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1 INTELLIGENCE THIS CHAPTER COVERS Ä Nature of intelligence and approaches to its understanding Ä Culture and conceptualisation of intelligence Ä Methods of assessing intelligence Ä Range and variations in intelligence Ä Nature and measurement of aptitude BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD BE ABLE TO Ä describe the concept of intelligence, Ä explain the multiple facets of intelligence, Ä discuss cultural differences in conceptualising intelligence, Ä acquaint yourself with different methods of assessing intelligence, Ä explain the nature of intellectual deficiency and giftedness, Ä understand some emerging notions of intelligence, and Ä describe the concept of aptitude and its measurement procedure. CONTENTS Introduction What is Intelligence? Beginnings of Intelligence Testing (Box 1.1) Definitions of Intelligence Intelligence: The Interplay of Nature and Nurture Intelligence: Some Classical Approaches (Box1.2) Contemporary Approaches to Intelligence Theory of Multiple Intelligences Triarchic Theory of Intelligence PASS Model of Intelligence Samples of PASS Measures (Box 1.3) Creativity and Intelligence Culture and Intelligence Intelligence in Non-Western Traditions Intelligence in the Indian Context Assessment of Intelligence Distribution of IQ Scores Types of Intelligence Test Alternatives to IQ Testing (Box 1.4) Intelligence Testing in India Variations in the Level of Intelligence Giftedness: Nature and Identification Identification of Talent in the Indian Context (Box 1.5) Intellectual Deficiency: Nature and Types New Directions: Emotional, Practical, and Spiritual Intelligences (BOX 1.6) Special Abilities or Aptitudes: Nature and Measurement Key Terms Summary Review Questions Answers to Learning Checks
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Page 1: ch_01

� ������������

THIS CHAPTER COVERS

� Nature of intelligence and approaches toits understanding

� Culture and conceptualisation ofintelligence

� Methods of assessing intelligence� Range and variations in intelligence� Nature and measurement of aptitude

BY THE END OF THIS CHAPTER YOU WOULD

BE ABLE TO

� describe the concept of intelligence,� explain the multiple facets of

intelligence,� discuss cultural differences in

conceptualising intelligence,� acquaint yourself with different methods

of assessing intelligence,� explain the nature of intellectual

deficiency and giftedness,� understand some emerging notions of

intelligence, and� describe the concept of aptitude and its

measurement procedure.

CONTENTS

IntroductionWhat is Intelligence?Beginnings of Intelligence Testing (Box 1.1)Definitions of IntelligenceIntelligence: The Interplay of Nature and NurtureIntelligence: Some Classical Approaches (Box1.2)Contemporary Approaches to IntelligenceTheory of Multiple IntelligencesTriarchic Theory of IntelligencePASS Model of IntelligenceSamples of PASS Measures (Box 1.3)Creativity and IntelligenceCulture and IntelligenceIntelligence in Non-Western TraditionsIntelligence in the Indian ContextAssessment of IntelligenceDistribution of IQ ScoresTypes of Intelligence TestAlternatives to IQ Testing (Box 1.4)Intelligence Testing in IndiaVariations in the Level of IntelligenceGiftedness: Nature and IdentificationIdentification of Talent in the Indian Context(Box 1.5)

Intellectual Deficiency: Nature and TypesNew Directions: Emotional, Practical, andSpiritual Intelligences (BOX 1.6)

Special Abilities or Aptitudes: Nature andMeasurement

Key TermsSummaryReview QuestionsAnswers to Learning Checks

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2 Introduction to Psychology

Intelligence is probably one of the most popular psychological terms used in

everyday life. And it is rightly so, because it is due to the intellectual development

that humans have been able to transcend the physical frailties and gain dominance

over the more powerful and numerous animals. Every parent wishes his/her

child to be intelligent. However, you must have noticed individual differences in

this highly valued trait. People differ from each other in their ability to understand

complex ideas, to adapt effectively to environment, to learn from experience, to

engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles. We often make

judgements about the intellectual competence of people on the basis of these and

related characteristics and label them as being more intelligent or less intelligent.

You too must have encountered people showing different levels of intelligence.

The expression of intelligence is not limited to any particular activity, domain,

or context; rather, it is manifested in every human activity, may it be in school,

during social interaction, at work, and so on. You must have heard about tests

that are used to measure intelligence in different settings including school,

industry, defence organisations, bureaucratic set-ups and so on. These tests are

useful in selection, training, placement, and providing educational and vocational

guidance and counselling to the students.

For long, the study of intelligence was confined to the cognitive domain. In

recent years, however, understanding about the nature of intelligence has changed

drastically. It is now believed that intelligence is not a single entity or

unidimensional, rather has multiple dimensions or facets. The notion of intelligence

has expanded to encompass affective, and social domains also. The emphasis

on one or the other aspects of intelligence varies across cultures. In this chapter

you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitions of intelligence, cultural

differences in its conceptualisation, its assessment, range and variations in the

intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilities or aptitudes.

INTRODUCTION

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Intelligence 3

WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE?

The term ‘intelligence’ has not only been usedmore popularly in daily life, it has alsoreceived maximum attention of theresearchers in the fields of psychology,education, and child development. A perusalof dictionaries will reveal that the termintelligence has been taken in a broad sense.For example, the following terms have beenlisted as the meaning of intelligence: abilityto understand, reason, and perceive;quickness in learning; mental alertness;ability to grasp relationships etc. Thewords such as capacity, shrewdness,acumen, discrimination, talent, aptitude,etc. are used as synonyms of intelligence. Inthe Indian context, words such as BuddhiPratibha, Prajna, Medha, Dhi, Chaturya,etc., are used for intelligence.

ACTIVITY 1.1

Understanding the Concept ofIntelligence

Find out the synonyms of intelligence andanalyse the similarities and differencesamong them.

On the basis of the analysis of synonymsmake three or four statements about thenature of intelligence.

Discuss your observations with yourclassmates and teacher.

BOX 1.1

Alfred Binet

The development of the concept of intelligencein modern psychology is closely related to theefforts in the direction of assessingintelligence. Historically, the work of aFrenchman, J. Esquirol, in 1838, onmental disorders is considered tobe the beginning of modern mentaltesting. However, Sir FrancisGalton, an Englishman, isconsidered to be the father ofmental tests. In 1884, Galtonattempted to measure intelligenceby administering a battery oftests which measured suchcharacteristics as head size,strength of hand grip, breathingcapacity, reaction time, visual acuity,and memory for visual forms. Galtonbelieved that simple sensory, perceptual,and motor responses were key aspects ofintelligence. J.M. Cattell is credited withintroducing the term mental test. The works ofGalton and Cattell together paved the way forfurther studies on intelligence.

The first systematic attempt to develop atest of intelligence was made by Alfred

Binet, a Frenchman. At the requestof the French Ministry of

Education, in 1904, Binetattempted to devise a method toidentify children who did notbenefit from regular classroomteaching and needed to beplaced in special schools. Binetwith his student T. Simondeveloped the first test ofintelligence in 1905. The testconsisted of 30 items ranging

from the ability to touch one’snose or ear when asked, to the

ability to draw designs frommemory and define abstract

concepts. Unlike Galton who reducedintelligence to sensory, perceptual, and

motor processes, Binet argued that the core ofintelligence consists of more complex mentalprocesses such as memory, imagery,comprehension, and judgement.

DEFINITIONS OF INTELLIGENCE

Broadly speaking, intelligence is a capacityto profit from experience and to go beyondthe given. Psychologists have proposed anumber of definitions of intelligence.

Binet and Simon in 1905 definedintelligence as “the ability to judge well, to

BEGINNINGS OF INTELLIGENCE TESTING

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4 Introduction to Psychology

understand well, and to reason well”.There were four elements that were believedto be important for intelligence: (1) Directionor ability to set up a goal and work towardsit, (2) Adaptability or ability to make thenecessary adjustments to solve a problem,(3) Comprehension or ability to have a basicunderstanding of exactly what the problemis, and (4) Self evaluation or person’s idea ofwhether he or she has been able to solve theproblem correctly.

The definition proposed by Wechsler in1939 has been very popular. He defined it as“the aggregate or global capacity of theindividual to act purposefully, to thinkrationally, and to deal effectively with theenvironment”. According to Howard Gardner(1986), intelligence is “the ability or skillto solve problems or to fashion productswhich are valued within one or morecultural settings”.

An analysis of the above and otherdefinitions indicates that intelligence consistsof three general classes of skills or abilities:� Adapting to new situations and

changing task demands.� Learning or profiting optimally from

experience or training.� Thinking abstractly using symbols and

concepts.More recently Robert Sternberg (1997),

a pioneer in the field of intelligence research,has defined intelligence as follows:Intelligence comprises the mental abilitiesnecessary for adaptation to, as well asshaping and selection of, anyenvironmental context.

This definition goes beyond the adaptivenature of intelligence. Thus, intelligence is notjust reacting (in the form of adaptation) to thedemands of the environment, but alsoinvolves actively shaping and selecting theenvironment. When a person is not able toadapt to an environment, he/she may try tobring changes in the environmental context(shaping) according to his or her own likings.For example, when you visit a relative onholidays, first of all you try to behaveaccording to their expectations. Slowly, youbegin to suggest them changes according toyour taste. However, bringing out change in

the environmental context may not always bepossible due to various reasons. In that casean intelligent person tries to find anothersuitable environment (selection ). Forexample, when you find it difficult to adaptor bring about changes in the relative’s house,you may go to another relative’s house or goback to your home. It should be noted thatintelligence does not simply mean possessingcertain abilities per se; rather the use of theseabilities in real life situations is important.

The second important point, according toSternberg, is that the landscape of anenvironmental context changes over time.Thus, adequate adaptation, shaping, andselection involve a process of life-longlearning, one that starts during infancy andcontinues throughout the life span.

INTELLIGENCE: THE INTERPLAY OF

NATURE AND NURTURE

There is no end to the debate as to whetherintelligence is innate or acquired. Thecontroversy has aroused fierce passions,become politicised, and is notable for thedogmatic nature of the opinions. The evidencefor the innateness comes from studies ontwins. As you know monozygotic twins resultfrom the fertilisation of a single ovum by asingle sperm and they are geneticallyidentical. Therefore, it may be assumed thattheir intelligence (genetic) level should besimilar and any difference would be due tonon-genetic (environmental) factors. On rareoccasions, such as death or illness of themother, some of these monozygotic(identical) twins were reared apart. Studieshave shown high level of similarity betweenthe intelligence levels of such monozygotictwins. It has also been reported in somestudies that identical twins separated veryearly in life share considerable degree of

ACTIVITY 1.2

Processes Involved in Intelligence

Find two examples each from everydayactivities that relate to shaping, selection,and adaptation.

Discuss these examples with classmatesand teacher.

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Intelligence 5

interaction of genetic factors and environmentalconditions. Probably, the maximum limit isdrawn by the genetic factors, within which theactual development depends upon the supportfrom environmental conditions.

Recapitulation

The systematic attempt to define and assessintelligence in modern period began withthe work of Binet in 1904. Since then manydefinitions of intelligence have beenproposed. In all these definitions,intelligence is defined in terms ofadaptation to new situations, learning frompast experiences, and abstract thinking.However, contemporary view of intelligencegoes beyond adaptation skills—whereadaptation is not possible, an intelligentperson either attempts to shape andbring changes in the environment, orcarve out another environment ofhis/her liking.

similarity in intelligence, personality, andmannerisms when they were identifiedlater. The limitation of these studies is thatthe samples have been generally very small.

Adoption studies lend support to thenurture side of the debate. In these studieschildren’s intelligence levels were comparedwith their biological and adopting mothers.Some studies have reported that IQ of theadopted children tends to move toward thatof their adopting parents. Other studies haveshown greater closeness with the IQ ofbiological mothers. Generally, the presenceof adoptive parents of higher IQ level raises adisadvantaged child’s IQ. There is evidenceto show that deprived environments mayresult in lowering of IQ scores. A range ofenvironmental factors, such as nutrition,family background, and quality of schooling,are found to be related to IQ scores.

The most accepted view today is thatintelligence is a product of a complex

BOX 1.2

� Charles Spearman (1927) proposed a“Two Factor theory” of intelligence.According to him, intelligence consists ofGeneral (‘g’) and Specific (‘s’) factors. Thistheory maintained that all intellectualactivities share a single common factor,called ‘g’. Characterised as mental energy,‘g’ is considered responsible forrelationships between different humanactivities. Positive correlations between anytwo factors were attributed to ‘g’ factor. Inaddition to ‘g’, this theory also postulates anumber of specific factors ‘s’, each beingstrictly specific to a single activity Fig 1.1shows this pattern.

� Louis Thurstone (1938) advanced the“Theory of Primary Mental Abilities”which states that intelligence consists ofseven major factors, each of which is rela-tively independent of the others. These fac-tors are: Verbal Comprehension, VerbalFluency, Inductive Reasoning, SpatialVisualisation, Number, Memory, andPerceptual Speed.

contd...

� Raymond Cattell (1971) proposed thatthere are two ‘g’ factors, ‘gf’ (for fluid

Fig. 1.1 Relationship between ‘g’ and ‘s’conceptualised by Spearman

g

SI

S2

S3

INTELLIGENCE: SOME CLASSICAL APPROACHES

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6 Introduction to Psychology

intelligence) and ‘gc’ (for crystallisedintelligence). Fluid intelligence includes theability to think creatively, to reasonabstractly, to make inferences from data,and to understand relationships. It can bemeasured by analogy and classificationproblems. It is strongly influenced byheredity. In contrast, crystallised intelligenceincludes what a person learns and retainsfrom experience; so, it is strongly influencedby environment. Tests of vocabulary andgeneral information can be used to measurecrystallised intelligence. It has been foundthat fluid intelligence tends to decline at anearly age than crystallised intelligencethough both show rapid decline starting inthe late seventies.

� Arthur Jensen has advanced a theory oftwo levels of intelligence: Level I and LevelII. Level I denotes associative learning (e.g.rote learning and memory). These activitiesinvolve minimal mental transformation of the

stimulus input prior to the outcome orresponse. Level II refers to a general classof abilities involving effective transformationor manipulation of stimuli, as evinced inhigher order learning, such as reasoningand problem-solving.

� On the basis of more than two decades offactor analytic research, J. P. Guilfordproposed a box-like model, which is knownas Structure-of-Intellect Model. Thistheory organises intellectual traits alongthree dimensions: Operations—what therespondent does, Contents—the nature ofthe materials or information on whichoperations are performed, and Products—the form in which information is processedby the respondents. Guilford’s classificationincludes 6 x 5 x 5 categories, resultinginto 150 cells in the model. In each cell atleast one factor or ability is expected; somecells may contain more than one factor. Themodel is shown in Fig.1.2.

Fig. 1.2 Guilford’s Structure of Intellect

Cognition

Mem

ory

Divergent production

Evaluation Visual

Auditory

Symbolic

Behavioural

Semantic

Convergent production

Units

Operations

Contents

Products

Classes

Relations

Systems

Transformation

Implications

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Intelligence 7

CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES

TO INTELLIGENCE

The classical notion of intelligence, whichdefined it in terms of a single index ofcognitive abilities, has undergone majorchanges. It is now believed that intelligenceis not one or unitary ability, rather thereare many intelligences, which peopledisplay while solving problems in everydaylife. In this section you will study aboutthree such theories.

THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Howard Gardner (1983) proposed this theory.It is based on three principles. First,intelligence is not a singleentity; rather, there existmultiple intelligences, eachdistinct from others.Second, these intelligencesare independent of eachother. In other words, if aperson is good in one typeof intelligence, it does not giveany indication about how goodor bad the person may be onother types of intelligences.Third, different types of intelligences interact.That is, different intelligences work togetherto provide a solution of a problem.

Gardner has so far proposed eightintelligences. However, all the individuals donot possess them in equal proportion. Theparticular situation or the context decides the

Howard Gardner

prominence of one type of intelligence over theothers. The eight intelligences are as follows:� Linguistic : This is related to reading,

writing, listening, talking, understanding,etc. Poets exhibit this ability better thanothers.

� Logical-mathematical : This type ofintelligence deals with abstract reasoningand manipulation of symbols involved innumerical problems. It is exhibited inscientific work.

� Spatial : Intelligence of this kind is usedwhile navigating in space, forming,transforming, and using mental images.Sailors, engineers, surgeons, pilots, cardrivers, sculptors, and painters havehighly developed spatial intelligence.

� Musical :Persons with musical intelligenceshow sensitivity to pitch and tone requiredfor singing, playing an instrument,composing and appreciating music, etc.

� Bodily-kinesthetic : It requires the skillsand dexterity for fine coordinated motormovements, such as those required fordancing, athletics, surgery, craft making,and the like.

� Interpersonal : It requires understandingmotives, feelings, and behaviours of otherpeople. Sales people, politicians, teachers,clinicians, and religious leaders have highdegree of interpersonal intelligence.

� Intrapersonal : It is related to understand-ing one’s self and developing a sense ofidentity.

� Naturalistic : It is related to recognisingthe flora and fauna and making adistinction in the natural world. It is morepossessed by hunters, farmers, tourists,students of biological sciences, and the like.

LEARNING CHECKS I

1. The speed with which oneaccomplishes a task refers to one’sintellectual capacity. T/F

2. Binet developed a test of intelligenceto discriminate amongst normalstudents of a class. T/F

3. Learning from past experiences is acharacteristic of an intelligentperson. T/F

4. Selection strictly refers to leaving atask, which cannot be accomplished,and selecting a task, which is easyto perform. T/F

ACTIVITY 1.3

Application of the View of MultipleIntelligences

Prepare a list of about 20 vocations. Analysethese vocations in terms of the type ofintelligence required for success in thosevocations.

Discuss the results of your analysis withyour teacher.

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8 Introduction to Psychology

TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

Robert J. Sternberg (1985)proposed this theory. Itattempts to understandthe cognitive processesinvolved in solving prob-lems. According to thistheory, there are threesubtheories of intelli-

gence: Componential,Experiential, and Con-textual as shown inFig. 1.3.� Componential Subtheory: It consists of

internal mental mechanisms that areresponsible for intelligent behaviour. Thecomponents of intelligence serve threedifferent functions. Metacomponents are theexecutive processes that are involved inplanning strategies, monitoring progress, andallocating internal and external resources toproblem solving. Performance componentsare the processes that are used to perform atask or solve a problem. This componentis the one that is measured best byexisting intelligence tests. Knowledgeacquisition components are the processesused in learning.

� Experiential Subtheory : It focuses onthe relationship between the person’sinner, mental world and the outer,external world. This aspect is concernedwith the effect of intelligence onone’s experiences aswell as the effect ofperson’s interactionwith the environmenton intelligence. Thisview adds creativity(or novelty andoriginality) to theoverall conceptionof intelligence. Acreat-ively intelligentperson may notparticularly performwell on a test ofintelligence but isable to combine

different experiences in uniquely originalways. A second aspect of experientialintelligence is the ability to automatiseor “make routine” tasks that areencountered repeatedly. An example ofautomatising is reading, which is carriedout largely without conscious thought.Playing music is another example of thistype of activity.

� Contextual Subtheory : It deals with theways people effectively shape theirenvironments, adapt to different contexts,and make the most of their availableresources. Contextual intelligence refersto “street smarts” or “situationally smart”.It is the effective management of self andthe practical management of the businessof everyday life. People high on contextualremain practical or down-to-earth in life.Such people remain involved in activitiessuch as implementing, using, applying,and seeking relevance.

ACTIVITY 1.4

Application of Triarchic TheoryRead the following problem statements andidentify the type of intelligence that would berequired to solve those problems:� You see a novel word embedded in a

paragraph and have to infer its meaningfrom the context.

� You have to solve everyday problemsfaced by an adolescent.

(For answers see Learning Checks on p.11)

Robert J. Sternberg

Fig. 1.3 Elements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Knowledge-acquisition

ComponentsEncode, combine, and

compare information

Contextual

Subtheory

Specifies the

behaviours

considered intelligent

in a particular

culture

Experiential

Subtheory

Specifies how

experiences affect

intelligence and how

intelligence affects a

person’s experiences

Performance ComponentsExecute strategies assembled

by metacomponentsComponential

Subtheory

Specifies the

cognitive processes

that underlie all

intelligent behavior

MetacomponentsControl, monitor, and evaluate

cognitive processing

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Intelligence 9

in nature. On the other hand, the motherreads the letters and words one afteranother written on the boards, integratingthe stimuli in series. In this case she isusing successive processing to grasp themeaning. Learning of digits and alphabetsis another example of successiveprocessing. Simultaneous and successiveprocesses can be applied to the tasks ofvarious modalities (auditory, visual,kinesthetic etc.) involving different kinds ofstimuli (verbal or non–verbal), and may takeplace during direct perception, retention ofinformation, and at higher cognitive levels.

� Planning : After the attention andprocessing of information, you decide thatthis is a restaurant where you can getsomething to eat. If there are more thanone, you select one of your choice. Thus,planning refers to generation of plans or

PASS MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE

Extending the information processingapproach, J.P. Das, Naglieri, and Kirby(1994) proposed this theory. The basicstatement of the model is that intelligence canbe understood as a result of interdependentfunctioning of three neurological systems:those responsible for arousal (and attention),coding (or processing), and planning. The twocoding processes are simultaneous andsuccessive. Thus the theory is known asPASS (Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, andSuccessive) Theory. The three components ofPASS theory are shown in Fig. 1.4.

� Arousal andAttention: Supposea young lady goes tomarket with her3-year-old child. Aftersome time the childbecomes restless andalso occasionallycries. This arousesthe mother to attendto the child’s needs.

Arousal is basic for initiating an activity.It forces one to focus attention in aparticular direction. You have read earlierthat attention is selective: You do not payattention to each and everything thatcomes on your way; rather, you attend toa few selected objects/events/personswhich may be helpful in achieving thedesired goal or are related to themotivational state.

� Simultaneous and SuccessiveProcessing : The mother realises that herchild is hungry and decides to take her toa restaurant. She looks at the shopsaround her. The shops have displayeddifferent types of signboards. The motherattends to those signboards to find out arestaurant and tries to grasp theirmeaning. Here she uses simultaneous andsuccessive processes to grasp themeaning out of the signboards.Simultaneous processes help you ingrasping the meaning out of the pictures.This involves the integration of differentstimuli at a time in groups and is holistic

J.P. Das

Fig. 1.4. The PASS Model of Ability

Serial Concurrent Serial Concurrent

KNOWLEDGE BASE

FirstFunctional Unit

Brain Stem

AROUSAL/ATTENTION

Mem

ory

Con

ceptu

al

Perc

eptu

al

ThirdFunctional Unit

Frontal

PLANNING

Mem

ory

Con

ceptu

al

Perc

eptu

al

KN

OW

LE

DG

EB

AS

E KN

OW

LE

DG

EB

AS

E

Occipital, Parietal and Temporal (Posterior)S

econ

dFu

ncti

on

alU

nit

KNOWLEDGE BASE

Memory Conceptual Perceptual

SIMULTANEOUS AND SUCCESSIVE

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10 Introduction to Psychology

problems as well as to goal setting, strategyselection, and performance monitoring.Planning is responsible for activities suchas asking questions, problem solving, andthe capacity for self-monitoring.Based on the PASS theory, Das-Naglieri

Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) wasdeveloped. The system employs verbal andnon-verbal tests presented through visual andauditory sensory channels. It is appropriatefor use with individuals between ages 5 to11, and has been specially designed for usewith intervention purposes. Some measuresare given in Box 1.3. The system is consideredan appropriate and innovative tool for theassessment of cognitive status.

Creativity and Intelligence

Highly intelligent people may or may not becreative but highly creative persons arewithout doubt highly intelligent. Sternbergtalks about three types of intelligence:Analytic, Creative , and Practical.Creativity is a process that requires thebalance and application of various aspectsof intelligence. The creative intelligence isthe ability to go beyond the given data togenerate novel and interesting ideas. Acreative person is a good synthetic thinker, seesthe connections and relationships others don’tsee. In addition, creative people also have theability to analyse and evaluate ideas. Thepractical intelligence is the third aspect ofcreativity, which refers to the ability to translatetheory into practice and transfer abstract ideas

BOX 1.3

Planned Connections ( for Planning): Itrequires children to develop some effective wayof connecting sequential stimuli (e.g., thenumbers 1-2-3-4-5), which appears in a diversemanner on a page. For the first five trials a childis required to connect the series of numbers intheir proper numerical sequence (1 to 2, 2 to 3,etc.). On the last two trials the child is requiredto alternatively connect numbers and letters intheir proper sequence (1 to A, A to 2, 2 to B, Bto 3, and so on). The test score is the time inseconds taken by the child in each trialseparately as well as on all the trials.Expressive Attention ( for Attention):Itconsists of three pages, although only the lastpage is used as a measure of attention. The firstand second pages contain the words Red, Blue,and Green written in the respective colours(page 1) or coloured rectangle of these coloursin varying orders (page 2) arranged in eightrows and five columns. The task before thechild is to read all the words on page 1 or saythe names of the colours on page 2 as fast aspossible. The selective attention component ofthis task is apparent on page 3 through the useof an interference paradigm. Page 3 containsthe words red, blue, and green printed in

colours different than the words (e.g. wordGREEN printed in red colour). The child’s taskis to name the colour used to print the word,rather than read the word, as fast as possible.Time needed to complete is recorded.Raven’s Progressive Matrices ( forSimultaneous Processes): These matrices areused to assess the simultaneous processes. Inthis test, the task involves the completion offigural analogies using a progressive matrixformat. The child is required to choose one ofthe six options that best completes the abstractanalogy. The requirement that each componentof the matrix must be interrelated to the othersmakes this task congruent with thesimultaneous paradigm. The scores for this testare the total number of correct choices and thetime taken by the child to complete the task.Digit Span (for Successive Processes): Youpresent, for example, the following series ofdigits to the child

4-7-92-5-8-93-5-6-9-11

After each presentation the child is required torecall the digits. The total number of digitsrecalled (maximum) is the digit span.

SAMPLES OF PASS MEASURES

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Intelligence 11

into practical accomplishments. Thus, while anintelligent person is high only on analyticalintelligence, a creative person is high on all thethree aspects.

Recapitulation

In this section you read about the threeimportant contemporary theories ofintelligence. These theories assume thatintelligence is not one or a unitary abilityrather, a composite of many intelligences.Gardner proposed eight types ofintelligences: Linguistic, Logical-mathematical,Spatial, Musical, Bodily-kinesthetic,Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalisticintelligences. Sternberg proposedcomponential, experiential, and contextualsubtheories of intelligence. Componentialintelligence is concerned with the componentsof mental functioning involved in cognitive tasksthat underlie vocabulary, knowledge, insight,and analogies. Experiential and contextualintelligences add creativity and practicality,respectively, to the understanding ofintelligence. J.P. Das considered intelligencein terms of planning, attention, simultaneous,and successive processes (PASS model). AnIntelligent person is high on analyticalintelligence, a creative person is high on allthree aspects of intelligence – analytic,creative and practical.

CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE

It is increasingly recognised that intellectualprocesses and skills are determined by thesocio-cultural context in which people live andgrow. Since successful adaptation to one’sown socio-cultural environment is considereda sign of intelligence, it is reasonable toassume that different behaviours mayrepresent intelligence in different cultures, asone would observe variations in what aparticular society views as worthwhile,meaningful and valuable. In certain places,for example, the skills needed to be anexcellent farmer are far more important thanthe skills needed to be a lawyer. Thus,intelligence is considered a cultural genre orproduct of culture. Cultural groups differ intheir notions of what constitutes intelligence.Such an understanding depends uponpeople’s experiences, which is shared bymajority of the persons in the group, is passedon from one generation to the next in writtenor oral form, and is imposed upon each of uswithout our conscious intent.The salient features of Western culture areurbanisation, high use of technology andschooling. It emphasises the development offollowing factors in children:� generalisation (or going beyond the

information given),

� speed (faster performance is superior),

� minimal moves (the best performancecalls for reaching the solution in feweststeps),

� no hands (a preference for mental ratherthan physical manipulations), and

� something of one’s own (a preference fororiginality or creativity).

This type of culture gives rise to a kind ofintelligence, called technological intelligence,characterised by attention, observation, speed,and higher achievement in school. Thus,intelligence tests developed in the West lookfor these qualities among people.

Intelligence in Non-Western Traditions

In contrast to technological intelligence, manyAsian and African cultures consider a person

LEARNING CHECKS II

1. Gardner has proposed seven kinds ofinterrelated intelligences. T/F

2. Solving logical puzzles requires bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. T/F

3. Sailors are high on spatial intelligence.T/F

4. Componential intelligence covers theaspects of intelligence measured bystandard intelligence tests. T/F

5. You require componential intelligencewhen you see a novel word embeddedin a paragraph and have to infer itsmeaning from the context. T/F

6. Contextual intelligence is required tosolve everyday problems faced by anadolescent. T/F

7. Street-smart persons are high onexperiential intelligence. T/F

8. In the PASS model, the most basicaspect is coding of information. T/F

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12 Introduction to Psychology

intelligent on the basis of social and emotionalattributes as well as his or her ability toperform a task. Table 1.1 summarises thesalient features of intelligence emphasised insome non-western cultures.

Intelligence in the Indian Context

The Indian thought has shown deep concernfor human potential and explored its naturein the context of self, society, the universe,and also beyond all these. The Indian view isholistic and emphasises mental abilities, bothin the cognitive and non-cognitive domains,and their integration. ‘Buddhi ’, the word oftenused to translate the word intelligence, hasbeen used in a broader sense as compared tothe scope of intelligence in modern westernpsychology. The terms that are used forbuddhi in Sanskrit, in general, refer tothe followings:� The mental vigour or power of forming and

retaining conceptions and general notions;� Reason, intellect, mind, discernment, and

judgment;

� Perception, comprehension, apprehen-sion, and understanding;

� Knowledge of one’s own self, conscience,will and desire;

� Presence of mind, ready wit, and skill.The notion of buddhi not only includes

cognitive but also affective and motivational

aspects of life. According to J.P. Das, Buddhirefers to waking up, noticing, recognising,understanding, and comprehending. Itincludes such things as determination,mental effort, and even feelings and opinionsin addition to such intellectual processesas knowledge, discrimination, anddecision-making.

According to the Indian view, an intelli-gent person shows the following fourcompetencies:� Cognitive Competence (such as

sensitivity to context, comprehension,discrimination, problem-solving, andeffective communication),

� Social Competence (such as followingsocial norms, service to elders, obedience,helping the needy, showing concern forthe environment),

� Entrepreneurial Competence (such ashard work, commitment, vigilance, goal-directed behaviour), and

� Emotional Competence (such as controlof emotions, honesty, politeness, realisticself-appraisal, good conduct).Thus, unlike the IQ notion of intelligence,

the Indian view is not limited to the cognitivedomain alone. Rather, it encompasses thesocial and emotional domains, as well as taskperformance. The Indian concept is moreinclusive, which emphasises on theconnectivity with the social and work

Table 1.1 Characterisation of Intelligence in Different Cultures

Africa Capability in specific situations, and social responsibility (such ascooperativeness and obedience).

Baoule Service to the family and community, politeness and respect for elders, and speakingwell in public.

China Non-verbal reasoning (or silent thinking).

Japan (a) Sociable, humorous, and effective speaker, (b) ability to take another’s point ofview, and admitting mistakes, (c) task efficiency, (d) originality, and (e) reading andwriting.

Kenya Ability to judge and perform tasks that are required to be done at homestead.

Uganda Slow, careful and active.

Yoruba More listening than talking, understanding the problem in the proper perspectiveand constructive intelligence.

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Intelligence 13

environment. This type of intelligence istermed as “integral intelligence”.

but good at non-veral reasoning abilities;cooperates with group members; respectful;and willing to share responsibilities. Indianview of intelligence encompasses social andemotional components together with thecognitive and activity related components.Thus, it may not be appropriate to label peopleas intelligent or not intelligent in thesecultures on the basis of intelligence testsdeveloped in Western countries. Culture-specific definitions of intelligence need to beexplored and appropriate measures need tobe developed.

ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE

You have read earlier that the first attemptto measure intelligence was made by Binet.He also gave the concept of Mental Age (MA),which refers to an individual’s level of mentaldevelopment relative to the environment in whichhe/she lives. Binet argued that a mentallyretarded child would perform like a normalchild of a younger age. He compared MA withChronological Age (CA) or the biological age orage from birth. A bright child has an MA aboveCA; a dull child has an MA below CA.

The term Intelligence Quotient (IQ) wasdevised in 1912 by William Stern. IQ refersto a child’s mental age divided bychronological age, and multiplied by 100:

MAIQ = —— x 100

CA

If the mental age is the same as theChronological age, then the individual’s IQ is100 (normal); if mental age is above CA, thenthe IQ is more than 100; if mental age is lessthan the CA, then the IQ is less than 100. Forexample, a 6-year old child with a mental ageof 8 would have an IQ of 133, (8/6 x 100)whereas a 6-year old child with a mental ageof 5 ( 5/6 x 100) would have an IQ of 83.

ACTIVITY 1.5

Understanding Laypersons’ conceptionof intelligence

Interview children of different age groups aswell as some adults, across various sectionsof society and find “what they think are thecharacteristics of an intelligent person”? Tryto understand the concept of intelligence ofthese groups.

Discuss the similarities and differencesin their definitions with other students andthe teachers.

Recapitulation

The western concept of intelligence is not validin all the societies. In the West, the emphasisis on technological intelligence, which ischaracterised by generalisation, speed ofwork, achievement, etc. On the other hand,in non-western societies, such as Asian andAfrican, a person is considered intelligentmore on the basis of social and emotionalqualities than on the cognitive attributesalone. In these societies, an intelligent personmay not work at a high speed. He/she maybe slow but careful; poor in verbal abilities

LEARNING CHECKS III

1. Different behaviours in differentcultures are characterised asintelligent. T/F

2. A preference for mental manipulationrather than physical manipulation isthe characteristics of intelligentbehaviour in non-Western societies.

T/F

3. Among Japanese, admitting mistakesis not considered an intelligentbehaviour. T/F

4. Willingness to cooperate with groupmembers is considered intelligent inthe African societies. T/F

5. The notion of integral intelligenceemphasises interconnectivity betweencognitive, emotional, and socialworlds. T/F

ACTIVITY 1.6

Computing the IQ

� Find out the mental age of a 16-year oldstudent who has an IQ of 125.

� Calculate the IQ of a 12-year old childwhose mental age is 9 years.

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14 Introduction to Psychology

Stanford Binet Test

The intelligence test developed by Binet in1905 was revised in 1909 and 1911.Table 1.2 contains some items included in1911 Binet’s test.

Lewis Terman, a Professor at theUniversity of Stanford, introduced Binet’s testin the United States of America, where thetest underwent many revisions. The first

Table 1.2 Some Items from Binet’sTest of Intelligence (1911 Version) atThree Different Age Levels.

Year 3� Point to eyes, nose, and mouth� Repeat 2 digits� Identify objects in a picture� Repeat a sequence of 6 syllables

Year 7� Show right hand and left ear� Describe a picture� Carryout 3 commands given

simultaneously� Count the value of 6 coins

Year 15� Repeat 7 digits� Find 3 rhymes for a given word in

1 minute� Repeat a sentence of 26 syllables� Interpret a set of given facts

revision appeared in 1916, which is knownas Stanford-Binet Test. This was furtherrevised in 1936 and 1961. The fourth andlatest revision of Stanford-Binet test waspublished in 1986. In the earlier revisions,only a general composite score was computedto reflect one’s IQ. In the last revision, inaddition to a composite score, the individual’sresponses in four content areas, namelyverbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning,abstract/visual reasoning, and short-termmemory are also obtained.

The Wechsler Scales

Besides the Stanford-Binet Test, the othermost widely used individual intelligencetests are the Wechsler Scales, developed byDavid Wechsler. These are known as: theWechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS);the Wechsler Intelligence Scale forChildren (WISC) for use with childrenbetween the ages of 6 and 16; and theWechsler Preschool and Primary Scale ofIntelligence (WPPSI) for use with childrenfrom the ages of 4 to 6 ½ years. In additionto providing an overall IQ score, separatescores for 11 subscales (6 of which areverbal and 5 non-verbals) are also obtained.

Table 1.3 contains sample itemsfrom WAIS.

Table 1.3 Sample items from Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Verbal Scale

Information: What is steam made of?What is pepper?

Comprehension: Why is copper often used in electric wires?Why do some people save sales receipts?

Arithmetic: It takes 3 people 9 days to paint a house. Howmany would it take to do it in 3 days?An automobile goes 25 miles in 45 minutes.How far would it go in 20 minutes?

Digit Repetition: Repeat the following numbers in order:1, 3, 7, 2, 5, 4

Repeat the following digits in reverse order:5, 8, 2, 4, 9, 6

Similarities: In what way are a circle and a triangle alike?In what way are an egg and a seed alike?

Vocabulary: What is a hippopotamus?What does ‘resemble’ mean?

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Distribution of IQ Scores

The IQ scores between 90 and 110 arelabelled as “normal”, above 120 “superior ”and below 70 as evidence of “mentalretardation” or “mentally challenged(see Table 1.4).

Table 1.4 Descriptive Labels for IQ Scores

IQ Score Descriptive Label Percent of Population

Above 130 Very Superior 2.2120-130 Superior 6.7110-119 Bright normal 16.190-109 Average 50.080-89 Dull normal 16.170-79 Borderline 6.7Below 70 Mentally Challenged 2.2

TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TEST

Intelligence tests are available in differentforms. You can select an appropriate type oftest depending upon the purpose of its use.Some of the types of tests available aredescribed below.

Individual or Group Tests : These testsmay be classified into different typesdepending upon their mode of administrationand content. They may either be administeredto one person at a time (Individual Test) orto a number of persons simultaneously(Group Test). The individual tests areadministered to one person at a time. Atrained psychologist generally administerssuch tests to one student or one client at atime. Individual tests allow people to answerorally or in written form and performancetasks require manipulation of objects orforms. Stanford-Binet and Wechsler scalesare individually administered tests. Thecollection of data using individual tests froma larger sample is time consuming. However,individual tests allow the test administratorsto establish proper rapport and give personalattention to testees, and also maintain theirinterest by providing necessary help whenneeded.

Group tests generally employ a multiple-choice format: A question that is followed byfour alternatives and a person has to answer

There is only a negligible opportunity for one-to-one interaction between the tester and thetestee. It may, however be noted that, a grouptest can also be administered to a singleindividual. A group test is not defined by thenumber of examinees but by the mode ofadministration. There is further differencebetween an individual and a group test. Theformer helps in the diagnosis and remediationof individual learning difficulties, and thelatter is more commonly used for massscreening. Finally, the group tests arestandardised on ultra large samples, whilethe individual tests are standardised onrelatively small samples. Though group testsare easy to administer, putting testees at easeand maintaining their interest is generallyfound to be difficult.

Verbal, Non-Verbal, and Performance Tests:A Verbal test demands understanding ofwritten words. Therefore, such tests canonly be administered to literates. Also, it isdifficult to express spatial relationshipsbetween objects through writtencommunication. Non-Verbal tests usepictures or illustrations as items. Forexample, Raven’s Progressive Matrices(RPM) is one such test. In RPM, oneincomplete pattern is given. Testees haveto find, one out of six available alternativefigures, which will complete the pattern (seeFig. 1.5 for an example).

the correct alternative. Separate answersheets are provided to write the answers. Asregards administration, examiner plays aminimal role that is restricted to reading theinstructions of the test and getting the testcompleted within the stipulated time limit.

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16 Introduction to Psychology

with these cultures in view and the intent oractivities in many of these items do not findplace in other cultures, particularly Asian andAfrican cultures. The norms for these tests werealmost entirely based upon these culturalgroups. To overcome these problems, Non-Verbal and performance tests have beendeveloped. These tests are considered culture-fair tests because people of any culture couldtake them. However, it has been noticed thatthese tests too show cultural bias.

Intelligence Testing in IndiaThe development of intelligence tests in Indiahas for long remained one of the popularacademic pursuits. The first systematicattempt to standardise a test of intelligence(Binet’s test) was made by Dr. Rice in Urduand Punjabi in 1930s. At about the same time,Mahalanobis attempted to standardiseBinet’s test of intelligence in Bengali. Up to1950, the work on Binet’s test was done atChennai, Dacca, Jabalpur, and Lahore. Workwas also done on the development of Indiannorms for some other foreign tests like theWAIS, RPM, Minnesota Paper Forms Board,Alexander’s Passalong, Cube Construction,Kohs’ Block Design Test, and others. It wasonly since 1950s that published evidencepoints towards the development of Indiantests. The first doctorate on Test Constructionwas awarded to K.G. Desai in 1954, for thedevelopment of a group test of intelligence inGujarati. Subsequently a number ofintelligence tests were either developedoriginally or were adaptations of testsdeveloped in the West.

Some tests developed in India are givenin Table 1.5.

Fig. 1.5 An item from Raven’s ProgressiveMatrices (RPM)

1 2 3

4 5 6

Performance tests are made up of certainconcrete tasks. For instance in Koh’s BlockDesign Test, small boxes containing anumber of wooden blocks of different sizesand shapes are given. The testees task is toarrange these blocks, in accordance with thepattern card, in an order within a given timeperiod. C. M. Bhatia developed a performancetest of intelligence, which is popularly knownas Bhatia Battery. It is called battery becauseit is not just one test; rather it consists of aseries of five performance tests.Culture-biased vs. Culture-fair Tests : Manyintelligence tests show a bias towards theculture in which they are developed. Theysample items from the experience of aparticular culture. Majority of early testsfavoured urban, middle class, white Europeanand American people. The items were written

Table 1.5 Some Tests Developed in India

Verbal1. Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag

Mehta2. Group Test of Mental Ability by S.

Jalota3. Indian Adaptation of Binet-Simon

Scale by S.K. Kulshrestha4. Test of General Mental Ability by

M.C. Joshi5. The Bihar Test of Intelligence by S.M.

Mohsin

Performance

1. Adaptation of Wechsler AdultPerformance Intelligence Scale by R.Ramalingaswamy

2. Draw-A-Man Test by Pramila Phatak

3. Performance Test of Intelligence byC.M. Bhatia

4. CIE Non-Verbal Test

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Intelligence 17

Recapitulation

Intelligence is measured in terms of IQ, whichrefers to a child’s mental age divided bychronological age, and multiplied by 100. Binetdeveloped the first test of intelligence, whichhas undergone several modifications and hasbeen used extensively. Wechsler scales (WAIS,WISC, & WPPSI) are the other widely usedscales. Since then, many intelligence tests havebeen developed, some of which can beadministered to a group while others can beadministered individually. Intelligence testscome in three categories: Verbal, Non-Verbal,and Performance. Test contents that show biastoward a particular culture are called CulturallyBiased Tests. Some tests have been developedon the assumption that they can beadministered in any culture and, thus, calledCulture-Fair Tests. IQ tests, providing a singleindex of intelligence, have in recent years been

loosing their popularity for several reasonsand alternative measures such as reactiontime, dynamic testing, etc, are gainingpopularity. In India, after 1950, a number oftests for assessment of intelligence havebeen developed.

VARIATIONS IN THE LEVEL OF INTELLIGENCE

You have observed in Table 1.4 that about2 per cent of the population possess IQscores above 130 and a similar percentagepossess IQ scores below 70. The first groupis termed as the intellectually gifted andthe later as mentally retarded orchallenged. These individuals are differentfrom the average population for the reasonthat their performance is at variance fromwhat is expected from people of their ageand circumstances.

BOX 1.4

In recent years some alternative ways ofassessing intelligence have emerged. Some ofthese are:

Biological Measures of Intelligence:Among the biological measures, Reaction Time(RT) is considered a more valid measure ofintelligence. Reaction time refers to the time gap(in seconds) between presentation of a stimulusand the beginning of a response by theindividual. For example, when traffic light isred, you stop and wait for the green light. Afterthe light turns green, you take some time tostart moving. The time gap between onset of thegreen light and your movement is a measure ofRT. It could be in visual or auditory mode. Thespeed and consistency with which peopleperform on reaction time tasks discriminatebetween groups of individuals expected to differin their intellective functions. It is based on theassumption that being intelligent involves beingable to process information quickly. Forexample, individuals with mental retardationhave slower and less consistent reaction timesthan normal people. Similarly, gifted individualshave faster and more consistent reaction timethan average persons.

Inspection time is another measure ofintelligence. It reflects the minimum amountof time a particular stimulus must be exposed

to an individual to make a judgement about itthat meets some pre-established criteria ofaccuracy. The shorter the inspection time, thefaster will be, presumably, the person’scognitive (mental) operations.

Dynamic Testing : As you have read, theavailable intelligence tests measure developedabilities of the individuals. You have learnt (inchapter 12, class XI) about Vygotsky’s notion ofZone of Potential Development (ZPD). ZPDrefers to the difference between the actualdevelopment and the developmental level which achild can attain after proper guidance. Thedynamic testing is based upon the principle ofZPD. It is done in two phases. In the first phase,(also called interaction phase), an adult(usually a teacher or a parent) familiarises thechild with the tasks, gives them hints about howthey could be solved, motivates them, and alsomakes some modifications in the tasks (such aschanging the order of presentation, frequency ofpresentation, etc.) depending upon the child’sdevelopmental level. In the second phase, theactual testing takes place, in which the child isgiven the tasks or the test to solve them.

Piagetian Tasks: Recall Piaget’s theory ofdevelopment (Chapter 12, class XI). There youhave read about seriation, conservation,pendulum tasks, etc. These tasks are also usedfor the assessment of intelligence.

ALTERNATIVES TO IQ TESTING

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combination of general ability, specifictalents, self-concept, and motivation thatpredisposes the gifted person to learn, toachieve, and to strive for excellence.

� It is not limited to school related activitiesalone but also involves areas, such assports and leadership.

� Mere possession of cognitive abilities isnot regarded as giftedness. Rather, it isthe nature and organisation of abilities(i.e., processes) that constitute giftedness.The nature, direction, and speed of thisprocess depends partly upon cognitivefactors, but is strongly influenced bypersonality and motivation, and hasstrong social elements including anethical dimension, and an importantcommunication aspect.

Joseph Renzulli proposes that giftednessdepends on the interaction of three factors :high intelligence, high creativity, and highmotivation as shown Fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6 Aspects of Giftedness

HighIntelligence

HighCreativity

HighMotivation

Giftedness

LEARNING CHECKS IV

1. Mental age is obtained on the basis ofthe individual’s performance on a testof intelligence. T/F

2. Maximum number of individualspossess an average IQ, rangingbetween 90 to 110. T/F

3. Professor Stanford adapted Binet’stests. Therefore, these tests are calledStanford-Binet tests. T/F

4. Wechsler scales of intelligence haveboth verbal and performance sub-tests. T/F

5. Culture-fair tests can only beadministered to the persons of aparticular culture. T/F

6. You can also know one’s intelligenceon the basis of his/her reaction time.

T/F

GIFTEDNESS : NATURE AND INDENTIFICATION

The term ‘gifted’ is an adjective, which refersto a person ‘endowed with one gift or manygifts; exceptionally talented or intelligent’. Thestudy of such gifted persons began with thework of Lewis Terman, in 1925, whodeveloped intelligence tests for screeningpopulations to identify individuals of superiorcognitive ability. Thus, giftedness was definedas high general intelligence as measured byhigh score on a test of intelligence. In recentyears, however, giftedness is defined as asuperior ability in any worthwhile line ofhuman endeavour including moral,physical, emotional, social, intellectual,or aesthetic life of the humanity.Outstanding talents are present in childrenand youth from all cultural groups, acrossall economic strata, and in all areas of humanendeavours. It is evident from the abovedefinition that:� Gifted individuals exhibit high levels of

performance in comparison to their peersliving in the same socio-culturalbackground.

� Giftedness is not restricted to performanceon a test of intelligence. Rather, it is a

Characteristics of Gifted Children : Giftedchildren show early signs of being exceptional.During infancy such children show largeattention span, good recognition memory,preference for novelty, over-reactivity tosensations, and early onset of language.Table 1.6 contains some of the salientcharacteristics of such children.

Identifying the Gifted

The tests of intelligence and achievement havebeen most frequently employed for theidentification of the gifted children. Many

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Intelligence 19

Table 1.6 Characteristics of Gifted Children

� A Higher order in thinking process, problem solving and decision-making.

� Transferring skills to new problems and solving problems insightfully.

� Independent thinking and non-conformism.

� High on self-efficacy and internal locus of control.

� Preference for being solitary and introverted.

� High incidence of social and emotional problems.

� Intrinsically motivated to achieve mastery, derive pleasure from work, and having a highself-esteem about their intellectual capacities.

� Possibility of showing giftedness in one area and poor learning in another.

BOX 1.5

The National Talent Search Scheme is run bythe National Council of Educational Researchand Training (NCERT) in which 1000scholarships are awarded each year to thestudents studying in Grade 10. The scholarshipis awarded on the basis of examinationconducted in two phases: State and NationalLevel examinations. The state level examinationis conducted by the State Governments. Thestudents recommended by the States appear inthe national level written examination, whichconsists of Mental Ability and ScholasticAptitude Tests. The candidates selected at thenational level are called for interview. Awardsare declared on the basis of the national levelwritten tests and interviews. The scholarship isavailable for studies up to the doctorate level inthe basic and social sciences and up to second-degree level in engineering and medicine.

The Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayas,another prominent scheme of the Government

of India caters to the gifted children in ruralareas and in the weaker sections of the society.The admission to these vidyalayas are madethrough an objective type test, which consistsof Mental Ability, Language Proficiency andArithmetic Ability.

For promoting cultural talent, the CulturalTalent Search Programme is run by theCentre for Cultural Resources and Training.Under this scheme, facilities are provided tooutstanding young children in the age groupof 10-14 years studying either in recognisedschools or belonging to the families ofpracticing traditional performing or other artsfor developing their talent in various culturalfields such as traditional form of music,dance, drama as well as painting, sculptureand crafts, laying emphasis on rareforms, which are in the process of becomingextinct.

special programmes for gifted children haverather used rigid cut off points such as IQ’sof 130, 135, 150, or 160, or achievement atabout the 95th percentile. In recent times,however, attention is given to the followingtypes of data as indicator of giftedness:� Performance on group intelligence test� Teacher judgment� School record, including achievement test

scores and teacher grades� Performance on individual intelligence test� Appraisal of social and emotional maturity

and adjustment

� Parent interviews� Pupil ambition and drive

In addition, peer and self-nominationsalso do help in identification of the gifted childin certain cases.

Giftedness is a multi-dimensional term.Though, differences in gifted and talentedstudents may be observed at all levels, it ismore pronounced at the secondary schoollevel. Some gifted youngsters are just slightlyabove average, while others are very unusualto the extent of being extremely rare. Someare gifted in just one area, while others show

IDENTIFICATION OF TALENT IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT

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20 Introduction to Psychology

it in many areas. Also, gifted children differin terms of motivation or interest.

INTELLECTUAL DEFICIENCY:NATURE AND TYPES

There are defined diagnostic schemes, asgiven by the American Association on MentalRetardation (1992), and American PsychiatricAssociation (1994), for judging the presenceand degree of mental retardation. Accordingto these criteria, mental retardation (ormentally challenged) is currently definedas intelligence test performance two ormore standard deviations below the mean,accompanied by limitations in adaptivefunctioning such as failure to cope with

the common tasks of daily livingappropriate to one’s age and situation.According to this definition, persons havingIQ below 70, coupled with the inability tomanage their everyday activities like a normalperson, are classified as intellectually deficientor mentally challenged. Table 1.7 contains thecharacteristics of different types of mentallychallenged persons. It may be noted that theIQ ranges, as shown in Table 1.6, are not viewedrigidly. Rather, a person’s ability to function ineveryday life is important. The decision aboutthe level of mental retardation is based uponthe skills to perform in daily life.

Two points here are worth noting. First,low performance on a test may also be due todefects in vision, hearing, and health, which

Area of Mild Moderate SevereFunctioning (IQ range = 50-70) (IQ range = 35-49) (IQ range = 20-34)

and Profound(IQ = below 20)

Self-help Skills Feeds and dresses Has difficulties and No skills to partialself and cares for requires training but skills, but some canown toilet needs can learn adequate care for personal needs

self-help skills on limited basis

Speech and Receptive and Receptive and Receptive languageCommunication expressive, language expressive, language is limited to good;

is adequate; is adequate; expressive, languageunderstands has speech problems is limited to poorcommunication

Academics Optimal learning Very few academic No academic skillsenvironment, third skills; first or secondto sixth grade grade is maximal

Social Skills Has friends; can Capable of making Not capable of havinglearn to adjust friends but has real friends;quickly difficulty in many No social interactions

social situations

Vocational Can hold a job; Sheltered work Generally noAdjustment competitive to semi- environment; usually employment; usually

competitive; primarily needs consistent needs constant careunskilled work supervision

Adult Living Usually marries, Usually does not No marriage orhas children; needs marry or have children; alwayshelp during stress children; dependent dependent on others

Table 1.7 Characteristics of the Mentally Challenged

Level of Mental Retardation

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Emotional Intelligence (EI): Saloveyand Mayer first formally defined the conceptof EI in 1990, which emphasises blendingcognition with emotions. It gained popularity bythe publication of the best selling popular book‘Emotional Intelligence’ by Goleman in 1995.

EI is generally defined as a form of socialintelligence that involves the ability to monitorone’s own and other’s feelings and emotions,to discriminate among them, and to use thisinformation to guide one’s thinking andactions. Briefly, it consists of the followingfour dimensions.� Perception, appraisal, and expression

of emotion� Emotional facilitation of cognitive

activities� Understanding and analysing

emotional information and employing� Regulation of emotion

Practical Intelligence: It refers to thekind of thinking people do in solving their day-to-day problems, whether at home, in socialsettings, or at work. It may be viewed as “mindin action” or the thinking that is embedded inthe larger scale purposive activities of life. Itserves to achieve the goals of everydayactivities of daily life. In occupational settings, itis the ability to learn and then apply informationthat is never explicitly taught to workers nor israrely verbalised, but is essential for success.Also called Tacit Knowledge or ProceduralKnowledge, it enables the workers to meet theoften unwritten or unspoken demands of theirjob. There are three characteristic features oftacit knowledge.

� Tacit knowledge is procedural in nature andintimately linked to action. It takes the formof “knowing how” to do something ratherthan “knowing that” subject.

� It helps in attaining one’s goals.

� It is acquired without direct help from others– on one’s own. It is the knowledge that isunspoken, under-emphasised, or poorlyconveyed relative to its importance forpractical success.

Thus, practical intelligence seems to be ofmore use in concrete situations than academic

intelligence, as measured by the testsof intelligence.

Spiritual Intelligence (SQ): It is theintelligence with which humans address andsolve problems of meaning and value, theintelligence with which we can place ouractions and our lives in a wider, richer,meaning-given context, the intelligence withwhich we can assess that one course ofaction or one life-path is more meaningfulthan the other. It is considered to be theUltimate Intelligence. We have a longing tosee our lives in some larger meaning-givingcontext, be it family, the community, thework, religious framework or the universeitself. It takes us beyond the present momentand ourselves. Spiritual intelligence allowshuman beings to be creative, to change therules and to alter situations by extending theboundaries. SQ operates out of the brain’scentre and integrates all our intelligences. SQmakes us the fully intellectual, emotional andspiritual creatures that we are. SQ has nonecessary connection with religion.

Danah Zohar and Ian Marshall in theirbook “Spiritual Intelligence: The UltimateIntelligence” (2000) have reported the indicatorsof a highly developed SQ. These include:

� The capacity to be flexible (actively andspontaneously adaptive).

� A high degree of self-awareness.

� A capacity to use and face suffering.

� A capacity to face and transcend pain.

� The quality of being inspired by value andvision.

� A capacity to inspire others.

� A reluctance to cause unnecessary harm.

� A tendency to see the connections betweendiverse things (being ‘holistic’).

� A marked tendency to ask ‘why?’ or ‘whatif?’ questions and to seek ‘fundamental’answers.

� Being what psychologists call ‘field-independent’—possessing a facility forworking against convention.

NEW DIRECTIONS: EMOTIONAL, PRACTICAL,AND SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCES

BOX 1.6

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LEARNING CHECKS V

1. One can be gifted in the moral andaesthetic aspects of life as well. T/F

2. The performance of gifted people issuperior to the performance of all otherindividuals irrespective of their age andbackground. T/F

3. High incidence of social and emotionalproblems is observed in the giftedpeople. T/F

4. The verbal expression of a severelyretarded person is similar to that of anormal person. T/F

5. Moderately retarded persons can learn‘self-help skills’ by appropriate training.

T/F

may erroneously lead to categorising a personas mentally challenged. You need to be certainthat vision, hearing, and general healthconditions of the person likely to becategorised as mentally challenged arefunctioning normally. Second, the person’slinguistic and cultural backgrounds must alsobe taken into consideration. You can’t expectsomeone to perform a task appropriately ifhe/she has not performed similar tasks inpast or is not a part of his/her everydayactivities. Children should be classified asretarded only if they exhibit both a low IQand deficiencies in everyday skills, and onlyif linguistic or cultural barriers, physicalhandicaps, emotional disturbances, or illhealth cannot explain those problems.

Causes of Mental Retardation

Many organic conditions can cause mentalretardation. For example, Down Syndrome isassociated with mild to severe retardation.Persons suffering with this syndrome showdistinctive physical characteristics, such asslanted eyes, stubby limbs, and thin hair.Down syndrome is caused by the possessionof an extra chromosome. Phenylketonuriais a metabolic disorder (due to an inheritedenzyme deficiency) that can lead toretardation if it is not caught and treated ininfancy. Hydrocephaly or excessiveaccumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in theskull destroys brain tissues and causesretardation. Scientists have been able tounravel more of the genetic bases for variouskinds of mental disorders.

A variety of unfavourable environmentalfactors also cause mental retardation. A vastmajority of mildly retarded children comefrom the lower socioeconomic classes, wherea host of factors – such as greater maritalinstability, parental neglect, inadequatenutrition and medical care, and lower qualityschooling – many of these factors contributeto children’s poor intellectual development.

RecapitulationThere are two major types of extremevariations in intellectual ability–thegiftedness and the mental retardation (ormentally challenged). Giftedness refers to

the high levels of accomplishments incomparison to one’s age, experience, andenvironment and also with respect to thenorms. Gifted children show long attentionspans, good recognition memory,preference for novelty, over reactivity tosensations, and early onset of language.Multiple methods such as test, teacherjudgement, school record, social andemotional maturity, etc, are used to identifythese children. On the other hand, mentallyretarded children score two or morestandard deviations below the mean on atest of intelligence. Also, they show poorperformance in comparison to the normalchildren in areas like self-help, speech andcommunication, social skills, academics,vocational adjustments, and adult living.Many organic conditions can cause mentalretardation. For example, Down Syndromeis associated with mild to severeretardation. Similarly, Phenylketonuria, ametabolic disorder, can lead to retardation.

SPECIAL ABILITIES OR APTITUDES:NAURE AND MEASUREMENT

An aptitude is a combination ofcharacteristics that indicates anindividual’s capacity to acquire somespecific knowledge, or skill, aftertraining. It simply states that you need to

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Intelligence 23

possess various qualities in differentproportions to learn or become something,such as to acquire ability to speak a language,to become a musician, to do some mechanicalwork, and so on. These qualities can beharnessed by appropriate training. In otherwords, if a person does not have the specialabilities required to become a musician, suchas discrimination between pitch, tone,rhythm, and other aspects of musicalsensitivity, he/she would not be a musician,even after sufficient training.

There are salient differences betweenintelligence, aptitude, and achievement.Intelligence refers to the ability of a personto do certain thing at a given time. Aptituderefers to the potential ability of the individualto perform a task, which generally consistsof a combination of abilities. Achievementinvolves performance at any given pointof time in a particular subject (e.g.mathematics) with which you have beenmade familiar.

Aptitude tests, because they areconcerned with the potential of doingsomething, are used for prediction. Manyaptitude tests, such as clerical aptitude,mechanical aptitude, musical aptitude,typing aptitude, etc. have been developedto predict success in specific professions.Each of these tests usually contains anumber of sub-tests. Several multipleaptitude test batteries have been developed.In a Multiple Aptitude Test Battery theexaminee is tested in several separate,homogenous aptitude areas. Prominentaptitude test batteries are: The DifferentialAptitude Test (DAT), the General AptitudeTest Battery (GATB), and the ArmedServices Vocational Aptitude Battery(ASVAB), etc. Salient characteristics of oneof the batteries most often used ineducational settings are described here.

The DAT was first developed to provide abasis for the educational and vocationalguidance of students for grades 8 through 12.Subsequently, it has been found useful forvocational counselling of young adults out ofschool and in the selection of employees. Itconsists of eight independent sub-tests:� Verbal Reasoning (VR)� Numerical Ability (NA)

� Abstract Reasoning (AR)� Clerical Speed and Accuracy (CSA)� Mechanical Reasoning (MR)� Space Relations (SR)� Spelling (S)� Language Use (LU)

J.M. Ojha has developed an Indianadaptation of the DAT. In addition, a numberof aptitude tests have been developed in Indiafor measuring scientific, teaching, clerical,engineering, scholastic, medical, literary andother aptitudes.

Let us understand the nature of some ofthe tests, which are used for aptitude testing.Mechanical Reasoning : This test attemptsto predict success in fields involving repair ofautos, refrigerators, air-conditionersequipments, and the like. A typical test itemis shown below in Fig. 1.7. It has two gears.If gear x is moving in the direction of thearrow, will gear y move : (a) clockwise or (b)counter clockwise?

Y X

Fig. 1.7 An Item of Mechanical Aptitude Test

Verbal Skills : This test measures a person’sinterest in and knowledge about words. It isassumed that a person who scores poorly inthis area will not do well in occupationsrequiring a great deal of reading and writing.Clerical Speed and Accuracy : It attemptsto measure some of the skills necessary inclerical and office jobs. This is a timed, speedtest because such a job require speed withwhich one works.

Generally, the tests measuring differentaptitudes are grouped together in the form ofa Test battery. The battery of tests isadministered to the client for counselling.

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24 Introduction to Psychology

Test Your Mechanical Engineering Aptitude

This is a test of applied science and

mechanics. Twenty items are given below,

read each item carefully and mark (�) one

answer (a,b or c) that you think is correct. In

this manner complete the test without

spending too much time.

1. A heavy weight is kept on a wooden plank

in such a way that the weight is closer to

side A and away from side B. If the plank

is lifted by two persons then:

a) Person on side A will have the heavier

load.

b) Person on side B will have the heavier

load.

c) The load will be equal on both sides.

2. If a heavy weight is to be lifted with the

help of a rope, which person will have to

pull it harder.

a) The person who pulls the rope through

a single pulley.

b) The person who pulls the rope through

a double pulley.

c) The effort will be the same in both the

cases.

3. If a bicycle has two unequal wheels, which

wheel will turn faster.

a) The smaller wheel.

b) The larger wheel.

c) Both will be equal.

4. If one table fan has three blades and the

other five, which fan needs a more powerful

motor:

a) The fan with 3 blades.

b) The fan with 5 blades.

c) Both will need equally powerful motors.

5. Which liquid is heavier:

a) One in which a piece of wood gets

totally sub-merged.

b) One in which it doesn’t get submerged.

c) Both are equal.

6. If a car turns towards the right, man sitting

inside will move towards:

a) Right.

b) Left.

c) Won’t move at all.

7. If a moving train turns towards the right

direction, which side of the rails will be

higher:

a) The outer rail.

b) The inner rail.

c) Both would be equal.

8. If hot liquid is poured into a glass tumbler

which is likely to break:

a) The tumbler with thick walls.

b) The tumbler with thin walls.

c) Both are equally likely to break.

9. In a moving wheel, which point moves faster

a) The point on the inner side of the

wheel.

b) The point on the outer side of the

wheel.

c) Both will move at an equal pace.

10. Which stool will be steadier:

a) Stool with three legs.

b) Stool with four legs.

c) Stool with five legs.

11. In a moving car the left hand break of the

front wheel somehow gets locked, resulting

in stopping the wheel. Which side will the

car turn :

a) Towards the right.

b) Towards the left.

c) It will just stop.

ACTIVITY 1.7

contd...

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Intelligence 25

12. Three different weights fall from a certain

height under a vacuum condition. They will

reach the earth:

a) At the same time.

b) Time will be proportional to the weight.

c) None of the above.

13. The car engine idling or in low speed

operation requires:

a) A rich mixture.

b) A lean mixture.

c) Theoretically correct mixture.

14. In a head-on collision the driver is thrown:

a) Forward.

b) Backwards.

c) Restrained by the safety belt.

15. The apparent weight of a man in a moving

lift is less than his real weight when it is

moving down with:

a) An acceleration.

b) Uniform speed.

c) Retardation.

16. Fins over engine cylinder in scooter are

provided for:

a) Strengthening the cylinder.

b) Better cooling.

c) Good appearance.

17. There are two pendulums, one has short

length and the other long. Which pendulum

will oscillate faster:

a) Pendulum with shorter length.

b) Pendulum with longer length.

c) Both will oscillate with equal

movement.

18. If the water in the building is coming from

an overhead roof-top-tank, which floor will

get the greatest pressure in the taps:

a) Second floor.

b) First floor.

c) Ground floor.

19. If the flying plane is to be turned in the left

direction, in which direction must the rudder

be turned:

a) Left.

b) Right.

c) No need to turn the rudder.

20. If we keep a silver spoon in one glass

tumbler and a wooden spoon in the other,

which tumbler is more likely to break, when

boiling water is poured into it:

a) The tumbler with the silver spoon.

b) The tumbler with the wooden spoon.

c) Both are equally likely.

© K.D.BROOTA Note: These are sample items. They should not be used for evaluation and diagnosis.

KEYGive a Score of 1 if you have marked the following answers and finally, add all the scores.

INTERPRETATIONScores Level of Aptitude15-20 High,

10-14 Medium

Scores below 10 Poor

1. a,2.b,3.a,4. b,5. b,6. b,7. a,8. a,9. b,10.a,11. b,12. a,13.a,14. a,15. a,16. b,17. a,18. c,19. a, 20. b

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26 Introduction to Psychology

Test Your Abstract Reasoning

Out of the four figures (a), (b), (c) & (d) given in each problem, three are similar in some way,choose and mark the figure that is different from the other three.

ACTIVITY 1.8

a b c d

a b c d

a b c d

a b c d

a b c d

a b c d

QF

(A) (B)

AF

a b c d

QF AF

a b c d

QF AF

a b c d

QF AF

a b c d

QF AF

I. ODD MAN OUT II. COMPLETING THE SQUARE

© K.D. Broota

Attention : These are sample items. They should not be used for evaluation or diagnosisKEY

Assign a score of 1 for correct answers.Add all the scores in I and II

INTERPRETATIONScores and Abstract Reasoning8-10 High,5-7 Medium andScores below 5: Poor.

I.ODDMAN OUTRight Answers : 1b, 2d, 3b,4d, 5d.

II.COMPLETING THE SQUARERight Answers : 1a, 2b, 3d, 4c, 5b

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Intelligence 27

Key Terms

Logical-mathematical Intelligence, Mental Age,Mental Retardation, Multiple Intelligences,Non-verbal Tests, PASS Theory, PerformanceTests, Practical Intelligence, Shaping,Technological Intelligence.

Adaptation, Aptitude, Aptitude Test,Culture-fair-test, Emotional Intelligence,Group Tests, Individual Test, IntegralIntelligence, Intelligence, Intelligence Quotient,Intelligence Tests, Linguistic Intelligence,

SUMMARY

� Intelligence is one of the highly popular psychological concepts. Traditionally,intelligence was defined in terms of ability to do abstract reasoning, ability to learn,and ability to adapt in novel situations. The recent views of intelligence recogniseactive role of an intelligent person in terms of shaping and selecting an environmentaccording to his/her choice.

� The more recent approach to understand intelligence does not see it as a unitaryability; rather it assumes that there are many type of intelligences. Gardnerproposed eight different types of intelligences: Linguistic, Logical-mathematical,Spatial, Musical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalistic.Sternberg’s theory distinguishes three aspects of intelligence–a componentialaspect, an experiential aspect, and a contextual aspect. The PASS model of J.P.Das conceptualised intelligence in terms of Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, andSuccessive Processing.

� Studies about the nature of intelligence in different cultures have shown that it isculturally variable. In the West it is more conceptualised in terms of cognitiveabilities and the speed with which cognitive functions are performed. In contrast,non-Western cultures view intelligence in terms of social and emotional competencesuch as obedience, cooperation, fulfilling role-related obligations, and givingweightage to group goals than individual goals. In India, the conceptualisation ismore integral as it includes cognitive, social, emotional, and task performance.

� Intelligence is assessed with the help of a specially designed test which gives anindication about the mental age of a person. The score on an intelligence test maybe converted into IQ, which is obtained by dividing mental age (MA) bychronological age (CA), and multiplying by 100. IQ between 90-110 is consideredaverage in intelligence. The first attempt to assess intelligence was made by AlfredBinet in 1905, which has undergone several revisions. Intelligence tests can beadministered in groups as well as individually; can be verbal or performance types;and may be culturally biased or culturally fair.

� A small proportion of the population is found to possess very high level ofintelligence. They are called “gifted”. These persons show higher order thinking,easily transfer skills to new problems and solve problems insightfully, are non-conforming, high on self efficacy, prefer to remain solitary, intrinsically motivated,and also show high incidence of social and emotional problems. The gifted childrencan also be identified on the basis of teachers’ judgement, school record, socialand emotional maturity, and parental opinion. Mentally retarded children, on theother hand, score two or more standard deviations below the mean on a test ofintelligence. Mental retardation can be of four types: mild, moderate, severe, andprofound. Such mentally challenged people have difficulty in feeding, dressing,and communicating, lack social skills, and are vocationally maladjusted.

� An aptitude refers to the potential of an individual to performa a task. It is used forprediction purposes. A number of aptitude tests are available for use in differentareas. Generally, a battery of tests is administered to identify the potential areas.

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28 Introduction to Psychology

Review Questions

1. How can you relate intelligence to adaptation, shaping, and selection?2. What are the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner?3. How is Sternberg’s theory different from that of Gardner?4. What is experiential intelligence?5. What are the components of PASS model of intelligence?6. What is IQ? How can you differentiate between verbal and performance tests of intelligence?7. What is giftedness? How can gifted children be identified?8. What is mental retardation? What are the salient characteristics of a mentally retarded person?9. What is aptitude? How is it measured?

10. Is concept of intelligence similar across cultures?11. What are the different types of intelligence test?

I : 1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. FII : 1. F, 2. F, 3. T, 4. T, 5. T,

6. T, 7.F, 8.FIII : 1. T, 2. F, 3. F, 4. T, 5. TIV : 1. T, 2. T, 3. F., 4. T, 5. F,

6. TV : 1. T, 2. F, 3. T, 4. F, 5. T

ANSWERS TO LEARNING CHECKS