Cognition & Meta Cognition

7/29/2019 Cognition & Meta Cognition

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COGNITION

&METACOGNITIONGroup members:

M . Ali

M. Kamran Haider

M.M.Hameed Faizi

Mazhar Iqbal


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Cognition


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Cognition


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INTRODUCTION TO

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY


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1. Cognitive Psychology Defined

Cognitive Psychology

The study of how people perceive, learn,

remember, and think.

Examples How people perceive various shapes

Why they remember some facts and forget others

How they learn language

Cognition (Ashcraft, 2002) The collection of mental processes and activities

used in perceiving, learning, remembering,

thinking, and understanding, and the act of using

those processes


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?

If you wanted to understand how people

think which method would you use?What would you focus on?


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?

What can humans do that

computers can not?

What can computers do that

humans can not?


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3. Research Methods in Cognitive

Psychology

How does scientific investigation work? Theory development

Hypotheses formulation Hypotheses testing

Data gathering

Data analysis

Ecological validity The degree to which particular findings in one

context may be considered relevant outside of thatcontext


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Psychology

1. Controlled laboratory experiments

Characterization

An experimenter conducts research in a laboratorysetting in which he controls as many aspects of theexperimental situation as possible

Advantages

Enables isolation of causal factors Excellent means of testing hypotheses

Disadvantages Often lack of ecological validity


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3. Research Methods in


2. Psychobiological research

Characterization Studies the relationship between cognitive

performance and cerebral events and structures Examples: postmortem studies, animal studies,

studies in vivo (PET, fMRI, EEG)

Advantages hard evidence of cognitive functions by relating

them to physiological activity Disadvantages Often very expensive; risk of making inferences

about normal functions based on abnormal brainfunctioning


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Psychology

3. Self-reports

Characterization Participants reports of own cognition in progress or

as recollected

Advantages Introspective insights from participants point of

view, which may be unavailable via other means

Disadvantages

Inability to report on processes occurring outsideconscious awareness

Data gathering may influence cognitive processbeing reported


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Psychology

4. Case studies

Characterization Intensive study of a single individual

Advantages Richly detailed information about individuals,

including information about historical and currentcontexts

Very good for theory development Disadvantages Small sample; questionable generalization to other

cases


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Psychology

5. Naturalistic observation

Characterization

Observing real-life situations, as in classrooms,work settings, or homes

Advantages

High ecological validity

Disadvantages

Lack of experimental control


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3. Research Methods in


6. Computer Simulations and ArtificialIntelligence

Characterization Simulation: Attempt to make computers simulate

human cognitive performance

AI: Attempt to make computers demonstrateintelligent cognitive performance (regardless of its

resemblance to human cognitive processing)Advantages Clear testing of theoretical models and predictions

Disadvantages

Limits of hardware and software


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4. Key Themes in Cognitive

Psychology

1.Data without a theory is meaningless, theorywithout data is empty

Example: observation that peoples ability torecognize faces is better than their ability to recallfaces This is an interesting generalization but it does not

explain why there is such a difference

A theory providesAn explanation of data

Basis for prediction of other data


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Psychology

2.Cognitive processes interact with each otherand with noncognitive processes

Even though cognitive psychologists often try tostudy specific cognitive processes in isolation,they know that cognitive processes work together

Examples

Memory processes depend on perceptual processes Thinking depends on memory

Motivation interacts with learning


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Psychology

3. Cognition needs to be studied through a variety

of scientific methods

There is no one right way to study cognition

Cognitive psychologists need to learn a

variety of different kinds of techniques to studycognition


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Psychology

4.Basic research in cognitive psychology maylead to application, applied research may lead

to basic understanding

Basic research often leads to immediateapplication Example: finding that learning is superior when it is

spaced out over time rather than crammed into a shorttime interval

Applied research often leads to basic findings Example: eyewitness testimony research has enhanced

our basic understanding of memory systems and of theextent to which humans construct their own memories


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Cognitive Development:

Believed that intelligence was not random, but

was a set of organized cognitive structures

that the infant actively constructed

This construction occurs through the

adaptation to the environment


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Stages of Development

The development of qualitatively different

cognitive structures occurred through the

processes of assimilation and accommodation.

When a qualitative change occurs, the

infant/child enters a new stage of development


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Stage 1:

Sensori-Motor (Birth-Age 2)

Intellectual functioning is organized aroundsensing information and performing actionsaccordingly.

This is entirely unconscious, self-unaware, andnon-symbolic cognition.

6 substages of development


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Sensori-Motor Substage 1:

Reflexes (0-1 month)

Reflexes are the behavioural foundation uponwhich more complex behaviours are based

Development occurs as the reflex behavioursare applied to a wider variety of stimuli andevents (assimilation)

Example: Sucking


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Reflexes (0-1 month)

With continued experience, the reflexive

behaviours become modified(accommodation)

The infant then enters the second substage


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Schemes (1-4 months)

Sensori-Motor Schemes:

An organized pattern of action (or behaviour) with

which the infant interacts and comes to know theworld.

Examples: Sucking and Grasping


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Schemes (1-4 months)

Coordination or integration of previouslyindependent schemes

For example, the coordination of sensory

information, such as visual and auditory


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Schemes (1-4 months) Walker & Gibson (1983)

3.5 Months


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Procedures (4-8 months)

According to Piaget, substage 2 schemes are

directed inward

That is, grasps for the sake of its grasping than

on the effect it has on the world

In this substage, schemes get directed

outward


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Procedures (4-8 months)

The schemes develop into procedures of

interesting actions that produce interesting

effects in the world

For example, banging on a pot with a wooden

spoon

Consequently, the procedure gets repeated Sounds like operant learning - infants do this at 2

mos.


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Intentional Behaviour (8-12 mos) In previous substage, infant accidentallyproduces some outcome then repeats it

In this substage, infant wants to produce aparticular outcome then figures out the action

Uses one scheme as a means to obtain its goalor end of exercising another scheme


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Experimentation (12-18 mos)

Trial-and-error exploration of the world to find

new and different ways of acting on it.

Before this substage, the infant produces

known actions that will produce mostly known

outcomes


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Experimentation (12-18 mos) Here the infant produces new actions andobserves the effects

Example, pulling the rug to get an out-of-reachobject

Perhaps, the precursor of tool use


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Representation (18-24 mos) Before this substage, all actions, objects

and outcomes occur externally

In this substage, the infant begins to thinkabout and acting on the world internally


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Representation (18-24 mos) Example: Naming an object that is not currently present but is

just thought of.

Deferred Imitation Infant witnesses an action but does not reproduce it

Reproduces the witnessed action at a later time

Pretend or Symbolic Play


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Object Permanence

Understanding that objects exist independent of ourability to perceive them

In substage 4, infants can search for hidden objects

Limitations in this ability: A-not-B Task


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Object Permanence





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Object Permanence





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Object Permanence





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A-not-B Task

Infant seems to understand the permanenceof the object only in relation to their own

action

Can handle this task by substage 5, but only ifthe object is visible when moved

Waits until substage 6 until infant can handlethis task with invisible displacements


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Recent Work on Cognition

during Sensori-Motor Stage Object Permanence

Baillargeon (1987)

Found that not until

4.5 months of age

(substage 3) did

infants increaseattention to the

impossible event


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Stage 2: Pre-operational

(2-6 yrs) Limitations

Egocentrism: All

representation of the

world is from onesown perspective

- Centration: Focuses on

only one aspect of a

problem at a time

- Animism: Thinks that

inanimate objects have

qualities of living things


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Stage 3: Concrete Operational

(6-12 yrs) Child is more logical and able to complete task not

able to in Pre-Operation period.

Thinking is still with real or concrete objects and actions, and

not yet abstract thinking

Conservation of Number is mastered by age 6

Conservation of Length & Weight is mastered by age8 or 9

Class Inclusion - A subclass cannot be larger than thesuperordinate class that includes it


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Class Inclusion

11 circles: 8 white and 3 yellow

Ask child where there are more circles or more whichitems

Pre-Operational:


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Class Inclusion

11 circles: 8 white and 3 yellow

Ask child where there are more circles or more which

items

Concrete Operational:


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(6-12 yrs) Relations between

classes

Seriation - ordering

Transitivity - Tell infant, A

is bigger than B and B is

bigger than C. Then askwhat is the relation

between A and C

A

B

B

C


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(6-12 yrs) Infants and Children

may be more

competent thanproposed

For example, Number


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Stage 4: Formal Operational

The ability to think logically about things thatare only possible and not necessarily real (or

concrete) -- abstract thinking

Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

Not everyone reaches this stage:

Studies have indictated that science and mathstudents better at this


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What is Cognitive Psychology?

Cognitive psychology is the study of mental

processes


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Cognitive Psychology versus

Behaviorism

Behavioral Psych: how S maps onto R

Cognitive Psych: what happens in the mindBoth can use formulas to map S onto R

The difference is level of complexity

Environment MindS

R


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Neurobiology

Neurobiology: how does the brain do it?

Cognitive Psych: how does the mind do it?Both can use neurons to describe mind

The difference is behavior (the big picture)


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Metaphor: mind = Windows

Behaviorists: What happens when I press Alt-Tab? Cool! It switched to

my last open application!! But how does that work? Neurobiologists:

Check this out, the harddrive and the RAM are bothconnected to the motherboard! But what does that mean?

Cognitive Psychologists: Pressing Alt-Tab switches me between applications, and I

know that Windows uses STM Lets propose a model ofWindows where it stores which apps are open in STM, andwhen a user hits Alt-Tab, it switches between open apps.


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Artificial Intelligence (AI)

AI: whats the best way to do this?

Cognitive Psych: how do humans do this? Both try to model some form of mind

The difference is fidelity

Brain is optimal: If AI truly wants to find optimality they

should study Cognitive Psychology.

Why study Cognitive


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Why study Cognitive

Psychology

Understanding the mind

Education

Medicine

TherapyArtificial Intelligence

Tool/Interface Design

Gaming/Entertainment

Etc.


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What is involved in Cognition

The book lists:

Perception, Attention, Memory, Problem-Solving,

Language, Reasoning, & Decision-making

This is not a comprehensive list of mentalprocesses

These processes are not independent of one

another

E.g. attention may be part of perception; language

may be part of memory and decision-making, etc.


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COMPLEXITY OFCOGNITION


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Figure 1.1 (p. 3) - Complexity of CognitionSarah is walking toward her friend, who is waving in the distance. She is aware

of her friend, but has little awareness of the stranger who is passing on her right,

even though he is much closer.


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What we are aware of

The complexities of

cognition are usually

hidden from our

consciousness.


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The Magic of Cognition

In our lives we are likely to NEVER encounter

the same retinal input twice!

EVER!

We will learn about categorization and invariant

representation


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The Stroop effect

We have automatic reading routines

It is hard to stop well-practiced routines from

executing This is the difference between experts and

novices

Complexity of Perception; Expectations


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Figure 1.5 (p 8) - Hemholtzs unconcious inferenceThe display in (a) looks like (b) a gray rectangle in front of a light triangle; but itcould be (c) a gray rectangle and a six-sided figure that are lined up appropriately.

Complexity of Perception; Expectations


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These types of phenomena give us a hint as to

how cognition works

E.g. Do you process all of the information that falls onyour retina?

It may be that we have a perfect representation of the world

It may be that we make gross estimations based on prior

experience

DEMO


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THINK CRITICALLY


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Think Critically

Beware cognitive myths

We only use 10% of our brain

Group brainstorming

Left vs right hemisphere Left is an accountant, right is a hippie

Phrenology

C


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Think Critically

Beware vacuous Statements

the Stroop effect shows that some stimuli can

affect our behavior by forc ing themselves on

our consc iousn ess, even if we are activelytrying to ignore them.

Thi k C i i ll


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Think Critically

Beware old theories

E.g. Chomskys Poverty of Stimu lusargument

has been rebuked recently; Perfors, Tenenbaum,

& Regier (2006) have shown that with the rightapproach it is possible to retrieve grammar rules

from the data available to children

Thi k C iti ll


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Think Critically

Correlation does not imply causation

100% of people who eat pickles die

Therefore, eating pickles is bad for you

Thi k C iti ll


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Think Critically

Davachi [states that] memory is better if theperirhinal cortex is activated when the word isbeing learned

Does this mean that Perirhinal cortex is involved in memory?

Everything is involved in memory Is it involved in associative learning?

Not necessarily. It could be activated during the place task forany number of reasons

Maybe Ss found it amusing to place words, and theperirhinal cortex is actually the amusement center;maybe being amused correlates with better memory

Thi k C iti ll


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Think Critically

Cognition is far from being solved

Ask questions

Use your intuition

Do thought experimentsUse multiple sources of information

Think for yourselves

How would you design the mind?

O th b i ht id


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On the brighter side

This is a young field, but we understand a lot

about cognition already

At this point we are already able to predict

Learning curves for procedural and declarativememories

How forgetting works (interference and decay)

How some memories can prime other memories

How cognitive mechanisms interactAnd much much more


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Play with different combinations of these words andyou'll be forming mental pictures of metacognition.

Thinking about knowing ...

Learning about thinking ...

Control of learning ... Knowing about knowing ...

Thinking about thinking ...

September 15, 2013Metacognition71


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Its like arguing with yourself.

- Scott (11/09)


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Metacognition = Argumentation turn inward.

D fi iti


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Definitions

September 15, 2013Metacognition

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Metacognition - literally beyond knowing,knowing what one knows and doesnt know -

promoting a students ability to self-monitor

levels of understanding and predict how well(s)he will do on a particular task.

Self-regulation - students monitoring their own

comprehension and assessing their own

abilities without teacher help.

M t iti


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Metacognition

Thinking about thinking(Blakely, 1990; Livingston, 1997)

Flavell (1977)

Child cognition

Developmental changes in

Metamemory

MetacomprehensionMetacommunication

M t iti


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Metacognition

Knowledge and active control over ones owncognitive processes when engaged in learning

metacognitive knowledge

metacognitive regulation

Metacogniti e Kno ledge


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Metacognitive Knowledge

Knowledge about human learning and informationprocessing

Knowledge about the learning task at hand and

its corresponding processing demands

Knowledge about cognitive and metacognitive

strategies and their appropriate use

Metacognitive Regulation


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Metacognitive Regulation

processes that can be applied in order to controlcognitive activities and achieve cognitive goals

planning and monitoring cognitive activities and

further revision depending on the result of these

activities

Elements of Metacognition


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Metamemory

Knowledge about memory systems and memory

strategies

Metacomprehension Learners awareness about what he/she knows /

does not know



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Self-regulation

Learners adjustment to errors

Covers social interaction

Schema TrainingHelps learners to develop their own cognitive

structures from understanding information and

experiences

Metacognition


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Metacognition

Students perception of themselves has an impactof their performance, achievements and self-

management of their own learning.

Metacognition influences the students orientation to

learning tasks and problem solving.

Performing the task or solving the problem

influences their belief in their personal and

academic abilities, therefore metacognition allowsstudents to believe in themselves.

Metacognitive Strategies


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Metacognitive Strategies

Blakely & Spence (1990)Connecting new information to former knowledge

Selecting thinking strategies deliberately

Planning, monitoring and evaluating thinkingprocesses

Utilising these strategies a learner can identify a problem,research alternative solutions, evaluate and decide on a final

solution.


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Metacognitive Explanation


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Metacognitive Explanation

Involves the teacher

Talking through the problem, start to ask the

student for suggestions

Thinking aloudObserving the process of solving a problem

Scaffolded Instruction


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Scaffolded Instruction

Exploring problems with little help from theteacher

Teachers role is to support

Teacher should intervene if the student isexperiencing difficulties

What do you think would happen if?

How can you check to see if you are correct or not?


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Co operative Learning


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Co-operative Learning

Utilises the social aspect of learning

Breaking the class into pairs or small groups

Head to Hands


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Head-to-Hands

Carry out a practical application

Manipulate and test learning

Helps students maintain motivation towards

their learning

A Distributed View of Metacognition


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Managing ressources

Processes involved in internal cognitive

functioning

Objects and processes in ones immediateenvironment

A Distributed View of Metacognition 5


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tenets

1. The complexity of deciding what to do next ismade considerably less complex than the

general problem of rational choice.

2. Humans lean on environmental structure forcognitive support.


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For students operating in well designedenvironments the activity of maintaining

coordination, of monitoring, repairing, and

deciding what to do next may not be a fullyconcious process, and certainly need not

require attention to ones current internal

thinking process.



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Cognition is distributed between agent andenvironment

When there is conscious awareness of

mental activity, the aspect of cognition beingattended to may be the externalisation of that

thought.

Cognitively Effective Design


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Principles of good pedagogyProviding cues, prompts, hints, indicators and

reminders

The manner of displaying them has an effect onhow and when students notice them.



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The effectiveness of a structure or processmeasures the probability that subjects will

comprehend, perceive, extract the meaning, or use

the structure correctly.

a) use the interface, hence not reject it outright as

being too complex to be useful

b) use the display to obtain the result the users

want because the display makes it easier to

understand the options and their relations better


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Thank You For Your Attention

Cognition & Meta Cognition

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