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© 2010 by W. W. Norton & Co., Inc. Remembering Complex Events Chapter 7 Lecture Outline
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© 2010 by W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.

Remembering Complex Events

Chapter 7Lecture Outline

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Chapter 7: Remembering Complex Events

Lecture OutlineMemory ErrorsAvoiding Memory ErrorsAutobiographical Memory

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Chapter 7: Remembering Complex Events

In this chapter we consider some of the errors that can arise when people try to remember episodes that are related to other things they know and have experienced

We also consider some of the factors that are directly pertinent to memory as it functions in day-to-day life

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Memory Errors

An example of a memory errorAirplane lost power to two enginesCrashed into side of building in Amsterdam. 193 participants interviewed 10 months laterMore than half of the participants reported

seeing the crash on TV In later follow-ups, many participants

confidently provided details about the crash.

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Memory Errors

Brewer and Treyens (1981)

Participants often report seeing books or other typical items in an office

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Existing knowledge

Memory Errors

A hypothesis regarding memory errors

Existing knowledge Event

Time

E V

E

N

T

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Memory Errors

Intrusion errors

Existing knowledgeExisting knowledge Event

Time

E V

E

N

T

New information

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Memory Errors Nancy arrived at the cocktail party. She looked around the room to

see who was there. She went to talk with her professor. She felt she had to talk to him but was a little nervous about just what to say. A group of people started to play charades. Nancy went over and had some refreshments. The hors d’oeuvres were good but she was not interested in talking to the rest of the people at the party. After a while she decided she had had enough and left the party.

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Memory Errors

Nancy woke up feeling sick again, and she wondered if she really were pregnant. How would she tell the professor she had been seeing? And the money was another problem.

Theme condition

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Memory Errors

Better memory, more intrusions

Worse memory, fewer intrusions

Inferred proposition: the professor had gotten Nancy pregnant

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記憶實驗(記住 16個字詞)

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護士

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針筒

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酒精

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棉花

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血漿

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病床

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藥丸

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醫生

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拐杖

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輪椅

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點滴

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白袍

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膠布

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病人

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水果

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繃帶

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請盡可能把剛剛看過的字詞寫下來

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護士針筒酒精棉花血漿病床藥丸醫生

拐杖輪椅點滴白袍膠布病人水果繃帶

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Memory Errors

Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure. (DRM procedure))Read the list “bed, rest, awake, tired, dream,

wake, snooze…” Participants recall “sleep” even though it was

not on the list

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Memory Errors

Very good memory Intrusions

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Memory Errors

Highway Schema

Palm tree breaks schema

Other intrusions are due to schematic knowledge.A schema (plural, schemata) refers to knowledge that describes what is typical or frequent in a given situation.

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Memory Errors

Schema can help us when remembering an eventWhat was the first thing that happened

The last time you went to a restaurant The last time you went to your favorite restaurant The last time you went to a restaurant on vacation

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Memory Errors

However, schema can also cause us to make errors when remembering an eventFor example, you might remember seeing

magazines in a dentist’s office even if there were none

Memories are regularized

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Memory Errors

A classic demonstration of the effects of schema on memory was provided by Frederick Bartlett (1932)

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Memory Errors

One night two young men from Egulac went down to the river to hunt seals, and while they were there it became foggy and calm. Then they heard war cries, and they thought; “Maybe this is a war party.” They escaped to the shore and hid behind a log. Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles and saw one canoe coming to them. There were five men in the canoe, and they said: “What do you think? We wish to take you along. We are going up the river to make war on the people.” One of the young men said: “I have no arrows.” “Arrows are in the canoe,” they said. “I will not go along. I might be killed. My relatives do not know where I have gone. But you,” he said, turning to the other, “may go with them.” So one of the young men went, but the other returned home. And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of Kalama. The people came down to the water and they began to fight, and many were killed. But presently the young man heard one of the warriors say: “Quick, let us go home; that Indian has been hit.” Now he thought, “Oh, they are ghosts.” He did not feel sick, but they said he had been shot. So the canoes went back to Egulac, and the young man went ashore to his house and made a fire. And he told everybody and said: “Behold I accompanied the ghosts, and we went to fight. Many of our fellows were killed, and many of those who attacked us were killed. They said I was hit, and I did not feel sick.” He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose, he fell down. Something black came out of his mouth. His face became contorted. The people jumped up and cried. He was dead. (Bartlett, 1932, p. 65)

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Memory Errors

Indians were out fishing for seals in the Bay of Manpapan, when along came five other Indians in a war-canoe. They were going fighting. “Come with us,” said the five to the two, “and fight.” “I cannot come,” was the answer of the one, “for I have an old mother at home who is dependent upon me.” The other also said he could not come, because he had no arms. “That is no difficulty” the others replied, “for we have plenty in the canoe with us”; so he got into the canoe and went with them. In a fight soon afterwards this Indian received a mortal wound. Finding that his hour was come, he cried out that he was about to die. “Nonsense,” said one of the others, “you will not die.” But he did.

Details altered

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Memory Errors

Native American stories presented to British participants

The gist of the stories was recalled but details were altered

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Memory Errors

Regularization via schemaBooks are remembered in an officeFootage of a plane crash is remembered

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Memory Errors

Another line of research has investigated the misinformation effect

Event Misleading informationTime

Misleading information becomes part of event

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Memory Errors

Loftus and Palmer, 1974View a series of slides depicting a car

accidentHow fast were the cars going when they _____ each other?

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Memory Errors

Loftus and Palmer, 1974How fast were the cars going when they _____ each other?

when participants came back a week later, those who had heard “smashed into” were more likely to agree to having seen broken glass in the pictures compared to those who heard “hit,” even though there was no broken glass.

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當記憶出錯時

證人證詞1

證人證詞2

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ELIZABETH LOFTUS: THE FICTION OF MEMORY

TED TALK

© 2010 by W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.

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Memory Errors

Other studies have shown that false autobiographical memories can be implanted, such as participants believing they had become ill eating egg salad as children

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Memory Errors

Entire events can be implanted into memory Imagery can be very compelling

Having been hospitalized overnight for a high fever.

Having spilt a bowl of punch at a wedding.Having been lost in a shopping mall.Having taken a hot-air balloon ride.Having been attacked by a vicious animal.

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Memory Errors

A picture can create a memory

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Memory Errors

Participants remembered misbehaving in class.

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Memory Errors

Memory confidenceThere is little relationship between our

confidence in our memories and their accuracy

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Memory Errors

Participants witnessed a crimeLater provided with feedback

Feedback affected confidence but not accuracy

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Avoiding Memory Errors

Other studies have demonstrated cases in which memories were surprisingly accurate

What factors determine whether a memory will be accurate or subject to errors?

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Avoiding Memory Errors

The feelings of “remembering” and “knowing”Remembering is more likely with real

memoriesKnowing is less likelyHowever, there are no guarantees

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Avoiding Memory Errors

Retention interval—the amount of time that elapsed between initial learning and subsequent retrievalSchematic knowledge fills in older memories,

making them less reliableSource monitoring—determining which parts

of the memory actually occurred and which parts are associated knowledge.

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Avoiding Memory Errors

It takes longer to relearn information after a longer retention interval

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Avoiding Memory Errors

Why memories may weaken with timeDecay—memories may fade or erode Interference—newer learning may disrupt

older memoriesRetrieval failure—the memory is intact but

cannot be accessed

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Blocking Is Temporary

Blocking is a temporary inability to retrieve specific information, as exemplified by the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Blocking often occurs because of interference from words that are similar in some way, such as in sound or meaning, and that recur

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Avoiding Memory Errors

Number of games

Lower recall

Baddeley and Hitch (1977)

This allowed the investigators to calculate intervening games independently of time.

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Avoiding Memory Errors

Hypnosis makes people more open to misinformation

Memories are not recovered, they are created

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Avoiding Memory ErrorsRather than regressing, the adult draws what he or she thinks a 6-year -ld would draw

It is clear that the hypnotized adults’ drawings were much more sophisticated.

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Avoiding Memory Errors

Instead, the method of recovering “lost” memories that is the most grounded in research is to provide a diverse set of retrieval cuesContext reinstatementVisualization

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Avoiding Memory Errors

Summary of memory errors People can confidently remember things that never

happened Memories become embedded in schematic

knowledge Schema provide organization and retrieval paths Forgetting may be a consequence of how our general

knowledge is formed: Specific episodes merge in memory to form schema

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Autobiographical Memory

Autobiographical memory refers to memory of episodes and events in a person’s own life

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Autobiographical Memory

The self-reference effect—better memory for information relevant to oneself

The self-schema is a set of beliefs and memories about oneself

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Autobiographical Memory

As with general memories, memories about oneself are subject to errorsMemories about ourselves are a mix of

genuine recall and schema-based reconstruction

Our autobiographical memories are also biased to emphasize consistency and positive traits

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Autobiographical Memory

Emotion and memory

Emotional events Amygdala Better consolidation

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Autobiographical Memory

Causes of better memory for emotional eventsNarrowing of attentionMore rehearsal

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Autobiographical Memory

Flashbulb memories

Are they accurate?

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Flashbulb Memories Can Be Wrong

Some events cause people to experience what Brown and Kulik termed flashbulb memories flashbulb memories: vivid episodic

memories for circumstances in which people first learned of a surprising, consequential, or emotionally arousing event

They do not reflect the problem of persistence, however, in that they are not recurring unwanted memories

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Autobiographical Memory

Some flashbulb memories contain large-scale errorsA group of college students were interviewed

one day after the 1986 space shuttle Challenger explosion (Neisser & Harsch, 1992)

Five years later, confidence was high but there were may inaccuracies in their reports

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Autobiographical Memory

Other flashbulb memories are well rememberedConsequentiality—whether it matters to a

person’s life Increases rehearsal and thus memory

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Autobiographical Memory

Traumatic memoriesPhysiological arousal increases consolidationCan be lost

Head injuries, sleep deprivation, drugs/alcohol, and—controversially—“repression”

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Persistence Is Unwanted Remembering

Persistence is the recurrence of unwanted memories; This problem is characteristic of posttraumatic stress disorder

The most common triggers of PTSD include events that threaten people or those close to them

Emotional events are associated with amygdala activity, which might underlie the persistence of certain memories

Contemporary researchers are investigating methods to erase unwanted memories

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Autobiographical Memory

Repression Traumatic memories, can be “lost” and then

“recovered”Lost memories could be lost voluntarily or due

to ordinary retrieval failureHowever, memories may be due to

misinformation

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Autobiographical Memory

Very stable memories

For instance, although some forgetting occurs, high school classmates are recognized in photographs 30 years later.

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Autobiographical Memory

Memory for cognitive psychology class (Conway et al., 1991)

ConsiderableLoss for three years

Then fairly stable memory

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Autobiographical Memory

PermastorePermanent memoriesMay be aided by rehearsal and continuing to

learn

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Autobiographical Memory

Most memorable period of life = high school through early college

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Autobiographical Memory

Certain principles of autobiographical memory reflect more general memory principles The importance of rehearsal The formation of generalized schema from individual

memory episodes The potential for intrusion errors and susceptibility to

misinformation Other principles of autobiographical memory

may be distinct The role of emotion in shaping autobiographical

memory may be less applicable to other kinds of memory

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全現遺覺記憶 Photographic memory

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Chapter 7 Questions

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Which of the following statements is TRUE?a) Memory connections can both help and

hurt memory accuracy.b) When events are misremembered, they

tend to be remembered as more normal, or more consistent with expectations, than they actually were.

c) The greater the density of connections associated with a particular episode, the more likely intrusion errors are to occur.

d) all of the above

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Which of the following is true regarding recall performance?

a) Recall performance is usually better than recognition performance.

b) Recall performance does not benefits from context reinstatement.

c) Whether a clue about a word’s sound is more helpful for recall than a clue about its meaning depends on how the word was thought of when it was learned.

d) Physical context is more important to recall than psychological context.

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Intrusion errors are typically caused by

a) words or ideas not associated with the material being learned.

b) background knowledge brought to a situation.

c) maintenance rehearsal.

d) thoughts about an event that take place before the event has occurred.

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Which of the following is likely to INCREASE the intrusion of schematic knowledge in later recall?

a) thinking about how the event unfolded, rather than what it meant

b) making an effort to fill in the gaps in one’s memories

c) decreasing the retention interval

d) thinking about what was distinctive, rather than typical, about the episode

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According to interference theory, most forgetting is attributable to the fact that

a) due to a change in perspective, you lose paths to the information.

b) emotion causes the disruption of memories acquired earlier.

c) memories and memory connections fade with time.

d) new learning disrupts or overwrites old learning.

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While under hypnosis, people

a) are quite accurate at distinguishing true and false memories.

b) tend to remember more about the event they are being questioned about.

c) tend to talk less about the event they are being questioned about.

d) are more susceptible to the misinformation effect.

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Which of the following is TRUE about autobiographical memories?

a) People will bias recollection of past events away from current characteristics.

b) Recollection is worse for memories that seem more directly relevant to the self.

c) When an event is forgotten, reconstruction tends to favor seeing the self in a negative light.

d) Reconstruction of past events will often be consistent with current views of self.