CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW AND METHODOLOGYshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/103736/9/09_chapter 2.pdf · CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW AND METHODOLOGY 2.1 Literature Review:

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW AND METHODOLOGY

2.1 Literature Review:

Since the investigation of proverbs in relation to man and the environment overlaps with

universal principles, culture, history, social science, religion and even politics, the nature of

analysis requires an interdisciplinary framework. The critical cultural studies approach allows

one to benefit from contributions made by scholars from different disciplines and makes it

possible to proceed with the investigation and seek answers for the primary questions concerning

the currency of proverbs and their cultural significance as comparable phenomena between

different languages and cultures.

2.1.1 Defining a Proverb is an Old Problem:

Some American proverbs in themselves are peoples’ definitions of a proverb, like:

“Proverbs are the wisdom of the streets,” “Proverbs are the children of experience,” “All the

good sense of the world runs into proverbs.” These statements define proverbs as production, and

not proverbs per se. Gallacher (1959) define the it thus: “A proverb is a concise statement of an

apparent truth which has [had, or will have] currency among the people” (qtd. In Mieder 2004:4)

. Among Arab scholars, Freyha (1974: 1) states, Mathal (Proverb) is from a common

Semitic root signifying simile or comparison. However, the truth of the matter is that proverbs

remain elusive to be included in one clear-cut definition. Many definitions of proverb have been

given, none of which holds true of every proverb.

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People realize the appeal of well-known proverbs, they make use of them for different

purposes to gear with the daily life. For example, people in Yemen say, “Nobody trades his son

with a genie,” meaning “Do not exchange your belongings which you have experienced enough

with something that you did not”, and in business, people say: “The quality of goods is

determined by the messenger,” and “Don’t send a child” meaning “Don’t send unpracticed one

to do professional job”. The same idea is available in the American proverb which says: “Don’t

send a boy,” meaning “Don’t send a boy to do a man’s job.” Some slogans such as: “One good

term deserves another,” politicians can campaign with for re-election, in the States. “Written in

very large letters across the top of a full page advertisement in the New York Times was the

saying “Don’t send a boy”, meaning “Don’t send a boy to do a man’s job.” The first write-up in

a theater program was entitled “Catch Them While They are Young” Bryant (1951: 134-142).

But in Yemen, slogan such as: “Till here, the cows should be sent back” is used to warn

politicians that people would not re-elect them because they had not fulfilled their promises, if

the situation is about elections. The use of this one shows the multifunctional nature of the

proverbs. The warning remains within the range of the knowledge and experience of the

audience.

Alan Dundes, (1980), Seeing is Believing, says: “A brief look at visual terms used in

American speech illustrates just how much culture affects perception”. As Dundes states,

Americans are conditioned from childhood to believe that “what you see is what you get.” One

of the informants, Chris McCurty, Elizabethtown College, Pennsylvania relates the proverb to

the cultural practices among Americans saying: Seeing is believing (Appendix G). It is the result

of the scientific revolution, and that development of having concrete evidence for something that

they can believe in and reproduce. McCurty elaborates,

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“We use it for things that aren’t so concrete as well. Some may say something

about somebody’s success, whereas the evidence for that might be a bit shaky, but

they’ll point to specific instances where they have succeeded in reaching their

goals, and claim that as the idea of ‘Seeing is believing.’ It’s the idea that you can

trust what it is that is before you.”

Yemenis are also reaching their goals and requirements by trusting their relatives and

friends asking them to ‘see things and get it done’. In fact they see things through others more

than by themselves. They rely on vision but it doesn’t matter if that could happen by friend or

trusted person. The Americans and Yemenis relying more on vision than on other senses doesn’t

mean that they are aware of it. Nor does it mean that it is peculiar to them. People everywhere

rely on their senses to perceive their world and order their experiences, but since my data are

derived from American folk speech, I cannot speak about others. Both cultures are clearly

visual. “Seeing is believing” and “I’m from Missouri”, same like “I’m from Yafi’a” (which

implies “you’ve got to show me”) are indications of the emphasis on seeing something for

oneself of a given event. “I saw it with my own (two) eyes” is a common authenticating formula,

as is the invitation to “see for yourself.”

There are many theories of culture among which language plays an important role in the

formulation of six theories (Duranti 1997: 23-46). They are: 1.culture as distinct from nature; 2.

Culture as knowledge; 3. Culture as communication; 4. Culture as a system of mediation; 5.

Culture as a system of practices; and 6. Culture as a system of participation. The focus here is

placed on culture as communication and culture as a system of practices. The third is semiotic

and views culture as a system of signs, “a representation of the world, a way of making sense of

reality by objectifying it in stories, myths, descriptions, theories, proverbs, artistic products and

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performances … To believe that culture is communication also means that a people’s theory of

the world must be communicated in order to be lived” (Duranti 1997:33). Geertz stresses that

culture is “not an experimental science in search for law but an interpretive one in search of

meaning” (qtd. in Bhuvaneswar, 2003: 1), (Geertz 1973:5). According to the semiotic approach

of Levi-Strauss (1963 a,b), different cultures emerge from different groups of people since their

thinking properties – even though the human mind is anatomically the same everywhere – are

adapted to specific living conditions.

A multitude of studies of proverbs, both paremiographical and paremiological, I have

seen and read, and during my visit to Vermont, met with people and with specialists in proverbs,

Professor Wolfgang Mieder being the foremost. He provided me with a lot of materials relating

to my research, his own library (answering my question about the future of his rich library, he

said that it will be given to University of Vermont, that was during a conversation with him

inside his library) with thousands of international publications on proverbs, many slides and

pictures. I asked him about the many different statues of monkeys shelved in the library, in just a

few seconds he picked up a book which answered my question, and he himself summarized the

issue. The harmony between the library and the “librarian” made the researcher easily access to

the source getting the data required. Everything was ‘wisely’ fitted and organized. His

international proverb archives may become Mecca of international studies.

I can honestly state that my fieldwork in the United States remind me of what Yemen

used to be famous for! For many people, at least for Yemenis, ‘wisdom’ will be the answer. A

research center for paremiography and paremiology has to be established on the land of wisdom,

preferably called the Center for Regained Wisdom. I hope this will take the torch of wisdom to

serve not only Yemen but the rest of the world.

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In George Lakoff and Mark Turner’s theory proverb is treated as a species of metaphor.

A group of experimental psycholinguists, Richard P. Honeck and collaborators, developed the

other, an analogy-based problem-solving model.

Bradbury in “Transforming Experience into Tradition: Two Theories of Proverb Use and

Chaucer’s Practice” Oral Tradition, (2002:261-289) states:

“On the basis of some aspects of Chaucer’s practice, I have attempted to

identify some ways in which the available theories illuminate proverb

practice and some places where practice shows up the limitations of

theory. I began with the metaphor of building a bridge between the work

of ethnographers and that of cognitive scientists. It may be easier to

outline work for others to do than to do it, but a bridge begins with the

recognition that a gap needs to be spanned.”

Bradbury’ hope is shared with by many scholars in this field and other fields to bridge the

gap by having a comprehensive theory of proverb.

Chilukuri Bhuvaneswar whom I met in Hyderabad, India, has encouraged and provided

me with useful materials, relating to my topic. His study entitled "A Bibliographical Review of

English Proverb Literature (1400-2000): Evidence for Karmik Linguistic Theory" which reviews

some of the most important scholarship on English proverbs, also offers significant suggestions

for research scholars. A fruitful discussion with him for many days about proverbs and related

issues made me aware of the important role played by proverbs, for Karmik Linguistic Theory,

Bhuvaneswar as a linguist patiently explained that emphasizing the need of having a theory of

proverbs since there is no guiding theory on how best to put together proverb collections that are

to serve various proverbial genres and purposes.

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As indicated by many scholars, there are extensive collections of proverbs in many

societies. Many studies have relied on textual resources or proverbs drawn from the memory of

elderly members of a given culture – and so does this study especially as far as Yemeni proverbs

are concerned. Many individual authors, poets, politicians or wise people have contributed a

great deal to all nations’ literatures by creating new proverbs, which add to the national heritage

of a given nation. That is to say, a proverb is first uttered by an individual and in time it becomes

part of the traditions. Undoubtedly, Christians quote from the Bible and Muslims quote from the

Quran when they express their religious beliefs. However, investigating the origins of Yemeni or

American proverbs is so extensive a research that the scope of this study cannot cover.

Since time immemorial, Arabs are known to be fond of using similes, metaphors and

rhyming in their arguments to strengthen the rhetoricity of their speech. The Quran uses

figurative language and the word mathal as well, on many different occasions to illustrate

situations to Arabs, to advise or warn them. For example, Surah 18, Al-kahf, verse 32 reads:

“Set forth to them the parable of two men: For one of them We provided two

gardens of grape-vines and surrounded them with date-palms; in between the two

We placed tillage.”

Another example is found in Surah 39 az-Zumar verse 29 which reads:

“Allah puts forth a Parable― a man belonging to many partners at variance with

each other, and a man belonging entirely to one master: are those two equal in

comparison? Praise be to Allah! But most of them have no knowledge.”

And Surah 43, az-Zukhruf verse 57 reads:

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“When (Jesus) the son of Mary is held up as an example, behold, thy people raise

a clamour thereat (in ridicule)!”

In Arab culture, the word mathal is connected with wisdom: hikmah. However, there is a

clear difference between hikma and mathal, as hikma is always connected with facts, wisdom,

and lessons, and this is not always the case with mathal. At the same time, mathal is often related

to a local society or a small community while hikma might concern a universal issue that reveals

lessons to all humans regardless of their customs, location or traditions. The Quran and the

Prophet’s sayings are referred to by Muslims as hikma. Significant individuals like King

Solomon and Luqman the Wise (peace be upon them both) are referred to as wise men. In

Yemeni traditional tales, some characters like Ali ibn Zayed and Al-Humaid ibn Mansoor are

referred to as wise men as well. Al-Maydani’s Majma’a Al Amthal, collection of Proverbs (1992)

contains a number of anonymous sayings from the New Testament, mainly taken from the

Sermon on the Mount.

Goitein (1952:169-179) paid special attention towards “Proverbia Arabica” by I. B.

Yahuda (1932, 1934). For Arabic itself, there are a few collections of proverbs: Study of Meccan

Proverbs by the great Dutch scholar Snouck Hurgronje (1886), and Abdulla Yacoob Khan’s The

Gem Dictionary of Anglo-Arabian Proverbs, Maxims, etc. (1945). Much material may, in

addition, be found in travel books or in linguistic studies on Arabia. The collection of proverbs of

Central Yemen, published by (Goitein) in 1934 under the title of Femenica, comprises 1,432

items, but is only a selection from a much greater stock, complemented and enriched by

subsequent research. Researchers also paid attention and made use of the available studies

towards Yemeni proverbs such as: Almwaqit Alzira’aya fi Aqwaal Ali Ibn Zaid wa Alhumaid Ibn

Mansour wa Akhareen (The Agricultural Timings in the Sayings of Ali Ibn Zayed, Al-Humaid

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Ibn Mansoor and others), by Ala’ansi (2004), Aqual Ali Ibn Zayed: Drasa wa Nusous (Ali Ibn

Zaid’s Sayings: Study and Texts) by Albaradoni (2006), Alfolklour Alyemani: ba’d Alhaqaiq wa

Almolahadaat (The Yemeni Folklore: Some truths and Observations) by Alhamadani (2004),

Qamous Alamthal Alyemania (The Dictionary of Yemeni Proverbs) by Alhamadani (2007),

Hikam wa Amthal Sha’bia min Almanaatiq Alsharqiya (Public Maxims and Proverbs of the

Eastern Districts) by Altuhaifi (2004), Allahjah Alyemaniah fi Alnukat wa Alamthal Alsana’nia

(The Yemeni dialect in the Sananese Jokes and Proverbs) by Zaid (2004), Alamthal AlYemania

wa alaaqatuha bilamthal Alarabia Alqadimah (The Yemeni Proverbs and their relation to the

Old Arabic Proverbs) by Mahboub (2002), Amthal Sana’ania ( Sananese Proverbs) by

Mohammed and Asma’a (2003), Alshaaye’a min Amthal Yafi’a, (The Common Proverbs of

Yafi’a) by Alkhulaqi (2006), Aadaat wa Taqaleed Alzawaj fi Yafi’a (Customs and Traditions of

marriage in Yafi’a) by Alkhulaqi (2006), Althaqafah Alsha’abiah: Tajarib wa Aqaweel Yemenia,

(The Public Culture: Yemeni Experiences and Sayings) by Albaraduni (1988), Majma’a

Alamthal (Book of Collected Proverbs) by Al-Maydani (1992), She’ir Al’amiah fi Alyaman (Folk

Poetry in Yemen) by Almaqaleh (1986), Min Alamthilah Alsha’abiah Alymaniah bi Mantiqat

Yafi’a (From the Publice Yemeni Proverbs of Yafi’a District) by Omar (1992), Alamthal

Alsha’abia fi ‘Adan (The Public Proverbs of Aden) by Alsaqaf (2004).

The best known and most comprehensive of the early Arabic proverb studies is the Kitab

Majma’ al Amthal (Book of Collected Proverbs) of Ahmad B. Muhammad al-Maydani, a

philologist. Al-Maydani, who died October 27, 1124, gathered material collected by his

forerunners and “expanded each section by an appendix on modern proverbs” (Brockelman,

1913c:419). Al-Maydani’s Kitab, still extant in several manuscripts and regarded as a standard

book on Arabic proverbs, appeared in two volumes, and offers material on “ancient Arabic

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household words and proverbs, with very important explanatory notes on poetry” (Brockelman,

1913c:409; Brockelman, 1913b:144-145).

Arabic vernaculars differ from each other, so that proverbs sounding very different in

wording may in reality be exactly identical. Most of the Arab countries invite an investigation of

their origins, particularly if one bears in mind that this common stock is characteristically

different from the proverbs of other civilizations, including the European, with which Arab

civilization shares the Jewish, Christian and the Graeco-Roman, and with which it has been

connected through political and cultural relations for many centuries. One has only to compare

any collection with the Oxford Dictionary of English Proverbs, (1935) Oxford Dictionary of

American Proverbs and (Qamoos Al amthal Alyamania) (2004) (Dictionary of Yemeni

Proverbs) Then only one will be aware of those cultural influences between different nations.

Based on the rich materials available in Arab countries, particularly in Yemen regarding the

currency of proverb as an indicator of the past as well as of the present, further studies will throw

more light on the history of Yemeni Arabic proverb.

Wolfgang Mieder and Deborah Holmes (2004:83) speak of the American proverbs,

indicating that it is generally accepted that proverbs represent the smallest verbal folklore genre,

and this fact might lead some people to the false conclusion that they must also be the simplest

form of folklore but nothing could be further from the truth. Anybody trying to put together a list

of American proverbs will quickly realize that this is a very problematic task indeed. Proverbs

such as “Time flies”, “All is not gold that glitters”, “Big fish eat little fish”, and many others are

very popular in the United States, but they are certainly not American in origin. Each of these

proverbs has a long history and their origins can be traced back to classical antiquity. In fact,

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they were already so well known over two thousand years ago that they were translated into

many national languages from Latin during the Middle Ages.

A similar picture appears with the many Biblical proverbs, which are an integral part of

the proverb tradition in countries where Christianity took hold. Such common proverbs as “there

is a time to weep, and a time to laugh” (Ecclesiastes 3:4), “The love of money is the root of all

evil” (St. Paul [1 Timothy] 6:10), “Pride comes before the fall” (Proverbs of Soloman, 16:18),

“A prophet has no honor in his own country” (St. Matthew 13:57) or “Man does not live by

bread alone” (St. Mathew 4:4) exist in basically identical form in the hundreds of languages into

which the Bible was translated. Not everybody thinks of the Bible when using this proverb and

only a small number of people will be able to give its precise Biblical source. Margaret Hardie

published a list of “Proverbs and Proverbial Expressions Current in the United States East of the

Missouri and North of the Ohio Rivers” in 1929 which she had checked for actual currency with

at least three persons of that area. Such proverbs as “Don’t kick a fellow when he’s down”, “It

pays to advertise” and, “Paddle your own canoe” seem to be expressions of typical aspects of

American culture.

America’s two greatest paremiographers, Archer Taylor (1890-1973) and Bartlett Jere

Whiting (born 1904), have gone far beyond Richard Jente’s pioneering essay, “The Untilled

Field of Proverbs” (1945), in investigating the stock of proverbs in use in America. Together

they published A Dictionary of American Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases, 1820-1880 in

(1958), and Whiting subsequently issued his monumental collection Early American Proverbs

and Proverbial Phrases in (1977). With these two lexicons a solid scholarly foundation of which

proverbs have been used in American since its earliest colonial times until 1880 has been

obtained. Besides, the work on a massive Dictionary of American Proverbs based on a large

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collection project by the American Dialect Society during the forties and fifties is also nearing

completion, can help to give even more insight into proverbs indigenous to the modern United

States.

The interest in regional proverbs has an impressive history in the United States. Three

valuable early collections are, for example,  Miss Margaret Hardie(1929) Proverbs and

Proverbial Expressions Current in the United States East of the Missouri and North of the Ohio

Rivers, Emma Louise Snapp’s (1933) Proverbial Lore in Nebraska and Francis W. Bradley’s

(1937) South Carolina Proverbs. They were clearly inspired by the superb paramiological

research which particularly Taylor (1890-1973) was doing at this time. His seminal book The

Proverb written in (1931) has to this day remained the world’s most important study on proverbs

and generations of students and scholars have been guided by its wisdom.

Margaret Bryant with the help of many field workers and state chairpersons amassed the

incredible number of more than 250,000 proverbial phrases during about thirty years of

collecting. A number of collections were published in the meantime, of which the following are

of particular value: John Adams (1947/48), Atkinson Mary J. (1954),  Frances M. Barbour

(1963), Mac E. Barick (1963), Bill Cole (1960), Robert Edward Gard and L. G. Sorden (1962),

L.Hughest (1960),  Margaret M. Kimmerle (1947), K. Koch (1961), Helen.Pearce (1946),

Vance.Randolph and George. P. Wilson (1953), Harold W. Thompson (1949), and Bartlett Jere

Whiting (1952). Margaret Bryant (1945) had given her co-workers excellent guidance for their

field work by providing them with her invaluable (still today!) monograph Proverbs and How to

Collect Them.

The Oxford Dictionary of American Proverbs (1996) includes approximately 30,000

proverbs with their many variants based on the field research of the American Dialect Society

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described above. Katarine Luomala (1985) published “A Bibliographic Survey of Collections of

Hawaiian Sayings” which brings to light the rich heritage of native Hawaiian proverbial wisdom.

In the California collection “A dollar saved is a dollar made” which is clearly a variation of the

British original “A penny saved is a penny earned.” Yet it is a variant which is most likely

current throughout the United States. The next worthy collection of Indian proverbs appeared

only in 1932, and it contained the grand total of six proverbial expressions! Nevertheless, Robert

Lowie’s paper “Proverbial Expressions among the Crow Indians” published in American

Anthropologist is a clear indication that proverbial materials can be found when an honest

attempt is made.

The white settlers did not just try to superimpose their proverbial and biblical wisdom on

the native Indians; they also created their own stereotypical expressions about the Indians which

are anything but flattering. An unfortunate proverb which is still heard today is the ugly “The

only good Indian is a dead Indian” which stems from the western frontier of America. It should

be no surprise to realize that the Afro-American population of America has a very rich tradition

of proverbs going back at least in part of the African roots of this important minority group.

A number of very useful early collections of Afro-Americans proverbs exist which could form

the basis for thematic and ethnographic studies. Joel Chandler Harris (1848-1908) included a

section of “Plantation Proverbs” in his classic book Uncle Remus: His Songs and Sayings (1881).

Many of these proverbs reflect the early slave existence of the Afro-Americans. A few examples

from Uncle Remus would be “Mole don’t see w’at his naber doin’”, “Jay-bird don’t rob his own

nes’”, etc. In Uncle Gabe Tucker we find such wisdom as “Sharp ax better’n big muscle”, “De

fox wants to know how de rabbit’s gittin’ on”, etc.

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In the year 1926 Thomas H. Russell brought together The Sayings of Poor Richard: Wit,

Wisdom and Humor of Benjamin Franklin in the Prefaces, Proverbs and Maxims of Poor

Richard’s Almanacke for 1733 to 1758. Franklin published an instructive and entertaining

almanac for twenty-five years from 1733 to 1758. Next to the Bible, the almanacs might well

have been the most frequent reading material in the colonies. To this day people use such

introductory formulas as “Benjamin Franklin said” or even more frequently “as Poor Richard

says,” a formula which Franklin himself had used so often in the almanacs. There can be no

doubt that Franklin played a major role in keeping traditional proverbs alive among his

compatriots. They read them daily in his almanacs, they heard them at church, and above all they

used them at home in the family and in all encounters of public life. Franklin’s “The Way to

Wealth,” a short piece of Puritan ethics based on proverbs, has been reprinted enumerable times

and it has been translated into the major languages of the world.

“Life is just a bowl of cherries” and the extremely well-known Bailey (born 1918) song

“Takes two to tango” from 1952 originated two of American proverbs which have become very

popular indeed. The former received a marvelous boost when Erma Bombeck (1927-1996) came

out with her best-selling book If Life is a Bowl of Cherries, What Am I Doing in the Pits?

published in (1978). The latter gained international prominence when Reagan on November 11,

1982, commented about future Soviet American relations after the death of Leonid Brezhnev by

citing the proverb “It takes two to tango” (Mieder and Bryan, 1997). Societal and personal

problems also result in the use of proverbs in such songs like “Easy Come, Easy Go” (1967)

sung by Elvis Presley (1935-1977), “Money” (1973) by the group Pink Floyd and “Homeward

Through the Haze” (1975) by David Crosby (born 1941) and Graham Nash (born 1942).

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2.2 Methods and Materials

This study highlights a variety of issues: the present status of Yemeni and American

proverbs, and the possibility of translating such cultural expressions, bringing the similarities and

differences to understand more about the cultural messages carried out through proverbs from

both cultures. Data coming from the Yemeni informants seem raw and untouched and has not

been previously studied or analyzed from a cultural perspective. This makes the task challenging,

since a semantic translation of the Yemeni proverbs into English would forfeit the cultural

connotations of the proverbs by changing the images presented these proverbs – hence, the

window into Yemeni culture would thus allow only half of the view. Therefore, the proverbs are

more likely to be literally translated: matching equivalents from the other culture in a similar

situation thus remains on the side of readers from both cultures. As an assisting procedure,

Yemeni and American proverbs have been classified under different categories to reflect the

ways people think and interact towards many aspects of life. An accurate and complete transfer

of knowledge from the source language into the target one still remains uncertain due to the

cultural-specific features that govern the languages by the ways and thoughts reflecting the

human beings towards their environment.

Presenting some of the Yemeni folklore to the world does not mean that we have to show

that what we believe is the best and leave what we think is ‘bad’: that is not the purpose of this

research. The aim here is to bring in translation as nearly as possible the word that the researcher

heard from the mouth of the horse, oral tradition by its informants. And to make it accessible to

the experts from other cultures for mutual benefit and evaluation – for, it is high time we worked

in that direction to find the treasure for the peoples’ benefit.

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This study consists of three major sections, each of which has a specific aim and

methodology. The first presents Arabic Yemeni proverbs in their natural contexts in daily

conversations with explanations of their meaning and circumstances in which they are used. The

ethnography of speaking is the approach that has been followed and comments of the informants

were intensively used in the analysis. This section is based on extensive fieldwork in some parts

of Yemen – i.e. Aden, Sana’a and Al-Dhala. The researcher attempted to record large numbers of

proverbs used by people in their conversations. They understand the meaning of each proverb

they use, and know to whom they quote it and why. The researcher as a member of the society

started recording some of the data collected at an earlier stage of life – i.e. during school years.

The researcher often used proverbs for educational purposes while teaching in secondary school

classes in Yemen to motivate the students and to draw their attention to comparisons between the

two cultures, Yemeni and American, and to the past and present states of both cultures.

Other stages of fieldwork in Yemen took place during the writing of the research, where

the researcher a considerable number of proverbs on many different occasions including

weddings and memorial gatherings. Some more Yemeni proverbs were gleaned during direct

interviews with people who are known for their knowledge of proverbs and national heritages.

The corpus of the proverbs collected was also discussed with proverb experts regarding the

meaning and use of a large number of proverbs. Most of these interviews were tape-recorded.

The researcher was unable to understand some of the proverbs that they are in use, so expert

informants have been asked about the roles of these proverbs, their usage and their meaning. The

data was either tape-recorded during interviews or recorded in a written form by the researcher

while interacting with informants. As it was very difficult if not impossible for the researcher to

hear all proverbs used in daily conversations in American culture, direct questionnaires were

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administered to find out people’s opinions about proverbs and their attitudes towards them. Some

proverbs were also elicited from the informants in an attempt to find equivalent or related

Yemeni proverbs, either by means of face-to-face interviews or by using questionnaires filled in

their own time. Because the informants varied in age and knowledge, they had different views of

proverbs as reflections of people’s values. Some young informants, among them university

students, consider proverbs as old-fashioned ‘ready-made’ expressions that old people

sometimes use to justify or encourage a given behavior. In addition, one of the informants, a

doctor of philosophy, thought that people who use proverbs are playing the role of authority –

similar to the nature of using proverbs in Yemenis – so as to become effective in driving home a

point. Proverbs appear to play a much more vital role in Yemeni society in all aspects of daily

life than in the American society. They are one way of expressing people’s opinion in an indirect

way. People use proverbs when they want to express their views on a certain situation, for

example, when a person wants to give his/her opinion regarding a certain occurrence.

As the spontaneous nature of proverbs’ circulation makes it difficult to tape-record them

like other traditions, for example poetry or traditional stories, the interviews in the tape-recorded

data were based on discussing the use and the meaning of proverbs collected by the researcher

from other informants and experts.

As Ruth Finnegan, (1972: 425) notes, “Proverbs are used on particular occasions, by

individuals in particular contexts and their wit, their attractiveness, their insights, even their

meaning must be seen as arising from the context”. This principle has been incorporated in the

fieldwork method. Ethnographic techniques suggested by Dell Hymes (1962) have been

employed and literary criticism is utilized to draw out the significance of proverbs from their

natural contexts. As people of Yemen, specifically in countryside, are known for their tendency

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to use proverbs in daily conversations, it is impossible to minimize the number of situations in

which they quote proverbs. Therefore, this study does not in any way attempt to deal with every

proverb ever quoted by the Arabic speakers in Yemen. The situations that are mentioned in this

study are just examples to help readers to understand how people in this society use their

proverbs (for a more detailed list of proverbs, see Appendix I).

Local media encourages peoples’ positive attitude towards their heritage, broadcasting

some of the most successful radio programs in which the statement “Qulw li Mis’adah” (Tell

Mis’adah), in a form of song getting its way to the Yemeni cultural repertoire of proverbs. From

the Yemeni legends and proverbs about Yemeni folklore, the research derives from part IX of the

Iklil (The Crown), a historical and cultural encyclopedia and reference book written by the

renowned Yemeni scholar and speaker Abu Muhammad al-Hasan bin Ahmed Al-Hamdani

(893?- 945), who prepared a reference to Himyarite civilization and its proverbs and sayings

which can be relied upon in judging on the origins of proverbs, their history and development.

Yemeni libraries are not rich enough to make use of, especially regarding Yemeni folklore,

proverbs in particular. The real libraries for this dissertation were made of the real people as

informants, who provided the researcher with a huge bulk of data related to the study, although

in many different situations, the researcher’s intentions were viewed with suspicion as a criticism

of social values, specifically while discussing the social attitudes towards women as expressed in

Yemeni proverbs.

The scarcity of the systematic theoretical work of Yemeni proverbs is one of the

obstacles that faced the researcher and the non-availability of any work in English made the

researcher again collect study, analyze, translate into English many Arabic texts and then

compare them with their American counterpart. Al-Hamadani (2004) maintained that the first

41

product of these Yemeni proverbs in English came to Yemeni researchers in the form of a

booklet by Abdullah Ya’aqub Khan under the title A Dictionary of Adeni Proverbs in 1948. After

that, this color of the literature stopped until the late sixties where readers and scholars depended

on two books: the first is written by Ismail al-Akw’a under the title Yemeni Proverbs, in 1967,

and the second by Anatoly Ogarchev under the title The norms of Ali Bin Zayed, in 1968.

However, the seventies, eighties, and nineties witnessed the emergence of a reliable source of

literature with regard to the criticism and collection of Yemeni proverbs, Qamos Alamthal

Alyamania (The Dictionary of Yemeni Proverbs) by Alhamadani (2007).

To fully understand Yemeni proverbs it is necessary to find out directly from the people

how they use their proverbs. To achieve this objective, the researcher obtained the views of some

Yemenis who are known in the area for their understanding of this aspect of Yemeni culture –

carried out by way of holding interviews with some of them. The interviews in this section were

tape-recorded in Arabic, later transcribed and analyzed. The following list shows the questions

used in direct interviews with some Yemeni informants.

List 1:

1. What do you think a proverb is?

2. In your opinion how did proverbs originate?

3. Do proverbs reflect social values?

4. Are educated people still using proverbs?

5. Do proverbs have any utility in the present-day society?

6. When and why do people use proverbs instead of direct sentences?

7. How do you respond if a person quotes a proverb to you, especially if he criticizes you?

42

To make the interviews more effective and allow for the informants to express their views

informally, these questions were not necessarily presented in the same order or same words. For

example, excerpts from the interview with Ali Abdulkareem (more interviews are included in the

appendices), who is a popular figure for his interest in Yemeni culture, are as follows:

Researcher: Do you think that proverbs have an important role in Yemeni culture? Please,

elaborate this issue according to your experience and academic life.

Abdulkareem: Proverbs in Yemen are part of the cultural heritage of the Yemeni people in

particular and the Arab people in general. The Yemenis have accustomed to proverbs to express,

criticize, and advise as a result of what they experience in their reality through proverbs as short

wisdoms of deep meaning. They consider proverbs as effective, brief messages.

-- Yemeni proverbs are much related to the local environment in rural and urban areas and they

are a summary of the wisdom of Yemeni generations in different historical stages passed over to

them, and are used widely.

-- Yemeni proverbs are still in use and are cited in all aspects of life. They are still quoted by the

intellectuals; they reflect the Yemeni social and cultural reality.

-- Proverbs are characterized by having the ability to criticize various negative aspects and guide

people to the best. They are an effective mechanism in the reality of the society dealing with

educated and non-educated people alike.

-- Proverbs are used by the general public when they face a situation, or to criticize a negative

phenomenon and also to express their attitude toward a phenomenon which they do not accept,

or to glorify a positive attitude.

43

-- Many of proverbs are accepted by people, but those that have the nature of criticism are not

accepted by people although they use them in their daily life, even though a part of the proverb

may not be accepted only because of the person who cites it.

-- Proverbs are used most often, as I hear people citing them frequently, by different people from

different classes of the Yemeni society.

-- Proverbs should be directed positively towards addressing many of the imbalances and

negative attitudes in the society, notably towards young people. Proverbs are interesting,

enjoyable, and should be of good use in society.

-- Proverbs have an effect on the listener and can change behavior.

Commenting on whether proverbs reflect the culture and the behavior of the Yemeni

people and how proverbs give suggestions and solve problems, Ali Abdulkareem said: “yes, they

do reflect the Yemeni culture and behavior; they are positively used for in most cases. Proverbs

are a kind of critical, educational and behavioral dialogue. Using metaphors and similes in

Arabic proverbs, for example, shows different characteristics of Arab culture even preceding

Islam, such as an Arab’s pride in his loyalty to his tribe and descriptions of his people in terms of

bravery, generosity and honor.

He added:

-- To know the culture of any nation, we have to study its proverbs since proverbs contain

inherent characteristics that reflect people’s lives and environmental surroundings. Let us

examine these proverbs: Al rafeeq qable altareeq ‘(If you set on a journey) think of the

companion before the path’. A piece of advice normally given by the elders to the young people,

this proverb indicates that having a company while traveling is highly recommended to avoid

unexpexcted risks of the journey and to enjoy the travel. This proverb is a part of the daily

44

experience. Again, Yadd wah’da ma tisafiq ‘One hand will not clap’ (you cannot clap using

only one hand): a proverb stressing the importance of cooperation.

The second section of this study is based on extensive fieldwork done by the researcher

in the United States and in India. Data were collected from different kinds of textual sources and

elicited from various groups of American citizens both in the U.S. and in India. The researcher

designed a questionnaire to draw comments from native informants about the currency, meaning

and use of proverbs. Informants were American citizens in Rockford and Memphis basically and

also included people from many different towns in the United States. Most of the informants

were visitors to the malls, Rockford Library readers or people in public places like markets and

universities. The researcher also visited churches in Boston where informants talked about

Biblical proverbs as well as traditional proverbs. While most of the collected data were scribbled

by hand, only one interview was tape-record, but there was a larger response to the

questionnaires. Comments from some students from Harvard University, Tennessee University

and Rock Valley College were taken into account as well. Particularly in the discussions that

took place in the Parking of South Main, a great deal of data was collected especially about the

currency of proverbs in the United States, their meaning and use. List 2 shows the questions used

in direct interviews with informants in the United States.

List 2:

1. What do you think a proverb is?

2. In your opinion how did proverbs originate?

3. Do proverbs reflect social values?

4. Are educated people still using proverbs?

5. Do proverbs have any utility in the present-day society?

45

6. When and why do people use proverbs instead of direct sentences?

7. How do you respond if a person quotes a proverb to you, especially if he criticizes you?

Further data was collected through questionnaires. Questions were constructed to find out

about the extent of use of proverbs in America and to draw out similarities and differences

between American and Yemeni proverbs. The proverbs were then classified and many different

examples and situations were analyzed. As the proverbs represent almost all aspects of human

life, it would be difficult if not impossible to limit them to specific subject matters. However, for

the purpose of this work, it was obviously necessary to deal with proverbs that represent people’s

culture and values as much as possible. The analysis of this corpus met the aims of the research.

Respondents in the United States fieldwork were adult members and belonged to the culture of

the areas. The informants have been divided into two age groups: 18-40, and above 40 years old.

All informants were American English speakers.

2.3 Conclusion

This chapter encompasses two parts: Literature Review and Methodology employed. The

first part has discussed the most important relevant studies in the literature devoted to the study

of proverbs. Two contributions have been made here. The first is the researcher’s attempt to

indicate the stages through which Arabic Yemeni proverbs have been scholarly collected and

how Yemenis view their proverbs. Secondly, by studying how proverbs are viewed by both

cultures central to this study, viz. American English and Yemeni Arabic, it has been noticed that

different and diverse views are held about and of proverbs even within the same class of people

within the same society: those of young age held different views than those held by older people.

46

The second part presented the methodology employed. It consists of questionnaires and

interviews. Some of the interviews are presented in the appendices. Besides, the researcher has

made use of the critical comparative method throughout the whole study. Tape-recording is also

made use of wherever possible. In fact, tape-recording was emphasized when the researcher

aimed to know more form the interviewers and probe deeply in cultural relationships and the

ideologies expressed or can be expressed through proverbs. Tape-recording has been meant for

eliciting information that could not be collected by means of the questionnaires.

47

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