Chapter I

1

CHAPTER

I Social Dimensions of Education Introduction

Sociologists see education as one of the major institutions that

constitutes society. While theories guide research and policy formulation

in the sociology of education, they also provide logical explanations tor

why things happen the way they do. These theories help sociologists

understand educational systems.

This chapter presents an introduction to the social science theories

of education-consensus and conflict, structural functionalist and

interaction theories as related to education.

Consensus and Conflict Theory In order for us to understand why sociological theories could be

classified into 'consensus' and 'conflict' perspectives let us examine the

definitions of consensus .and conflict.

Dahrendorf (1959, 1968) as cited by Ritzer(2000) is the major

exponent of the position that society has two faces (conflict and con-

sensus) and that sociological theory therefore should be divided into two

parts, conflict theory and consensus theory.

Consensus is a

general or

widespread

agreement

among all

members of a

particular

society.

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

Consensus theories see shared norms and values as fundamental to

society, focus on social order based on tacit agreements, and view social

change as occurring in a slow and orderly fashion. In contrast, conflict

theories emphasize the dominance of some social groups by others, see

social order as based on manipulation and control by dominant groups,

and view social change as occurring rapidly and in a disorderly fashion as

subordinate groups overthrow dominant groups (Ritzer, 2000).

Consensus theorists examine value integration in society, and

conflict theorists examine conflicts of interest anj the coercion that holds

society together in the face of these stresses. Dahrendorf recognizes that

society can not exis* without both conflict and consensus, which are

prerequisites for each other. Thus, we cannot have conflict unless there is

some prior consensus.

Consensus is a concept of society ;n which the absence of conflict if

seen as the equilibrium state of society based on a general or widespread

agreement among all members of a particular society. Conflict is a

disagreement or clash between opposing ideas, principles, or people - this

can be a covert or overt conflict.

The conf.ict theory, according to Horton and Hunt (1984) focuses on

the heterogeneous nature of society and the differential distribution of

political and social power. A struggle between social classes and class

conflicts between the powerful and less powerful groups occur. Groups

which have vested interest and power work for rules and laws,

particularly those that serve their own interests, to be passed to the

exclusion of others.

Conflict theorists ask how schools contribute to the unequal distri-

bution of people into jobs in society so that more powerful members of

society maintain the best positions and the less powerful groups (often

women, racial and ethnic groups) often minority groups, are allocated to

lower ranks in society. The larger issue for conflict theorists is the role

that education plays in maintaining the prestige, power, and economic and

social position of the dominant group in society (Ballantine and Spade,

2004).

The conflict perspective assumes that social behavior is best

understood in terms of conflict or tensions between competing groups.

Such conflict need not be violent; it can take the form of labor

negotiations, party politics, competition between religious groups for

members, or disputes over the budget.

Conflict theory grew out of the work of Karl Marx and focuses on

the struggle of social classes to maintain dominance and power in social

systems. It is a theory or collection of theories which places emphasis on

conflict in human society (Jary and Jary, 2000:105).

Conflict is a

clash

between

ideas, principles

and people.

Conflict theory focuses on the

struggle of

social classes

to maintain

dominance

and power in

social

systems.

Consensus

theory emphasizes on

social order,

stability and

social regula-

tion.

CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL

DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

Social structures produce

patterns of

inequality in the distribution of

scarce resources

Figure 1. The Conflict Model (Source: Sociology and Anthropology, Javier et a/., 2002)

The discourse of conflict theory is on the emergence of conflict and

what causes conflict within ? particular human society. Or we can say that

conflict theory deals with the incompatible aspects of society. Conflict

theory emerged out of the sociology of conflict, crisis and social change.

The conflict theorists are interested in how society's institutions - the

family, government, religion, education, and the media - may help to

maintain the privileges of some groups and keep others in a Subservient

position. Their emphasis on social change and redistribution of resources

makes conflict theorists more "radical" and "activist" than furctfonplicts

(Schaefer, 2003).

Consensus theory, on the other hand, is a sociological perspective or

collection of theories, in which social order and stability/social regulation

form the base of emphasis. In other words, consensus theory is concerned

with the maintenance or continuation of social order in society, in relation

to accepted norms, values, rules and regulations as widely accepted or

collectively by the society-or within a particular society itself. It emerged

out of the sociology of social order and social stability/social regulation.

The consensus and conflict sociological theories are reflected in ihe

works of certain dominant social theorists such as Karl Marx, Emile

Durkheim, and Max Weber and other prominent social theorists such as

Talcott Parsons & Robert Merton, Louis Althusser & Ralph Dahrendorf

and Herbert Mead & Herbert Blumer.

The conflict model is

concerned with the

stresses and conflicts

that emerge in society

because of

competition over

scarce resources. It

focuses on the in-

equalities that are built

into social structures

rather than on those

that emerge because

of personal

characteristics.

Conflict

Reorganisation and Change

Conflict

theorists

emphasize

social change

and

redistribution of

resources.


tendency to the "optimization of gratification" and whose relation to their

situations, including each other, is defined and mediated in terms of a

system of culturally structured and shared symbols.

In his analysis of the social system, Parsons was primarily interested

in its structural components. In addition to a concern with the status-role,

he was interested in such large-scale components of social systems as

collectivities, norms, and values. Parsons was not simply a structuralist

but also a functionalist.

Functional Requisites of a Social System

1. Social system must be structured so that they operate compatibly with other systems.

2. To survive, the social system must have the requisite from other systems.

3. The system mus* meet a sighiricant proportion of the needs of its actors.

4. The system must elicit adequate participation from its members.

5. It must have at least a minimum of coiitrol over potentially disruptive behavior.

6. If conflict becomes sufficiently disruptive, it must be controlled.

J. Finally, a social system requires a language in order to survVe.

- Talcott Parsons

The functionalist perspective is primarily concerned with why a

society assumes a particular form. This perspective assumes that any

society takes its particular form because that form works well for the

society given its particular situation. Societies exist under a wide range of

environmental situations. Some societies have highly advanced tech-

nologies and they also differ in terms of their interactions with other

societies. Thus, what works for one society cannot be expected to work

for another.

In any society, however, the functionalist perspective makes one

basic argument. Whatever are the characteristics of a society, those

characteristics developed because they met the needs of that society in its

particular situation. The key principles of the functionalist perspective

(Farley, 1990) include the following:

1. Interdependency. One of the most important principles of

functionalist theory is that society is made up of interdependent

parts. This means that every part of society is dependent to some

extent on other parts of society, so that what happens at one place

in society has important effects elsewhere. For example, the class

requires a faculty member to teach a subject and the students to

learn it. Someone has to provide electricity to light the room, and

in order for that electricity to be provided, someone had to build a

dam or provide fuel to the power plant.

Key

principles of

the function-

alist theory

• interdepe

ndency

• functions

of social

structure

and culture • consensus

and

cooperation

• equilibrium


2. Functions of Social Structure and Culture. Closely related to

interdependency is the idea that each part of the social system exists

because it serves some function. This principle is applied by

functionalists to both social structure and culture. Social structure

refers to the organization of society, including its institutions, its

social positions, and its distribution of resources. Culture refers to a

set of beliefs, language, rules, values, and knowledge held in common

by members of a society.

5. Consensus and cooperation. Another key principle in

functionalist theory is that societies have a tendency

toward consensus; that is to have certain basic values

that nearly everyone in the society agrees upon. For

example, we all believe in the principles of democracy

and freedom. Societies tend toward consensus in order

to achieve cooperation. Functionalists believe that

inability to cooperate w'll paralyze the society, and

people will devote more and more effort to fighting

one another rather than getting anything done.

4. Equilibrium, A final principle of functionalist theories

is that of equilibrium. This view holds that, once a

society has achieved the form that is best adapted to its situation, it

has reached a state of balance or equilibrium, and !t will remain in

that condition until it is forced to change by some new condition.

New technology, a change in climate, or contact with an outside

society are all conditions to which a society might have to adapt.

When such conditions occur, social change will take place: society

will changc just enough to adapt to the new situation. However, once

that adaptation has been made, the society has attained a new state of

balance or equilibrium with its environment, and it will not change

again until some new situation requires further adaptation.

Equilibriu

m

characteris

tic of a

society

when it has

achieved

the form

that is best

adapted its

situation

Figure 3. The Structural-Functional Model (Source: Sociological Theory, George Ritzer,

2000)

Social structures provide preset

patterns which evolve to meet human

^iPj needs

Stability, order, and harmony

.Maintenance of society


The works of Marx in his early years was interpreted by some social

theorists as emphasizing the role of human beings in social conflict. They

explained change as emerging from the crisis between human beings and

their society. They argued that Marx's theory was a theory characterized

by class conflicts or the conflict between the bourgeoisie (rich owners)

and the proletariat (poor workers).

Max Weber argues that schools teach and maintain particular "status

cultures," that is, groups in society with similar interests and positions in

the status hierarchy. Located in neighborhoods, schools are often rather

homogeneous in their student bodies and teach to that constituency, thus

perpetuating that status culture. Weber outlines types of education found

in societies at different time periods, dist'nguishing between inborn

"charisma" and training in school, and the modern, rational method of

education. Education systems may train individuals in specialties to fill

needed positions or prepare "cultivated individuals," those who stand

above others because of their superior knowledge and reasoning abilities.

Individuals who had access to this type of education in eariv China were

from the educated elite, thus perpetuating their family status culture

(Sadovnik et al, 1994).

Structural Functionalism Structural functionalism, especially in the work of Talcott Parsons,

Robert Merton, and their students and followers, was for many years the

dominant sociological theory. However, in the last three decades it has

declined dramatically in importance (Chriss, 1995) and, in at least some

senses, has receded into the recent history of sociological theory.

Parsons' structural functionalism has four functional imperatives for

all "action" systems, embodied in his famous AGIL scheme. These

functional imperatives that are necessary for all systems are:

1. Adaptation: A system must cope with external situational

exigencies. It must adapt to its environment and adapt environment to its

needs.

2. Goal attainment: A system must define and achieve its primary

goals.

3. Integration-. A system must regulate the interrelationship of its

component parts. It must also manage the relationship among the other

three functional imperatives (A,G,L).

4. Latency (pattern maintenance): A system must furnish, maintain,

and renew both the motivation of individuals and the cultural patterns that

create and sustain the motivation.

Parsons designed the AGIL scheme to be used at all levels in this

theoretical system. The behavioral organism is the action system that

handles the adaptation function by adjusting to and transforming the

external world. The personality system performs the goal-attainment

function by defining system goals and mobilizing resources to attain

Status

cultures refer to

groups in

society with

similar

interests and

positions in

the status

hierarchy.

Structural

functionalism states that

society is made

up of various

institutions that

work together

in cooperation.


them. The social system copes with the integration function by controlling

its component parts. Finally, the cultural system performs the latency

function by providing actors with the norms and values that motivate

them for action (Ritzer, 2000). Parson's four action systems are shown in

Figure 2. Cultural System Social System

. Action System Personality

System


Figure 2: Structure of the General Action System

(Source: Sociological Theory, George Ritzer, 2000).

The heart of Parsons' work is found in his four action systems. In the

assumptions that Parson made regarding his action systems we encounter

the problem of order which was his overwhelming concern and that has

become a major source of criticism of his work. Parsons found his answer

to the problem of order in structural functionalism, which operates in his

view with the following sets of assumptions:

1. Systems have the property of order and interdependence of parts.

2. Systems tend toward self-maintaining order, or equilibrium.

3. The system may be static or involved in an ordered process of

change.

4. The nature of one part of the system has an impact on the form

that the other parts can take.

5. Systems maintain boundaries with their environments.

6. Allocation and integration are two fundamental processes

necessary for a given state of equilibrium of a system.

7. Systems tend toward self-maintenance involving the mainte-

nance of the relationships of parts to the whole, control of environmental

variations, and control of tendencies to change the system from within.

These assumptions led Parsons to make the analysis of the ordered

structure of society his first priority.

Parsons' conception of the social system begins at the micro level

with interaction between ego and alter ego, defined as the most elementary

form of the social system. He described a social system as something

which consists of a plurality of individual actors interacting with each

other in a situation which has at least a physical or environmental aspect,

actors who are motivated in terms of a

Social system

begins at the

micro level

with

interaction

between the

ego and alter

ego, defined as

the most

elementary

form of the

social system.


The structural functional model addresses the question of social

organization and how it is maintained. This theoretical perspective is the

legacy of Durkheim and Spencer. It has its roots in natural science and the

analogy between a society and an organization. In the analysis of living

organism, the scientist's task is to identify the various parts (structures)

and determine how they work (function). In the study of society, a

sociologist with this perspective tries to identify the structures of society

and how they function; hence the name structural functio-nalism (Javier et

al., 2002).

The component parts of a social structure are

families, neighbors, associations, schools, churches,

banks, countries, and the like. Functionalists maintain

that social structures exist in society for the functions

they have to carry out (Panopio et al., 1994).

Functionalist sociologists begin with a picture of

society that stresses tne interdependence of the social

system; these researchers often examine how well parts

are integrated with each other. Functionalists view

society as a kind of machine, where one part articulates

with another to produce the dynamic energy required to

make society work. Most important, functionalism

stresses the processes that maintain social order by

stressing consensus and agreement. Although function

alists understand that change is inevitable, they

underscore the evolutionary nature of change. Further,

although they acknowledge that conflict between group

exists, functionalists argue that without a common bond

to unite groups, society will disintegrate. 1 hus function-

alists examine the social processes necessary to the

establishment and maintenance of social order

(Ballantine and Spade, 2004).

Structural functionalism puts emphasis on social

order and social stability not on conflict. It claims that

society is made up of different institutions or

organizations that work together in cooperation - to

achieve their orderly relationship and to maintain social

order and social stability. This maintenance of society is

extracted from the internal rules, norms, values and

regulations of these various ordered institutions.

Modern functionalist theories of education have

their origin in the work of Talcott Parsons. As cited by

Ballantine and Spade (2004), Parsons believes that

education is a vital part of a modern society, a society

that differs considerably from all previous societies.

From this perspective, schooling performs an important

function in the development and maintenance of a

The component

parts of a social

structure

• families

•i neighbors

• associations

• schools

• churches

• banks

• countries

Schooling per-

forms an

important

function in the

development

and

maintenance of

modern, democratic

society,

especially with

regard to equality

of opportunity for

all citizens. Thus,

in modern societ-

ies, education

becomes the key

institution in a

meritocratic

selection process.

- Ballantine &

Spade, 20C4


modern, democratic society, especially with regard to equality of

opportunity for all citizens. Thus, in modern societies education becomes

the key institution in a meritocratic selection process.

In addition to its role in a meritocratic society, education plays a

significant function in the maintenance of the modern democratic and

technocratic society. In a political democracy, schools provide citizens

with the knowledge and dispositions to participate actively in civic life

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION Q

In ever increasingly technical society, schools provide students with the

skills and dispositions to work in such a society. Although schools teach

specific work skills, they also teach students how to learn so they may

adapt to new work roles and requirements (http://allfreeesays.

com/student/ConsensusConflict/Perspectives/html).

Interactionist Theories

In general, interactionist theories about the relation of school and

society are critiques and extensions of the functionalist and conflict

perspectives. The critique arises from the observation that functionalist

and conflict theories are very abstract and emphasize structure and

process at a societal (macro-sociological) level of analysis. While this

level of analysis helps us to understand education in the "big picture",

macro-sociological theories hardly provide us with an ir.terpretable snap-

shot of what schools are like on an everyday level. What do students and

teachers actually do in school?

Interactionist theories attempt to make the "commonplace strange"

by turning on their heads everyday taken-for-granted behaviors and

interactions between students and students and between students and

teachers. It is exactly what most people do not question that is most

problematic to the inieractionist. For example, the processes by which

students arc labeled "gifted" or "learning disabled" are, from an

interactionist point of view, important to analyze because such processes

carry with them many implicit assumptions about learning and children

(Ballantine and Spade, 2004).

• Symbolic Interactionism

Interactionist theory has its origin in the social psychology of

early twentieth century sociologists George Herbert Mead and

Charles Horton Cooiey. Mead and Cooley examined the ways in

which the individual is related to society through ongoing social

interactions. This school of thought, known as symbolic

interactionism, views the self as socially constructed in relation to

social forces and structures and the product of ongoing negotiations

of meanings. Thus, the social self is an active product of human

agency rather than a deterministic product of social structure.

The basic idea is a result of interaction between individuals

mediated by symbols" in particular, language. The distinctive

attributes of human behavior grow from people's participation in

varying types of social structure which depend in turn, on the

existence of language behavior (http://itsa.ucsf. edu/~eliotf?W.iy I

am alsoaSymbolic.html).

Symbolic interactionists are, of course, interested not simply in

socialization but also in interaction in general, which is of "vital

importance in its own right." Interaction is the process in

Symbolic

interactionism views the self as

socially

constructed in

relation to

social forces

and social

structures.

http://allfreeesays/

http://itsa.ucsf/


which the ability to think is both developed and expressed. All

types of interaction, not just interaction during socialization, refine

our ability to think. Beyond that, thinking shapes the interaction

process. In most interaction, actors must take others into consid-

eration and decide if and how to fit their activities to others. How-

ever, not all interaction involves thinking.

PRINCIPLES OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONS

Human beings unlike lower animals, are endowed w:th a capacity for thought. The

capacity for thought is shaped by social interaction. In social interaction, people learn the

meanings and the symbols that allow them to exercise their distinctively human canity for

thought. Meanings and symbols allow people to carry on distinctively human action and

interaction.

People are able to modify or alter meanings and symbols that they use in action and

interaction on the basis of their interpretation of the situation. People are able to make

these modifications and alterations because, in part, of their ability to interact witn

themselves, which allows them to examine possible courses of action, assess their

relative advantages and disadvantages, and then choose one.

The intertwined patterns of action and interaction make up groups and societies.

• Non-Symbolic Interactionism

The differentiation made by Blumer (following Mead) between two

basic forms of social interaction is relevant here. The first, nonsymbolic

interaction - Mead's conversation of gestures - does not involve thinking.

The second symbolic interaction does require mental processes (Ritzer,

2000).

Mead's approach to symbolic interaction rested on three basic pre-

mises.

1. The first is that people act toward the things they encounter on

the basis of what those things mean to them. (Things, in this context, refer

not just to objects, but also to people, activities, and situations).

2. Second, we learn what things are by observing how other people

respond to them, that is through social interaction.

3. Third, as a result of ongoing interaction, the sounds (or words),

gestures, facial expressions, and body postures we use in dealing with

others acquire symbolic meanings that are shared by people who belong

to the same culture. The meaning of a symbolic gesture extends beyond

the act itself. A handshake, for instance, is a symbolic gesture of greeting

among Filipinos. As such, it conveys more than just a mutual grasping of

fingers and palms. It expresses both parties' shared understanding that a

social interaction is beginning. In other cultures, such

1. 2.

4

.

Basic forms of

Social

Interaction • non-

symbolic

interaction

which does

not involve

thinking

• symbolic

interaction

which require

mental

processes


as Japan, willingness to interact is expressed or symbolized in a

bow (Calhoun et al.,1994).

The importance of thinking to symbolic interactionists is reflected in

their views on objects. Blunter differentiates among three types of objects:

physical objects, such as a chair or a tree; social objects, such as a student

or a mother; and abstract objects, such as an idea or a moral principle.

Objects are seen simply as things "out there" in the real world: what is of

greatest significance is the way that they are defined by actors. The latter

leads to the relativistic view that different objects have different meanings

for different individuals: "A tree will be a different object to a botanist, a

lumberman, a poet, and a home gardener" (Blumer as

cited by Ritzer, 2000).

Another important concept that has long been used

by symbolic interactionist is the looking-glass self. This

concept was developed by the early symbolic

interactionist theorist Charles Horton Cooley. The basic

notion of the looking-glass self can be summed up as

"We see ourselves as others see us." In other words, we come to develop a

self-image on the basis of the messages we get from others, as we un-

derstand them. If your teachers and fellow students give you the message

that you are "smart," you will come to think of your self as an intelligent

person. If others tel! you thai you are attractive, you will likely think of

yourself as attractive. Conversely, if people repeatedly laugh at you and

tease you about being clumsy, you will probably come to decide that you

are clumsy. In Cooley's terms, you use other people as a mirror into which

you look to see what you are like (Farley, 1990)

Summary

Education is one of the major Institutions that constitute society. There are various social science theories that relate to education - consensus, conflict, structural functionalist and interaction theones.

Conflict theory deals with the emergence of conflict within a particular

human society while consensus is a concept of society in which the

absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium state of society based on a

general or widespread agreement among all members of a particular

society. The consensus and conflict theories are reflected in the works of

certain dominant social theorists such as Karl Marx. Emile Durkheim, Max

Weber and other social theorists.

Structural functicnalism is concerned with the functions of schooling

in the maintenance of social order, it asserts that society is made up of different institutions or organizations that work together in cooperation to

achieve orderly relationship and to maintain social order and social stability.

Symbolic interactionists are interested not simply in socialization but in interactions between students and students and between students and teachers. All types of interactions refine our ability to think.

Looking-glass

Self- We see

ourselves as

others ste us.

-Charles Cooley


Chapter I

Documents

conflict theories

conflict theorists

sociology of conflict

social groups

terms of conflict

faces conflict

absence of conflict

emergence of conflict