, David Kernow, Deltabeignet, Gauravjuvekar, LX, Lalupa, Lemonade100, Maps & Lucy, Nuno Tavares, Pruxo, Roke, Rottweiler, Samulili, Sannita,Shield35, Shipguy, SpencerCS, 8 anonymous editsFile:World War II Casualties2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_War_II_Casualties2.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: ABF, Anakin101, Basilicofresco, Bongwarrior, BrianKnez, Gorilarms, Hamtechperson, Iohannes Animosus, J.delanoy, Jennavecia, Jordanthedud, Mccujo, Mentifisto, Oberiko, Onyer nees ben dover, Paxse, Pb30, Sishizawa, Viriditas, Woody, 50 anonymous editsFile:Chinese civilians to be buried alive.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_civilians_to_be_buried_alive.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: UnknownFile:Some of the bodies being removed by German civilians for decent burial at Gusen Concentration Camp, Muhlhausen, near Linz, Austria.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Some_of_the_bodies_being_removed_by_German_civilians_for_decent_burial_at_Gusen_Concentration_Camp,_Muhlhausen,_near_Linz,_Austria.jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: Chiewatc, High Contrast, Jarekt, Mahlum, Makthorpe, Petrusbarbygere, R-41, Sebastian Wallroth, Xenophon, Zzyzx11, 2 anonymous editsFile:Ebensee concentration camp prisoners 1945.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ebensee_concentration_camp_prisoners_1945.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Samuelson, Lt. A. E.,File:WorldWarII-GDP-Relations-Allies-Axis-simple.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WorldWarII-GDP-Relations-Allies-Axis-simple.svg  License: Public Domain Contributors: derivative work: Hohum (talk) WorldWarII-GDP-Relations-Allies-Axis-simple.png: User:Dna-webmasterFile:RIAN archive 1274 Tanks going to the front.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RIAN_archive_1274_Tanks_going_to_the_front.jpg  License: unknown Contributors: RIA Novosti / РИА НовостиFile:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-031-2436-03A, Russland, Hinrichtung von Partisanen.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-031-2436-03A,_Russland,_Hinrichtung_von_Partisanen.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0Germany  Contributors: KochFile:U995 2004 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:U995_2004_1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: DarkoneFile:Color Photographed B-17E in Flight.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Color_Photographed_B-17E_in_Flight.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S.Air Force photoImage:BDP.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BDP.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Armanaziz, Bellayet, Ranveig, WikitanvirImage:BD Sectors.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BD_Sectors.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: ArmanazizImage:Bangladesh 1971 Liberation.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bangladesh_1971_Liberation.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mike Young

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 55

Image:Yahya and Nixon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yahya_and_Nixon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Yahoo1 aten.wikipedia

License 56

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/